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Palaeoecology and Palaeoenvironments of the Late Permian Zechstein Sea and Its Hinterlands

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Palaeoecology and Palaeoenvironments of the Late Permian Zechstein Sea and Its Hinterlands Palaeoecology and Palaeoenvironments of the Late Permian Zechstein Sea and its Hinterlands Martha Elizabeth Gibson A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Science Department of Animal and Plant Sciences 22/09/2020 1 Declaration I, the author, confirm that the Thesis is my own work. I am aware of the University’s Guidance on the Use of Unfair Means (www.sheffield.ac.uk/ssid/unfair-means). This work has not been previously been presented for an award at this, or any other, university. The following chapters are intended for publication or have already been published at the time of thesis submission. Asher Haynes and David Warburton of Anglo American Plc have approved all manuscripts for publication which have used York Potash Ltd boreholes SM4 Gough, SM7 Mortar Hall, SM11 Dove’s Nest and SM14b Woodsmith Mine North Shaft. Gibson, M.E., Taylor, W.A., Wellman, C.H. 2020. Wall ultrastructure of the Permian pollen grain Lueckisporites virkkiae Potonié et Klaus 1954 emend. Clarke 1965: evidence for botanical affinity. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 104169. Gibson, M.E., Wellman, C.H. 2020. The Use of Spore-Pollen Assemblages to Reconstruct Vegetation Changes in the Permian (Lopingian) Zechstein Deposits of Northeast England. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. Accepted subject to minor revision. Gibson, M.E., Bodman, D.B. 2020. Evaporite Palynology: a case study on the Permian (Lopingian) Zechstein Sea. Journal of the Geological Society. In review. Gibson, M.E., Wellman, C.H. 2020. Zechstein forests thrived up to the Permian-Triassic mass extinction event. In prep. Gibson, M.E. 2020. Exceptional preservation of possible endobiotic fungus inside late Permian pollen grains from the British Zechstein Group. In prep. 2 Table of Contents Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................... 8 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................ 9 Chapter 1. Introduction & Literature Review ............................................................................................ 10 1.1 The Permian Timescale ................................................................................................................. 10 1.1.1 Overview and History .................................................................................................................... 10 1.1.2 Permian Biostratigraphy ............................................................................................................... 11 1.1.3 Terrestrial Biostratigraphy ............................................................................................................ 12 1.1.4 Zechstein Timescales ..................................................................................................................... 13 1.1.5 Zechstein Biozonation ................................................................................................................... 17 1.2 Palaeocontinental Reconstruction: Pangaea ............................................................................... 18 1.3 The Permian Atmosphere ............................................................................................................. 19 1.3.1 Atmospheric O2 .............................................................................................................................. 19 1.3.2 Atmospheric CO2 ........................................................................................................................... 20 1.4 Sea Level ......................................................................................................................................... 21 1.4.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 21 1.4.3 The Zechstein Water Column ....................................................................................................... 22 1.5 Permian Climate ............................................................................................................................ 25 1.5.1 Icehouse-Hothouse transition ....................................................................................................... 25 1.5.2 Regional Climates .......................................................................................................................... 25 1.5.3 Zechstein Climate .......................................................................................................................... 27 1.6 Palaeophytogeography .................................................................................................................. 29 1.6.1 Macroflora Provincialism ............................................................................................................. 29 1.6.2 Permian Palynology....................................................................................................................... 30 1.6.3 Euramerican Palynology Highlight .............................................................................................. 32 1.7 Review of the Zechstein Fossil Record......................................................................................... 33 1.7.1 Marine Biota .................................................................................................................................. 33 1.7.2 Terrestrial Biota ............................................................................................................................. 36 1.7.3 Review of Zechstein Palaeobotany ................................................................................................ 37 1.7.4 A Review of Zechstein Palynology ................................................................................................ 38 1.7.5 Early Research on the Zechstein Palynology ............................................................................... 40 1.7.6 British Zechstein Palaeobotany and Palynology .......................................................................... 41 Thesis outline ............................................................................................................................................. 43 Chapter 2. Geological Setting ....................................................................................................................... 44 2.1 Permian Rocks in the U.K. ................................................................................................................. 44 2.1.1 Marine Permian Rocks .................................................................................................................. 44 2.1.2 Non-Zechstein Marine Permian ................................................................................................... 44 3 2.2 The Zechstein Sea ................................................................................................................................ 46 2.2.1 Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 46 2.2.2 Pre-Zechstein/Rotliegend .............................................................................................................. 49 2.2.3 Cycle 1 (EZ1) ................................................................................................................................. 49 2.2.4 Cycle 2 (EZ2) ................................................................................................................................. 57 2.2.5 Cycle 3 (EZ3) ................................................................................................................................. 60 2.2.6 Cycle 4 (EZ4) ................................................................................................................................. 62 2.2.7 Cycle 5 (EZ5) ................................................................................................................................. 64 2.3 Sequence Stratigraphy ........................................................................................................................ 64 2.3.1 ZS1 (Marl Slate, Wetherby Member/Raisby Formation) ............................................................. 66 2.3.2 ZS2 (Ford Formation/Sprotbrough Member) .............................................................................. 66 2.3.3 ZS3 (Hartlepool/Hayton Anhydrite, Edlington Fm/Roker Dolomite) ......................................... 67 2.3.4 ZS4 (Fordon Evaporite Fm, Illitic Shale/Grauer Salzton, Brotherton/Seaham Fm) ................. 68 2.3.5 ZS 5,6 and 7 ................................................................................................................................... 69 Chapter 3. Materials and Methods .............................................................................................................. 71 3.1 Brief description of Fieldwork Sites and Sampling .......................................................................... 71 3.2 Lithology ............................................................................................................................................... 72 3.3 Sample Preparation ............................................................................................................................
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