ChristophKlimmt MediaPsychology“isnotyet [email protected] hannover.de there”:IntroducingTheorieson Department ofJournalism and MediaEntertainmenttothe Communication Research Hannover University ofMusic and PresenceDebate Drama EXPO-Plaza 12 D-30539Hannover Germany A bst ract Peter Vorderer Annenberg Schoolfor Contemporary theoretical explications ofpresence experiences can be advanced Communication and completed by integrating theoretical frameworks from media psychology. This University ofSouthern California, article briey presents concepts related tomedia entertainment thathave been Los Angeles elaborated and/or applied by media psychologists and thatexhibit considerable overlaps withthe explication ofpresence. SpeciŽcally, theconcept of involvement (Vorderer, 1992),affective disposition theory(Zillmann, 1996),simulation theory (Oatley, 1994),and thepsychological theoryof play (Oerter, 1999)are introduced. For each framework, connectionpoints tothe theoretical conceptualization ofpres- ence are pointed out.The article illuminates new opportunities for interdisciplinary cooperation in advancing our understanding ofpresence.

1Introduction

The history ofresearch on presence is aremarkable story ofsuccessful interdisciplinary cooperation. The challenges ofinvestigating new media envi- ronments and their effects on the audience—or, better, the users—attract en- gineers, communication researchers, psychologists, philosophers, designers, and experts fromother related Želds. Not surprisingly, perspectives onwhat exactly constitutes “the perceptual illusion ofnonmediation” (Lombard & Ditton, 1997) vary amongresearchers fromdifferent disciplines. Moreover, the concept has been subdivided into different types (IJsselsteijn, Freeman,& deRidder, 2001), namely spatialpresence (the illusion ofbeing present in a mediated space orroom), socialpresence (the illusion ofbeing together with a mediated person), and copresence (the illusion ofbeing present in amediated roomtogether with amediated person). Numerous bodies oftheory have been applied to the concept(s) ofpresence, which has in turn allowed for new inter- disciplinary connections, but also impeded theoretical clariŽcations ofthe con- struct. (See,for example,Lombard and Ditton, 1997,for alist ofdifferent approaches to presence.) This article does not provide another review ofthe literature onthe concep- tualizations and deŽnitions ofpresence (Draper, Kaber, &Usher,1998; IJssel- stein, deRidder, Freeman,& Avons, 2000;Lombard & Ditton, 1997). In- stead,we intend tocontribute to the discussion and clariŽcation ofpresence by

Presence, Vol. 12,No. 4, August2003, 346–359 expanding the repertoire ofapplicable theories even further. Amongthe Želds © 2003by theMassachusetts Institute of Technology ofresearch that have so farnot been mentioned sufŽciently in the presence

346 PRESENCE: VOLUME12, NUMBER 4 Klimmtand Vorderer 347

literature is acomparatively young branch ofpsychol- search. Because these theories have been noticed by the ogy:media psychology (Bryant &Roskos-Ewoldson, presence communityonly marginally, we will brie y 1998;Giles, in press; Vorderer, 1993) is concerned with present concepts fromfour prominent theories and processes and effects ofmedia reception. By employing identify potential connections to presence research. Spe- psychological theories within empirical studies, media ciŽcally, we will introduce involvement theory suggested psychologists describe and explain phenomenasuch as byVorderer (1992, 1993), affective disposition theory media-related information processing; cognitive, affec- projected by Zillmann (1994, 1996), simulation theory tive, and behavioral effects ofmedia usage;or motiva- advanced byOatley (1994, 1999), and Žnally the theo- tional determinants ofmedia exposure. retical frameworkof the psychology ofplay, which ap- Virtual reality (VR) environments have so faronly pears to bevery interesting especially in the context of rarely been investigated by media psychologists. How- interactive entertainment (Klimmt, 2001;Vorderer, ever, results and concepts frommedia psychology can 2001). Conclusions and recommendations on future easily beapplied to new media,including VRenviron- interdisciplinary research on presence are presented in ments,because new media feature similarities to “older” the last section ofthis article. media on various dimensions. Also, in the past,many presence researchers have pointed out that presence ex- periences do not arise in VRenvironments only, but can 2Involvement beobserved in other media settings aswell. Aprototypi- 2.1Ex plication cal example is the “bookproblem ”:reading abook, which obviously lacks almost all sensorically immersive The phenomenon ofaudiences being “captured” capabilities, can produce experiential states that are byamediumis, ofcourse, older than VRtechnology comparable to “being there” experiences. Suchexperi- and the concept ofpresence. Media psychology has used ences arising fromreading, watching television, playing the term involvement to describe this state ofmedia re- computergames, or using other “old” media have been cipients (cf.Vorderer, 1993). Based onconceptualiza- investigated by media psychologists. Apparently, there tions fromthe psychology ofliterature (cf.Groeben & are good reasons to work on closer connections be- Vorderer, 1988), the sociology ofculture (cf.Bourdieu, tween research on presence and media psychology. 1987), and fromcommunication research (cf.McQuail, For this purpose, we will introduce several theories 1985;Liebes &Katz, 1986), Vorderer (1992) differen- that have been suggested bymedia psychologists or tiates two levels ofinvolvement and,accordingly, two have been applied to research issues addressed in media modes ofreception: adistant, analytical way ofwitness- psychology. These theories relate to the experience of ing the events presented bythe medium(low involve- entertaining media.This domain ofmedia psychology ment) and,in contrast, afascinated, emotionally and promises to be ofspecial interest for presence research- cognitively engaged way ofenjoying the presentation ers because, onaconceptual level, feeling presence is (high involvement). People who consume amedia obviously closely connected to states offascination, de- product in the analytical modeof reception are con- light, enjoyment, and astonishment. Suchstates are scious ofthe mediated nature ofthe experience. Em- objects ofinvestigation in entertainment research bedded into aset ofcultural norms and traditions (such (Bosshart &Macconi,1998; Vorderer, 2001;Zillmann asthose regarding how to lookat apiece ofart), their &Vorderer, 2000). Moreover, there are commoninter- gratiŽcation fromreading, listening, orwatching is not ests onthe application level because manyVR environ- emotional enjoyment but amore distant and potentially ments serve entertainment purposes, such as simulator more objective evaluation ofperformances (such as rides orinteractive cinema systems (Vorderer, 2000). judgments ofthe creativity ofanovel ’sauthor,of the Therefore, psychological theories on media entertain- virtuosity ofthe conductor ofan orchestra, or ofthe mentappear to beofmajor importance to presence re- quality ofthe actors in a Žlm).Analytical reception re- 348 PRESENCE: VOLUME12, NUMBER 4

quires expertise and substantial knowledge about the vertising spots) and factors that are not related to the media content and particularly about the media form. media content (feeling hungry oraringing doorbell). Inmakingsuch well-informed judgments,one ’s own Insum,the level ofinvolvement mayvary between ability to evaluate performances becomes salient, and different media products, different individuals (inter- the experience to beanexpert contributes to the enjoy- individually), and different situations ofexposure (intra- mentderived fromexposure. From this point ofview, individually). Although there are conceptualizations in too muchexcitation or any overwhelmingly emotional personality psychology that identify ageneral predispo- reaction to the media content is inappropriate for ex- sition to becomeinvolved with aesthetic experiences perts and thus has tobe rejected by individuals who (“absorption” cf.Wild, Kuiken,& Schop ocher,1995), adopt the distant/analytical modeof reception. media psychologists generally consider involvement a Incontrast, audiences who experience intensive feel- highly variable and unstable condition. ings like suspense orfun —in other words, those who are emotionally and cognitively involved —do not keep 2.2InvolvementandPresence any aesthetic distance to the media offering,but “melt” into it.Highly involved media users donot takenotice Similarly with the notion ofpresence, there is no ofthe mediated quality oftheir experience (Vorderer, commonlyaccepted de Žnition of involvement (Don- 1992). Instead ofanalyzing the underlying message the nerstag, 1996). However, if one employs Vorderer ’s director mightwant to communicate,the audience sim- understanding ofinvolvement, ade Žnitional overlap ply enjoys the story. Actors (and agents) are not per- between the two concepts becomes visible. Both the ceived as performers tobe rated, but as “real” people state ofpresence and the experience ofinvolvement in- who canbe watched and accompaniedwhile they are clude the perceptual focus on mediated information and living their life. Manyintellectuals have regarded this the avoidance ofstimuli that donot belong tothe me- involved modeof reception as inferior tothe analytical dia offering,such as unrelated own cognitions or exter- modeand attributed it to poorly educated mass audi- nal cues that undermine the nonmediation experience. ences and to speci Žctypes ofmedia offerings that lack Ideally, involvement and presence describe states in any sense ofaesthetics and true art (kitsch). Incontrast which all perceptions, thoughts,and emotions are di- tothis rather ideological and purely dichotomous per- rected towards the media environment. For this reason, spective, media psychologists have investigated experi- involvement could beconceptualized asone dimension ences ofhigh involvement asawidespread empirical ofpresence (cf.Witmer &Singer,1998; Biocca, Bur- phenomenon (Bosshart &Macconi,1998) —for exam- goon,Harms, & Stoner,2001) or presence could be ple in the context ofreading (Andringa, 1996;van der modeled asaspecial case ofinvolvement. Bolt &Tellegen, 1993) or watching television (cf. Ifone takesinto account that both involvement (Cal- Liebes &Katz, 1986;Vorderer, 1993). Inthis context, vert, 1994) and presence (Draper, etal.,1998; Schu- states ofhigh involvement are not considered tobe ac- bert, Friedmann, &Regenbrecht, 2001) are obviously cessible to certain individuals only or to be induced by linked toattention processes, the integration ofthese special media products exclusively. concepts can be based on astrong theoretical founda- Vorderer’s(1992) distinction between the analytical tion. Ingeneral, two types ofattention processes have and involved modeof reception does not expect media tobe distinguished: automatic (or involuntary) atten- users to stay in one modeduring the whole process of tion and controlled, voluntarily directed attention. (For exposure. Infact,it is assumed that individuals ’ level of detailed reviews, see Underwood, 1993 and Styles, involvement oscillates between the prototypical poles of 1997.) Attention could therefore be considered asa analytical and involved reception. Variations in the de- conceptual bridge between involvement and presence. gree ofinvolvement canbe caused by factors attached to From this perspective, involvement would emphasize the media content (for instance, boring elements orad- motivational aspects ofthe experience derived fromthe Klimmtand Vorderer 349

reception ofthe media offering (such asenjoyment, fas- ence high levels ofinvolvement would probably feel cination, absorption), because users who are in astate of disproportionately higher degrees ofpresence even in high involvement are emotionally and cognitively occu- less immersive media environments. Amedia environ- pied by the media content they are observing and thus mentthat is designed to elicit strong feelings ofpres- want to continue the entertaining reception process. For ence,then, should try to create the illusion ofa nonme- example,people who watch an interesting and complex diated spatial environment orsocial entity and to get thriller onTVmayfeel astrong emotional activation the users emotionally and cognitively involved in order and maythink extensively about the possible progress of tomakethem want tocontinue and intensify the experi- the plot.To learn about the subsequent events and the ence. resolution ofpuzzles and con icts, they would feel the strong wish to continue exposure and direct their (con- trolled) attention towards the media content (cf.Vor- 3ProcessTheoriesofEntertainingMedia derer &Ritterfeld, in press). This way, high involve- R ecept ion mentwould foster the nonmediation experience and makethe users want toignore the reality outside the Inaddition to the concept ofinvolvement, media media offering.In contrast, the notion ofpresence psychologists have developed more-detailed and pro- rather seems to cover perceptual facets such as spatial cess-oriented theories that identify speci Žccognitive and illusions and the confusion ofvirtuality and reality. The affective components ofinformation processing during overwhelming sensory input ofaVRenvironment, for the reception ofmedia entertainment. Two theoretical example,may activate processes ofautomatic attention frameworks that appear tobe especially interesting for that lead tothe perception ofbeing spatially and/or presence research are introduced: Zillmann ’s affective socially present in the mediated environment, regardless disposition theory and Oatley ’ssimulation theory. ofwhether the users reject or consent to such an experi- ence.This example is not intended to suggest that pres- 3.1AffectiveDispositionTheory ence is always elicited bypowerful media systems that capture the users ’ senses. Instead,it supports the as- 3.1.1 Explication. The concept ofinvolvement is sumption that both perceptual and motivational pro- useful to differentiate media users ’ perspectives oncon- cesses contribute tothe attentional behavior ofmedia tent and formof media products and to describe differ- users and thus both in uence the quality and degree of ences in their attentional focus.However, it lacks ex- nonmediation experiences. planatory power because it does not elaborate on the The brief consideration ofconnections between in- factors that lead to high (or low) involvement during volvement, attention, and presence should be suf Žcient exposure. Why do,for example,most people feel strong tojustify the efforts ofa more detailed integration in intensities ofsuspense and arousal when watching a future research. This way, the concept ofpresence could movie or reading athriller novel (Nell, 1988)? The fac- bemore closely related to its theoretical roots in psy- tors that cause such states ofhigh involvement have to chology.As aresult ofsuch an integration, the question be identiŽed within the process ofreception. Zillmann whether involvement should beconsidered as the more (1994, 1996) has advanced atheory ofdrama apprecia- global concept that includes aspecial case named pres- tion that is based on the audience ’sperception ofthe ence or as one dimension (or factor) ofpresence experi- characters displayed bythe media.The assumptions of ences could be answered. What is already obvious, how- the so-called affective disposition theory (ADT) have ever, is that the users ’ wish to remain in ananalytical been empirically tested and repeatedly con Žrmed. (See modeof reception would con ict with the immersive Zillmann, 1996 for an overview.) According to Zill- capabilities ofa VRenvironment in creating asense of mann,the process ofdrama reception canbe analytically presence, whereas media users who are ready to experi- divided into seven steps. (See Figure 1.) 350 PRESENCE: VOLUME12, NUMBER 4

Figure 1. Process model of dramaappreciation according toaffective disposition theory (Zillmann, 1996,p. 219).

People who watch amovie or read anovel observe expectations ofthe audience, which meansthere is a the behavior ofthe persons who are presented by the happyend for the “good guys” and/or abad ending for media (1). The actions takenby the characters are eval- the bad guys,positive emotions (euphoria) are the result uated onamoral dimension (2). Ifthe audience morally (6), because the viewers orreaders empathize with the consents to the behavior ofacharacter, they establish a characters (Zillmann, 1991). Inthe case ofbad guys positive affective disposition towards this character, that receiving their deserved bad outcome,a mechanismthat is, they begin to like her/him(3). Likeable characters is called counterempathy takeseffect. Based on the moral are usually the heroes or “good guys.” Incontrast, justiŽcation ofthe bad outcome,the viewers or readers viewers orreaders develop negative affectstowards char- experience positive emotions fromwitnessing the actu- acters who are judged to behave in amorally inaccept- ally negative outcome.If, in contrast, the displayed re- able way, which is normally the case ofvillains or “bad sults do not Žtto the hopes and fears ofthe viewers or guys.” Based onthese affective dispositions, the audi- readers related to the good guys and bad guys,negative ence takesa speci Žcperspective onthe progress ofthe feelings (dysphoria) will be experienced because ofem- story. Inanticipating the ongoing events, viewers or pathic disappointment or anger about the defeat ofthe readers hope for outcomes that the characters deserve; good guys and/or the undeserved success ofthe bad that is, they desire apositive outcomefor the likeable guys.The latter case is again aformof counterempathy characters (such as happiness) and anegative outcome because negative emotions arise fromwitnessed positive for the resented characters (such aspunishment). outcomes.The emotions (that is, both positive and neg- Complementarily to these hopes,viewers or readers fear ative affective responses) that are elicited during this that likeable characters receive anegative outcomeand step of ADT’sprocess model canbe considered the key that the bad guys receive anunderserved positive out- part ofthe entertainment experience, for example,sus- come(4). The actual events ofthe story are evaluated pense. Finally, the outcomeis evaluated morally, and against these hopes and fears:viewers or readers com- the cyclic appreciation process is restarted (7). pare the presented outcomes to their anticipations and ADThas proven to beauseful frameworkfor the in- wishes (5). Ifthe displayed results matchwith the moral vestigation ofthe reception ofentertaining media.In Klimmtand Vorderer 351

addition, ADThas partially been applied to media prod- not the role ofamere spectator. This role could make ucts that are not necessarily intended todelight their moral judgments and affective responses to the other audiences, such asnews (Zillmann &Knobloch, 2001). characters ofthe system even more important to the Inspite ofthe theory ’ssubstantial explanatory power users because they donot only in uence their perspec- and the strong empirical evidence for its assumptions, tive onthe story and their disposition towards the other Vorderer (2001, in press) has pointed out that ADT social entities, but should also have an effecton their should not be regarded asauni Žedtheory ofentertain- decisions about how to act within the narrative. For ex- mentbecause it does not suf Žciently explain why indi- ample,the negative emotions towards abad guy would viduals turn to —and to some extent obviously enjoy — makea dramaspectator feel counterempathy and even sad entertainment offerings,such as melodrama(Oliver, hate,but the user ofan interactive dramamight even 1993) orcrime stories that do not lead to the morally want to turn such emotions into action and punish the appropriate outcomes (for example,some episodes from bad guy for his morally inappropriate behavior. The Law & Order)and because ADTassumes the audience processes assumed byADT maybe ofmajor importance tobe passive witnesses ofthe ongoing events. Viewers in interactive dramatheory. orreaders are expected to simply observe the actions of Moreover, ADT can explain phenomenarelated to the characters and evaluate themwithout participating Social Presence in general (Short, Williams, &Christie, in the story or trying to in uence the characters ’ behav- 1976;Rice, 1993;IJsselsteijn et al.,2000; Biocca et al., ior. This expectation is certainly agreeable in the context 2001), because it is based onthe concept ofempathy oflinear, noninteractive media such as novels ormovies. (Zillmann, 1991). Empathytheory can explain the emo- Interactive media,however, require their users to take tional commitmentof individuals to each other and the actions continuously (Vorderer, 2000). Invideogames, attachmentof media users tomedia characters, includ- for example,media users are not passive witnesses, but ing agents and avatars: if users ofaVRenvironment do the mostimportant agents that push the story forward not develop empathicemotions towards the media char- (Grodal, 2000;Klimmt, 2001). For this reason, ADT acters, one could argue,they remain indifferent and cannot fully explain the enjoyment ofusing interactive thus do not experience astrong feeling ofsocial pres- entertainment. ence.This does not imply,however, that empathicfeel- ings towards media characters canarise only frommoral 3.1.2 ADTand Presence. Zillmann’s conceptu- judgments as ADT predicts. Other factors,such as hu- alization ofdrama appreciation emphazises the affective morand physical attractiveness (cf.Hoffner, 1996), may componentof entertainment experiences, which could lead to similar affective reactions towards mediated so- beregarded as one part ordimension ofpresence. Affec- cial entities. Inturn,Zillmann ’stheory justi Žes the as- tive dispositions towards the social entities ofamedia sumption that characters who can attract the users ’ em- offering are the mainsource ofusers ’ emotional engage- pathic emotions will produce high levels of(social) ment.Therefore, ADT targets amechanismthat con- presence even if they are not ultra-realistic or lifelike tributes to the formation ofstates ofpresence within agents (Parise, Kiesler, Sproull, &Waters, 1999). In media settings that are centered around individual char- terms ofapplication, afunny or somewhat beautiful acters, such asHollywood movies.In the domain of agent maybe the system designer ’sbetter choice com- presence research, applications that involve characters pared toaboring and uninteresting high- Ždelity avatar. and events within anarrative framework,so-called inter- As mentioned previously, interactive media environ- active drama,appear to be mostsimilar to conventional ments offera role to the users that is completely differ- drama,which would suggest that ADT ’scontribution ent fromnoninteractive media,which impedes the ap- tothe explanation ofdramatic presence be evaluated plication ofADT to interactive reception processes. (Kelso, Weyrauch, &Bates,1993). Ininteractive Because interactivity is akeyfeature ofmost new media drama,users occupy the role ofan active participant and environments (Steuer, 1992;Vorderer, 2000), Zill- 352 PRESENCE: VOLUME12, NUMBER 4

mann’sconceptualization should not be regarded as a ing is focused on elements ofliterary formand the intel- universal explanatory approachto presence experiences lectual interpretation ofthe author ’spresentation ofthe but rather another important cornerstone ofthe theo- world. The internal mode,in contrast, is de Žned by the retical foundation ofpresence. To advance an integra- “reader entering the world ofthe text ” (Oatley, 1994, tion between ADT and (social) presence theory prom- p.57), which leads to emotional responses to the story. ises to befruitful, for Zillmann ’smodel could allow for ST’skeyassumption about the development ofaffective abetter understanding ofthe role ofvirtual characters reactions is that the internal modeof reading Žction can in creating asense ofpresence. Suchan integration beconsidered amental simulation ofthe described envi- would not have to apply the cited process model ( Žgure ronments,actions, and events. This simulation canbe 1)to exposure to any kindof media products that may comparedto acomputerprogram that is executed by elicit feelings ofpresence because ADThas originally the emotional and cognitive routines ofthe readers: To been introduced only asatheory ofdrama appreciation. (re-)construct the world ofthe story, readers access Presence researchers should thus consider the similari- their own memories,thus creating an individual experi- ties and differences between the media offering ofinter- ence.According to ST,simulating astory world can est and typical dramaand subsequently decide which elicit emotional responses in three different ways. First, elements and assumptions ofADT maybe applicable. sympathy is anaffective experience similar to Zillmann ’s For example,a VRsystem that features an anthropo- concept ofempathy,leading to emotional reactions as morphic avatar asanonline assistance system will not feeling with the characters. Second,the internal simula- present actions that are morally evaluable. Affective re- tion canreactivate emotional states that the readers have actions toward the avatar will therefore not occur be- experienced in the past.For example,a short story cause ofmoral judgments,but maybebecause ofthe about aromantic relationship that is ending maybe sim- character’sperformance.If the help offered by the ava- ilar to anevent that some readers have experienced years tar is not suf Žcient toagiven user, she/he mayemo- ago.Therefore, the emotional state that accompanied tionally respond with anger,which can cause the moti- this prior incident is experienced again during the recep- vation to quit the reception process and to Žnish the tion ofthe story. Oatley (1994) has coined the term presence experience. Incontrast, anattractive and well- memory emotions to describe this way that literature can functioning help avatar maycontribute positively to the induce affective responses. The third source ofemo- presence experience. Inthis example,the affective reac- tional reactions is identi Žcation with characters. Some tion towards the system ’scharacter(s) is anelement of narrative texts allow for takingthe perspective ofcertain ADTthat maybe relevant to presence research, but the characters instead ofsimply observing them “from out- moral judgment processes implemented in Zillmann ’s side” as it is conceptualized in Zillmann ’s ADT. By theory donot apply. “looking into the mind ofa character, ” readers mayin- ternally simulate her/his feelings and experience these emotions themselves. This emotional identi Žcation has 3.2SimulationTheory tobe distinguished fromempathic reactions offeeling 3.2.1 Explication. Another theoretical approach with acharacter whose inner emotions and thoughts tothe reception ofnarrative entertainment media is cannot be observed directly (Zillmann, 1991). (See Co- Oatley’s(1994, 1999) simulation theory (ST). Origi- hen,2001, for adiscussion ofthe concept ofidenti Žca- nally, Oatley provided aconceptualization ofthe pro- tion.) cess ofreading Žctional narratives, but his assumptions can easily be expanded to exposure toother media. 3.2.2 Simulation Theoryand Presence. To Muchlike the concept ofinvolvement (see Section 2), conceptualize the perception ofmediated information as STdifferentiates two ways ofprocessing the information internal simulation is not anew idea to presence re- presented by the narrative. The external modeof read- search. Biocca (1997), for example,points out that day- Klimmtand Vorderer 353

dreaming canbe regarded aformof presence experi- buildings before.Consequently, alesson fromST for ences and that presence researchers maybe that media offerings that do not include powerful sensory input cancompensate for dreams use what Icall the mental simulator, the gen- their low immersive potential by inspiring their audience erator ofmental imagery that makesof cognitive re- toactivate and retrieve related information fromtheir sources used in perception. ...But unlike states of memories. presence in virtual and physical environments the mental spatial simulation is not based on incoming sensory stimulation but is mostly constructed from 4ThePsychologicalTheoryofPlay memory. 4.1Ex plication Similarly, STargues that mental simulations donot exclude external information completely, but that medi- Involvement,ADT, and STare theories that have ated stimuli (such asthe text ofa novel) are cognitively been developed to explain speci Žcphenomenaof media reshaped and/or Žlled in by memories and imagery of exposure, which maylimit their applicability in the con- the user in order to run the simulation. STcould thus text ofpresence theory. Vorderer (2001) applied amore serve as acontribution to apsychological foundation of general theoretical frameworkto the explication and presence because it canexplain the formation ofrich explanation ofmedia entertainment that offers possibly experiences ofa mediated world without the require- more conceptual connection points to presence. Appar- mentof highly realistic and immersive VRtechnology, ently, the activity ofplaying exhibits striking similarities bypointing at the relevance ofinternal processes ofcon- tothe use ofentertainment fare.According to Oerter struction. Oatley ’stheoretical frameworkmight there- (1999) and Sutton-Smith(1997), play is aparticular fore be especially useful to solve the “bookproblem, ” kindof action that is characterized by three major as- that is, the observation that states ofpresence can be pects: elicited by reading abook,a mediumthat lacks almost 1.It is intrinsically motivated and highly attractive. all immersive capabilities. Originally, STassumes only 2.It implies achange in perceived reality, as players that reading ( Žctional) narrative can cause strong emo- construct an additional reality while they are play- tional responses (and thus astate ofabsorption, fascina- ing. tion, ormaybepresence) byreactivating the feelings 3.It is frequently repeated. that readers experienced themselves in situations that were similar to the circumstances portrayed in the story. Based on explanations given by Freud, Piaget, and For presence research, however, this assumption ofcon- Wygotski, Oerter (2000) describes children ’s playing in nections between the media content and the individual more general terms as aformof coping with one ’s own recipient’sown biography should be considered froma life, that is, an activity that helps children to compensate broader perspective that does not only focus onemo- for their problems, desires, and socialization pressure. tional responses or on the text exclusively. For example, Lookingmore closely atthe various formsof playing, it people who have visited afamouscathedral and remem- becomes clear that early gamesof make-believe express ber manydetails ofits appearance mayfeel astrong the children ’swish for control and power, and to over- sense ofspatial presence if they just read awritten de- cometheir inability toin uence their environment, all scription ofthe building, because they canenrich and ofwhich help children to cometo terms with their own complete their mental simulation by Žlling in the details identity. This perspective regards playing as aformof that are not included in the text through memoryinfor- transforming reality in away that serves children ’s psy- mation.In a similar manner,rough 3D computermod- chological needs. els ofreal buildings mayinduce higher degrees ofspatial Because presence is considered amental state,theo- presence in individuals who have been in the respective retical concepts that are tobe connected to it have to be 354 PRESENCE: VOLUME12, NUMBER 4

situated atthe conceptual level ofexperience. Conse- 2000). What makesinteractive entertainment attractive, quently, we have to ask,what does the rather broad then,is astrong experience ofself-ef Žcacy and mastery: conceptualization ofplay meanfor the actual experience the users are in partial commandof the events going on connected to the activity ofplaying? First ofall, the ex- in the story; they receive immediate feedbackto their perience ofagency seems to be important.Players re- actions and thus cansee and evaluate the effects they gard themselves as adriving force:in contrast to televi- produce.Interactivity cantherefore not only enrich the sion viewers, for example,players actively in uence the spatial componentof presence experiences (Steuer, quality and direction ofthe ongoing events. The actions 1992;Schubert, Friedmann, &Regenbrecht, 1999) but takenduring play are closely connected to experiences also increase the motivation to use amedia setting be- ofmastery and self-ef Žcacy (Bandura, 1977,1997). Play cause it makesexposure entertaining, or,more speci Ž- settings often allow for the nonambiguous detection of cally, because it holds the potential tomakethe users the effectsof one ’sown actions, such asin the moment feel successful, powerful, and contented with them- oftouching another child when playing tag.This expe- selves. Suchfeelings ofmastery mayfoster the users ’ rience ofself-ef Žcacy (which mostoften leads to victo- readiness to maintain their engagementin the actions ries or successes in competitive games) is apparently very within the media system and prevent tendencies to exit enjoyable to manychildren and adults alike.Second, the exposure situation, which would support and/or play often leads tothe experience ofachain ofcontinu- preserve states ofpresence. Feelings ofdefeat and fail- ous actions that has been conceptualized as ow (Csik- ure,on the other hand,may also be caused more fre- szentmihalyi, 1991): consciousness and actions merge. quently byinteractive media systems because users can- Players accomplish their tasks almost automatically be- not attribute insuf Žcient outcomes ofthe actions within cause they canchoose the level ofdif Žculty ofthe play ’s the media setting solely to the failure ofother social tasks and matchit to the level oftheir skills. Thus, play- entities (such asavatars) or technical problems but have ers donot feel bored because the taskis too easy or feel toacknowledge their own errors instead. Suchpercep- frightened because the taskis too dif Žcult.Third, the tions of one’sown mistakes and suboptimal perfor- experience ofplaying often includes the oblivion ofreal- mancemay cause anger and frustration and thus could ity. Players often fully occupy their role, thus construct- foster the motivation to Žnish the state ofpresence. As ing aparallel reality that persists for the duration ofthe long as interactivity allows for experiences ofcontrol, game.This allows for vicarious experiences in domains mastery,and self-ef Žcacy,however, it will intensify the that are mostly inaccessible in real life (being a Žghter pleasure ofusing the media product and thus increase pilot, asorcerer, or acowboy), thus enabling the players the motivation to experience astrong sense ofpresence. toovercome feelings ofpowerlessness and expanding Besides the single momentsof mastery experiences, their repertoire ofpossible activities and (social) behav- interactive media mayenable their users to enter states iors. of ow. This experience ofdirecting one ’sfull attention toone chain ofaction while ignoring all stimuli that are irrelevant to the actual taskobviously overlaps with 4.2PlayandPresence commonconceptualizations ofpresence experiences (cf. Inthe context ofpresence research, the psycho- Bystrom,Bar Želd, &Hendrix, 1999;Zahorik &Jeni- logical theory ofplay seems to be especially useful in son,1998). Therefore, it seems to be reasonable to dis- explaining the fascination ofinteractive entertainment, cuss the relation between the concepts of ow and pres- such as videogames. Because players can actively in u- ence.In some cases, presence mightbe just the ow ence the course ofevents in the media content (Vor- experience arising fromconcentrating on the tasks that derer, 2000), users hold acertain “responsibility. ” Suc- are offered byaninteractive VRenvironment. Alterna- cess and failure are not caused by the media characters tively, (spatial) presence could be modeled as an “add- alone, but also bythe users themselves (cf.Grodal, on” experience resulting fromthe ow that media users Klimmtand Vorderer 355

enter when exploring (or playing in) aVRsystem. simulations ofall-day settings, which should increase These considerations do not imply,of course, that inter- their motivation to feel asense ofpresence because it is active media environments can induce states ofpresence attractive and funto “be there.” only if owexperiences occur.However, it maybe pos- Insum,the psychological theory ofplay canhelp ex- sible that limited immersive capabilities canbe compen- plain the great appeal and fascination that manyusers sated for if users enter states of ow, which would trig- derive fromusing interactive and/or VRmedia,and in ger feelings ofpresence in spite oftechnical turn provide presence researchers with valuable hints shortcomings. about content factors that can makeusing orplaying The second aspect ofOerter ’s deŽnition ofplay, with the media fun,which should be considered anim- namely the change in perceived reality, maybe ofim- portant determinant (or dimension) ofpresence experi- portance to presence researchers because it points at the ences. To embeda media product in a “playful” con- role ofthe individual ’ssituational expectancies. Chil- text, afew cues maybe suf Žcient. For example,a cover dren who begin to replay anepisode of Star Wars, for story and some rules maybe introduced before expo- example,agree to acceptthat certain aspects ofthe real sure. This will affectthe users ’ expectancies about tech- world canbe modi Žed or “switched off ” for the dura- nical possibilities to act and rules ofspeci Žc (spatial tion ofthe game:the posession oflight sabres and laser and/or social) behaviors within the media environment. guns will bepossible, and traveling between planets Thereby, the users ’ motivation toengage in possible should beaneveryday activity. Byde Žning asituation as actions and their readiness not to attend to technical play,individuals thus establish aset ofexpectations that limitations ofthe system could be increased, which maydiffer fromwhat should beexpected in the real would both support the activation and preservation of world. Toinduce high levels ofpresence, the manipula- presence. tion ofsuch expectancies before and during exposure maytherefore be apromising strategy. Ifusers expect to enter aworld with certain rules and peculiarities and are 5ConclusionsandPerspectivesfor prepared to consider the media use as aplayful action, FutureInterdisciplinaryPresence they mightfeel astrong sense ofpresence in spite of R esearch technical limitations and low immersive capabilities. The third componentof experience ofplay, the vicari- Asmedia psychology is concerned with the infor- ous experience ofnew domains oflife, is also closely mation processing and experiences ofindividual media connected to presence because VRsystems and other users, theories advanced or applied by media psycholo- media offerings are often intended to allow for journeys gists appear to bevery useful for the further clari Žcation into inaccessible or distant environments. Suchtrans- and elaboration ofpresence. Muchtheoretical and em- portations to settings and events that are out ofreach in pirical work on presence has addressed technological reality are very appealing to children and adolescents issues (e.g.,Lombard, Reich, Grabe,Bracken, & Dit- because they enable themto expand their limited hori- ton,2000; Biocca &Levy,1995). However, it seems to zon ofexperience and possible activities bysimulation. becommonsense amongpresence researchers that the But manyadults feel attracted to such opportunities to quality and degree ofpresence experiences is not deter- enter new territories, social settings, or activities, too. mined by technology alone but that “user variables ” Their mainmotivation maybe the need for diversion have to beconsidered in conceptual models ofpresence fromall-day experience, which has been conceptualized also. Theories frommedia psychology hold the potential asescapism bycommunication researchers (Katz & tospecify such user variables both in terms ofstable user Foulkes, 1962;Henning &Vorderer, 2001). Therefore, characteristics and processes ofthinking and feeling dur- media products that portray new and unusual environ- ing exposure. Someof the theoretical links that both ments maybe more interesting tomostindividuals than presence researchers and media psychologists should 356 PRESENCE: VOLUME12, NUMBER 4

and enjoyment, thus supporting presence experiences indirectly under certain circumstances. To demonstrate connections between presence re- search and media psychology, we have focused ontheo- ries that are related to the use ofmedia entertainment because the experience of “delight” (Zillmann &Bry- ant, 1994), “joy” (Bosshart &Macconi,1998), “fasci- nation” (Klimmt, 2001), or “absorption” (Quarrick, 1989) are obviously very similar to,closely connected to,or even identical with the experience ofpresence. This does not meanthat those theories can be applied toonly media settings that are intended to entertain their users. For example,the experiences ofself-ef Žcacy ormastery and ow described in the psychological the- ory ofplay canalso arise fromusing highly interactive working environments (cf.Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). In turn,media settings designed for working, learning, or other non-entertainment purposes maybe very enjoy- able to use.Speci Žcally in the domain ofmedia-based Figure 2. Overview of possible conceptual connections between education, the motivating effectsof entertaining ele- media psychology andpresence research. ments have been foundto have the capabilities to in- crease learning performance,which led to the develop- ment of “edutainment ” concepts (Amory, Naicker, further investigate have been illuminated in this article. Vincent, &Adams,1999; Mallon &Webb, 2000). A (See Figure 2.) clear separation ofentertaining and “serious” media Onthe experiential level, manyconceptual overlaps settings will beobsolete soon,so theories ofmedia en- between (both spatial and social) presence and phenom- tertainment should also be considered and applied to ena studied in media psychology —such as involvement, presence in the contexts ofworking, learning, orother enjoyment, suspense, and ow—can be identi Žed. media environments. These overlaps justify the further elaboration oftheoret- To put the outlined opportunities into practice, pres- ical links between presence research and media psychol- ence researchers should investigate the aforementioned ogy.Moreover, some media attributes that have been concepts frommedia psychology in detail and try to foundto affectstates of(spatial and/or social) presence assess their relation to(social and/orspatial) presence. may also inuence those phenomena.For example, This way, the understanding ofpresence will been- characters appearing within amedia environment may hanced,and the concepts that promise to be mostvalu- elicit social presence and,under the conditions formu- able to presence research can be selected for further in- lated by affective disposition theory, induce feelings of tegration. Subsequent to integration on the theoretical suspense, thus establishing a “second route ” of the for- level, the relevance ofconcepts frommedia psychology mation ofpresence. Finally, media psychology maybe should beilluminated in empirical studies on determi- helpful in identifying user variables that in uence expe- nants and effectsof presence, in applied presence re- riential states connected to presence or that affectpres- search aswell as in system design. This way, integration ence in adirect way. Spatial memories,for example,may and cooperation could berealized at multiple levels, bemental resources that canbe utilized to induce spa- which would allow the maximumadvantage to betaken tial presence. Memoryemotions mayfoster involvement ofthe efforts both presence researchers and media psy- Klimmtand Vorderer 357

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