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DOCTOR of PHILOSOPHY ALISTAIR CHISHOLM DUNLOP Royal

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DOCTOR of PHILOSOPHY ALISTAIR CHISHOLM DUNLOP Royal A THESIS entitled GEOCHEMICAL DISPERSION OF TIN IN STREAM SEDIMENTS AND SOILS IN SOUTH-WEST ENGLAND submitted for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the FACULTY OF SCIENCE OF THE UNIVERSITY CF LONDON by ALISTAIR CHISHOLM DUNLOP Royal School of Mines, imperial College. August, 1973. 2 ABSTRACT This study involves the interpretation of low precision analytical data from a reconnaissance stream sediment survey of south-west England. The indicated distribution of tin and its significance in mineral explor- ation are discussed. The results of the reconnaissance stream sediment survey have indicated that enhanced tin levels extend considerable distances beyond the limits of the known tin districts. In the Truro-Mitchell area of mid Cornwall, detailed investigation of tin patterns, which are outside the known tin districts, have shown that the tin anomalies are of detrital type. Extensive soil sampling has indicated consistent tin anomalies in the valley bottoms, which are derived from cassiterite bearing alluvium for which a local source could not be substantiated. These soil patterns have been compared with those overlying known tin mineralizat- ion. The most striking feature of these detrital tin patterns is the low arsenic and copper levels compared to those in both stream sediment and soil patterns in the adjacent tin mining districts. The detrital cassiterite is thought to have originated from areas of tin mineralization during erosion dating from the Permian, with marked lateral redistribution during the Pliocene marine transgression and stillstand at 430 ft. O.D. Stream sediment tin patterns from the reconnaissance survey have been interpreted on the basis of the results of the detailed investigations in mid Cornwall. A variety of techniques including element comparison, R-mode factor analysis and analysis of acid extractable tin have been evaluated . Some criteria for recognizing detrital tin patterns are outlined. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project forms part of an interpretation of a reconnaissance survey of England and Wales undertaken by the Applied Geochemistry Research Group directed by Professor J.S. Webb, under a grant from the Wolfson Foundation. Financial support has been given to the author by Noranda Australia Limited. Field expenses were met by Noranda Exploration (UK) Ltd. The constant advice and encouragement of W.T. Meyer who supervised this project is gratefully acknowledged. The author is indebted to staff and students of the Applied Geochemistry Research Group, particularly Y.C.Y. Lam Shang Leen, J.S. Tooms and A. Cruzat for advice and many useful discussions. The author is particularly grateful to his wife for her continuing assistance through the project and in the compilation of this thesis. Thanks are also due to Gladys Murray for patiently typing the thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 20 1.1.0. AIMS OF STUDY 20 1.2.0. FORM OF STUDY 21 1.3.0. LAYOUT OF THESIS 22 ,CHAPTER 2. SOUTH-WEST ENGLAND 23 2.1.0. INTRODUCTION 23 2.2.0. GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING 23 2.3.0. CLIMATE 23 2.4.0. SOILS 23 2.5.0. AGRICULTURE 25 2.6.0. GEOLOGY 26 2.6.1. Geological setting 26 2.6.2. Pre-Devonian 26 2.6.3. Devonian 31 2.6.4. Carboniferous 35 2.6.5. Amorican Granites 35 2.6.6. Perm-Triassic 37 2.6.7. Jurassic 39 2.6.8. Cretaceous 40 2.6.9. Tertiary and Quaternary 40 2.7.0. GEOMORPHOLOGY 56 2.7.1. Planation surfaces 56 2.7.2. Drainage pattern 61 2.7.3. Coastal features 61 CHAPTER 3. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY AND MINING HISTORY 63 3.1.0. INTRODUCTION 63 3.2.0. MINERALIZATION ASSOCIATED WITH THE AMORICAN GRANITES 63 3.2.1. Distribution of mineralization 63 3.2.2. Mineral zones. 65 5 Page 3.2.3. Lodes 71 3.2.4. Tin mineralization 73 3.3.0. ALLUVIAL TIN 79 3.3.1. Age of sediments carrying detrital cassiterite 79 3.3.2. Alluvial tin and geomorphology 83 3.4.0. MINERALIZATION IN NORTH DEVON AND WEST SOMERSET 87 3.5.0. MINERALIZATION ON THE LIZARD 87 3.6.0.. MANGANESE MINERALIZATION 88 3.7.0. MINING HISTORY 88 3.7.1. Tin mining 88 3.7.2. Mining of other metals 89 3.7.3. Tin smelting 94 CHAPTER 4. GEOCHEMISTRY: PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS IN SOUTH-WEST ENGLAND AND DISPERSION OF TIN 96 4.1.0, BASIC CONCEPTS 96 4.2.0. PREVIOUS GEOCHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN SOUTH-WEST ENGLAND 97 4.3.0, PRIMARY DISPERSION OF TIN 102 4.3.1. Tin distribution in rocks 102 4.3.2. Tin distribution in rock forming minerals 103 4.3.3. The use of the primary distribution of tin in rocks and minerals during mineral exploration. 104 4.4.0. SECONDARY DISPERSION OF TIN 105 4.4.1. Clastic dispersion of tin 105 4.4.2. Hydromorphic dispersion of tin 115 CHAPTER 5. SAMPLING, ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES AND DATA HANDLING 119 c 1 n• TumnnnrInmTnIT lig 5.2.0. SAMPLING AND SAMPLE PREPARATION 119 5.2.1. Stream sediment and soil sampling 119 5.2.2. Sample preparation 120 6 Page 5.2.3. Size analysis 120 5.2.4. Sampling variability 121 5.3.0. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES 121 5.3.1. Direct reading emission spectrometer 121 5.3.2. Emission spectrograph 125 5.3.3. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer 126 5.3.4. Colorimetric analysis 128 5.4.0. DATA HANDLING AND PROCESSING 128 CHAPTER 6. INTERPRETATION OF REGIONAL GEOCHEMICAL PATTERNS 130 6.1.0. INTRODUCTION 130 6.2.0. REGIONAL ELEMENT PATTERNS 130 6.3.0. ANOMALY RECOGNITION 149 159 6.4.0. INVESTIGATION OF ANOMALIES 6.4.1. Truro-Mitchell tin anomalies 160 6.4.2. Newton Abbot tin anomaly 160 6.4.3. Whiddon Down lead-copper anomaly 160 6.4.4. Swimbridge lead-copper anomaly 168 6.4.5. St. Mawes lead anomaly 171 6.4.6. Conclusions 174 CHAPTER 7. DETAILED INVESTIGATION OF TIN ANOMALIES IN MID CORNWALL 176 7.1.0. STREAM SEDIMENTS 176 7.2.0. SOIL PATTERNS 192 7.2.1. Initial soil traverses 192 7.2.2. Pengelly Farm soil patterns 202 7.2.3. Trelassick Farm soil patterns 220 7.0.4. (2a-ras Farm soil patterns 229 7.3.0. SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF TIN IN SOILS AND STREAM SEDIMENTS 238 7.4.0. MINERALOGY OF HEAVY MINERAL CONCENT FROM SOILS 943 AND STREAM SEDIMENTS Page 7.5.0. TIN DISTRIBUTION IN DEVONIAN SEDIMENTS 248 7.6.0. TIN PATTERNS ON THE LIZARD 251 7.7.0. COMPARISON OF MID CORNWALL SOIL PATTERNS WITH THOSE FROM KNOWN TIN MINERALIZATION 259 7.7.1. Mulberry 260 7.7.2. Wheal Jane 264 7.7.3. Other tin mineralization in south-west England 270 7.8.0. RELATION OF TIN DISTRIBUTION TO GEOMORPHOLOGY 272 7.9.0. CONCLUSIONS ON TRURO MITCHELL TIN ANOMALIES 276 7.10.0. DISCUSSION OF POSSIBLE TIN SOURCES AND MODES OF ORIGIN FOR THE DETRITAL TIN ANOMALIES 277 7.10.1. Contamination 278 7.10.2. Fluvial processes 279 7.10.3. Glacial and periglacial processes 280 7.10.4. Marine processes. 282 CHAPTER 8. RECOGNITION OF DETRITAL TIN PATTERNS 292 8.1.0. INTRODUCTION 292 8.2.0. CHARACTER OF DETRITAL TIN ANOMALIES MD THEIR SIGNIFICANCE IN MINERAL EXPLORATION 292 8.3.0. DISCRIMINATION OF DETRITAL TIN PATTERNS 294 8.4.0. DELINEATION OF TIN PATTERN TYPE USING R-MODE FACTOR ANALYSIS 302 8.5.0. READILY EXTRACTABLE TIN 310 8.6.0. CRITERIA FOR THE RECOGNITION OF DETRITAL TIN PATTERNS 318 CHAPTER 9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS, AND FUTURE WORK 321 9.1.0. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 321 9.1.1. Alluvial tin deposits in south-west England 321 9.1.2. Results- of the reconnaissance stream sediment survey 321 9.1.3. Detailed investigations in.mid Cornwall 322 Page 9.1.4. Recognition of detrital tin patterns 324 9.2.0. FUTURE WORK 324 9.2.1. Rock sampling 324 9.2.2. Chemical characteristics.of cassiterite 325 9.2.3. Sampling problems 325 9.2.4. Tin pattern recognition 326 9 LIST OF"TABLES Table'No. Page No. 2.1. Table of formations present in south-west England. After Edmonds et ca., 1969. 28 2.2. Qualitative mineralogy of some Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments. After Boswell, 1923. 42 2.3. Qualitative mineralogy of Pliocene gravels at Crousa Common. After Milner, 1922. 45 • 2.4. Qualitative mineralogy of Pliocene sediments from St. Agnes. After Milner, 1922. 46 2.5. Qualitative mineralogy of Pliocene sediments from St. Erth. After Milner, 1922. 48 2.6. Stages of the British Pleistocene. After West, 1972. 54 3.1. isotopic age determination of mineral lodes. After Edmonds et al. 1959. 65 3.2. District distribution of mineral production. After Dines, 1956. 93 4.1. Tin content of some major rock types in ppm. 102 4.2. Tin content of some rock forming minerals in ppm. 103 5.1. Trace element with interfering major element in direct reading spectrometer. 123 5.2. Comparison of analytical variance and precision for stream sediments on direct reading spectro- meter. From Howarth and Lowenstein, 1971. 124 5.3. Estimate of precision on followup samples (at 95% confidence level). 126 10 Page 6.1. Estimates of threshold levels for Sn, Cu, Pbe Zn and As in stream sedimentsin major lithological groups in ppm. 152 7.1. Tungsten distribution in some stream sediments in the Truro-Mitchell area. 182 7.2. Tin distribution in stream sediments and stream bed 'auger samples. 186 7.3. Results of analysis of Garras mine dump samples. 237 7.4. Distribution of tin in stream sediment size 240 fractions in samples from the Truro-Mitchell area.
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