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Home , Berat, Brading Roman Villa, Corinium Museum, Fishbourne Roman Palace, Folkestone Roman Villa, Hipposandal

The Association for Roman Archaeology

MarchARA 2012 NEWSIssue 27

Detail of a painted on plaster from a Roman bath-house, displayed in Southwell Minster. Bryn Walters discusses the campaign to protect Southwell from development (page 3). Photo: © Crown Copyright. CONTENTS Page Contents and Contacts 2

Editorial 2

Campaign to preserve Southwell Roman site 3

ARA study tour of Jordan 4 to 9

Rescue, the British Archaeological Trust – still campaigning after 40 years 10 and 11

Anthony Beeson's Archaeological Round‑up 12, 13, 34, 35 and 48

Land of Eagles: Journeys in Roman 14 to 19

Romans in Commagene 20 to 22

Tour booking forms: Annual Dinner Weekend, Dorset 23 Long Weekend Summer Tour: Central 24 Self-drive to Castle Museum, Taunton & St Algar's Project 25

Excavation at Charles Street, Dorchester 26

Obituary: Peter Yates 26

Spotlight on: Lunt Roman Fort 27 to 29

Holidaying on Vectis Insula 29

What's on 29

From to : the Late /Roman transition Editorial informed of progress. The council (report on a conference) 30 decided in to limit Margate FC The imagery of the Hallaton Helmet I once thought there was no point in to a small extension of the existing car – Decoration depicting Roman complaining to the 'powers that be' – park. I don't know if I made a difference, victory revealed by 31 I doubted they'd listen, and it seemed a but I know the council heard from presumptuous. But as a commuter, people who cared about our heritage. Membership Matters 32 tired of delayed and dirty trains, and the ARA Honorary Life Membership untidy and overgrown car park at my In the current economic climate, with Awards 32 local station, I started writing letters. the Government's desire for a planning Sometimes I received a polite rebuff, system where the default answer to an News about the Bulletin 33 sometimes I got an apology and a small application is 'yes', some councils seeing cheque. Then, to my surprise, contractors museums as expendable luxuries, and Treasurer's Report 33 were called out: rubbish was cleared from archaeologists' jobs being cut, it's more : How to read the car park, grass and hedges were cut. important than ever for people to speak and understand Roman up for our country's archaeological inscriptions, Part II 36 to 43 Margate Football Club applied to the heritage. Rescue been campaigning local council a couple of months ago, for the preservation of our historic The Lost City of the Legion – seeking approval to extend its car park, environment for over 40 years (see Preliminary excavations in near to the site of a Roman and pp10–11); they provide advice on Caerleon's monumental suburb road. As a local resident, I took part in writing to local councils on their website hint at future discoveries 44 to 46 the council's consultation, asking them (called 'Fighting Back'). I intend to write a Ramblings of an ancient volunteer to ensure that the archaeology was letter in support of a Southwell Heritage archaeologist digging through respected; my local archaeological Park (see p3); they might just listen. his memories 47 and 48 group also contacted the council. I received regular e-mails that kept me Nich Hogben, Editor. 2 Campaign to preserve Southwell Roman site

In 1959, excavations directed by the When the school was under late Charles Daniels, east of the great construction in 1971, over Minster Church at Southwell in 200 inhumations were Nottinghamshire, revealed evidence disturbed in the area for a Romano-British rural building, subsequently identified as interpreted at the time as a villa of the lower courtyard of the substantial proportions (Daniels, C . Unfortunately, 1966).1 The excavation had been no firm dates for the burials prompted by a proposal to construct a was secured. The school was school over the area east of the Minster. demolished over ten years Romano-British remains including ago; when it was proposed tessellated flooring had been revealed that the site be used for a intermittently across the area since the housing development, local late 18th century. objections were raised. Fig. 1. Southwell Minster from the north. Photo: © Southwell Civic Society. The present Norman Minster dates from As Director of the ARA I was the beginning of the 12th century, but approached to support the campaign theory that the Southwell 'villa', had been preceded by a smaller Saxon opposing the planning applications. certainly from the fourth century, had Minster church of the 10th, the plan of As I have an interest in the Southwell been part of a spring-line sanctuary which is unknown as it lies buried 'villa' site and its transition through with a possible temple/shrine on the beneath the present Norman building. history, I supported the campaign to higher ground above, in much the Interestingly, part of a tessellated floor preserve the site. I wrote letters of same manner as I have argued for from the time of the Saxon church protest, magazine and newspaper Great Witcombe and Chedworth in survives beneath the pews in the articles, and took part in radio Gloucestershire. But the importance present south transept, long believed broadcasts. Most recently, along with of Southwell is in its continuity: its to have been made up from salvaged Professor Martin Henig, I spoke at a transition from a pagan site into a material from the adjacent villa and public gathering at Southwell, which Christian one which did not fade away painstakingly re-laid as a Saxon floor. was arranged by Dr Will Bowden from with time, but continued as a sacred Nottingham University and supported site, serving a living community up to I have contested this theory, as I had by other campaigners from within the the 21st century. In that respect it is never seen evidence for Saxon archaeological fraternity. almost certainly unique in Britain. It has recycling of tessellation in this country been on this argument that I have before, while there are several The most recent archaeological based my support for the continuing examples of Roman being evaluation trenching on the site of the campaign to save the area for the located beneath and corresponding proposed development revealed people of Southwell, to maintain it as to the alignment of later churches. phenomenal stone walling; this had not an historic area associated with the About 15 years ago I examined this been revealed when the school was history of the Minster. small piece of flooring; in my opinion, built. The walls, constructed in massive based on the manner and compaction blocks of masonry, may have formed Last year a planning application by the of the stones, it is part of an original part of a monumental structure or developer Caunton Properties Ltd was Roman floor still in situ. The floor massive terracing for the suggested refused; further applications may be respects the alignment of the transept 'villa'. Dr Phil Dixon, Archaeological forthcoming. Campaigners intend to walls, which suggests that a minor Advisor for the Minster, supervised submit a formal application for a detached Roman structure, belonging repair works beneath the Minster's change of use for the area, so that it may to the known villa, was utilised as part chapter house several years ago, and be preserved and landscaped as part of of the first-phase Minster. encountered the source of a prolific a Southwell Heritage Park. This would spring. This spring allow more detailed archaeological would have risen study and investigation to take place in on the higher the future. Should any members wish to ground just west offer some support to save this valuable of the main 'villa' site, they should write to the Chief building and a little Planning Officer, Newark and Sherwood way north-east of District Council, Kelham Hall, Newark, the south transept Nottinghamshire NG23 5QX. Please (the site of my send a copy of your letter to Southwell suspected Heritage Park Campaign, 15 Kirklington detached Roman Road, Southwell NG25 0AR. building with the Bryn Walters. tessellated floor).

The combination 1 Daniels, C, 1966. Excavation on the of this evidence Roman villa at Southwell, Transactions Fig. 2. The Minster, with known Roman features in red. © Bryn Walters. supported my of the Thoroton Society 1966, pp13–54. 3 ARA study tour of Jordan 22 –2 October 2011

Readers of ARA News will have read with great interest the of the Tobiads, a wealthy Jewish family of tax collectors. It was article by John Bithell about his visit to Jordan, published in constructed in a Hellenistic style with Egyptian Alexandrian September 2010 (issue 24). In my own reportatio of the influence, and decorated with various animals such as lions, ARA study tour to Jordan, I avoid any detailed reports of leopards and giant eagles (Fig. 2). The structure has specific places already described by John and concentrate traditionally been called a 'fortress' but may have functioned on those sites that he did not visit. The ARA tour was led by as a mausoleum. ARA members had the first of many lively Sam Moorhead of the British Museum, who has excavated in debates during the tour (Fig. 3), discussing the possible the area and proved to be outstanding in his role, and our functions of this building: was it a country , mausoleum Jordanian courier and guide, Elias Khzouz, was not only or a place of worship? knowledgeable and enthusiastic, but keen to engage with our discussions and to contribute pertinent remarks based on Jerash (ancient Gerasa) north of Amman was another major his knowledge of local history and traditions.1 We all learnt a member of the Decapolis, and certainly deserves its lot by listening to and participating in the debates led by Sam reputation as one of the most impressive Roman cities left and Elias, with valuable contributions in particular from the standing. It is sufficiently well preserved and restored to give ARA experts Grahame Soffe, Bryn Walters and Anthony Beeson. the visitor a feel for the scale and buildings of a typical Greco-Roman town, with colonnaded streets, temples and Like John, we spent our first morning in Amman itself, theatres rising all around. According to Sam, every time he formerly known as Philadelphia and one of the cities of the there are more columns standing in the main Decapolis, the 'ten' (actually more like a dozen or so) cities colonnaded cardo, so the Jordanians are obviously keen to that dominated the region in Hellenistic and Roman times. make the sites as 'legible' as possible to the lay visitor. The We started at the Citadel (acropolis), a site with a jumble of large oval plaza is particularly striking (Fig. 4), but as good constructions from various periods (Fig. 1) and home to ARA members, we spent more time debating water systems Amman Archaeological Museum. We moved down to the and construction techniques in obscure corners ignored by theatre area, passing the (a grand structure of most tourists. We eventually tore ourselves away to head for fountains, now unfortunately entirely surrounded by modern ancient Gadara (now Umm Qais), another Decapolis city, buildings) on the way. Since John's visit, the former forum area most of whose fine buildings were erected in the second in front of the theatre had been cleared of modern accretions century AD. It is near the Golan Heights with a distant view on and is currently being landscaped into an open space which Lake Tiberias (the Sea of Galilee), and is mostly built from the should provide a better idea of how large and impressive the black basalt that dominates this whole plateau area in Roman forum once was (one of the largest in the Empire, in northern Jordan, near the Syrian border. The compact West fact). In the afternoon, we headed out into the countryside Theatre is constructed entirely of this material, and the west of Amman to Irak al Amir, specifically to a mysterious Byzantine churches alongside it are a striking mix of black and edifice now known as Qasr al-Abd. This large rectangular white: basalt and Proconnesian marble (Fig. 5). Nearby are the two-storey building was built c.170 BC by Hyrcanus, a member ruins of a nymphaeum, bordering the long decumanus maximus. Walking down this high street, we entered a zone 1 Sam Moorhead provided us with a comprehensive 89-page information pack that proved invaluable during the tour and an essential reference which proved to be one of the most intriguing parts of the tool for checking facts and figures when writing this article. entire tour. A small building north of the decumanus provided

Above, left to right: Fig. 1. Amman citadel, temple of . Fig. 2. Qasr al-Abd. Fig. 3. Bryn Walters putting forward a theory to Grahame Soffe, Jordanian guide Elias Khzouz and Sam Moorhead, with ARA members listening in. Photos: Figs. 1 and 3, © Marigold Norbye; Fig. 2 © Tim Arnold. Below, left to right: Fig. 4. Jerash, Oval Plaza. Fig. 5. Gadara, Byzantine . Fig. 6. Gadara, excavations. Photos: Figs. 4 and 6, © Marigold Norbye; Fig. 5 © Tim Arnold.

4 the focus for lively discussions, before The area served as a buffer zone against we encountered a large area which had the enemy empire of Parthia, with been excavated in recent years by numerous Roman forts being built in Deutsches Archäologisches Institut and the desert to control strategic points. German Protestant Institute of After the fall of the Western Roman Archaeology. To the north of the street Empire in 476, this province survived as there was a square grid area excavation, part of the , and saw displaying ancient floors including the construction of numerous churches some with mosaics (Fig. 6). To the south, with fine mosaics continuing the a huge forum complex extended from Roman traditions. Even after the the street down to a large structure destruction of cities and churches which may have been a gate. The whole through earthquakes and later Arab complex appears to have been walled Muslim conquest, certain elements along the two sides perpendicular to of late Antique art and architecture the main street, with a large open survived under the Muslim Umayyad colonnaded plaza in the centre, period (661–750), as we were to bordered by various smaller buildings discover during the third full day of and courtyards, each with their own our tour, dedicated to the 'desert colonnades, and an octagonal structure castles' east of Amman. near the entrance from the street (Fig. 7). In one corner, tucked off the We started with a 'fort' in the middle of central forum, was a small enclosed the desert, Qasr al-Kharana, essentially courtyard with a fountain in the centre, a set of rooms all facing inwards onto a which some group members, including courtyard, whose precise function is Bryn, eventually interpreted, from the unclear (Fig. 9). It contains graffiti dated ditches running along two sides of the to AD 710, placing it in the Umayyad court, as being possible public latrines period, and may have been a meeting (Fig. 8). Time prevented us from place where the Caliph got together spending longer in this unexpected with the local desert tribesmen. Such treasure trove of recently exposed traditions have continued since, and ruins, which would benefit from some most likely existed in Roman times as protection to avoid future wear and well: the ruler or his representative damage. Towards the end of the street would arrange periodic diplomatic is the base of a round building reunions with the Bedouin, without interpreted as a mausoleum, and whose cooperation it would have been nearby the well-preserved apse and impossible to rule over the vast desert crypt of a church. expanses. The second 'desert castle' most certainly had this type of function: The first two days in these three at Qasr 'Amra (built c.711–15), there is Decapolis cities were probably the most an audience chamber with three aisles intensively 'Roman' of the entire tour, roofed by barrel vaults where the Caliph but the remainder of the tour still would have received guests, flanked on reserved plenty of sights that enabled one side by a bath suite in the best us to consider Roman remains in a Roman tradition. The remarkable wider historical and geographical feature of this building is that all the context. In the period before Roman walls and ceilings of the chamber and domination, the main local ruling baths are covered with frescoes, people had been the Nabataeans. They depicting not only animals and plants, were originally from the desert but also scenes with figures. who eventually settled down in the They show that the prohibition against region, notably in . Through trade representing people in Islamic art was they had close links with Jewish Judaea not yet fully enforced. Instead, the and the post-Alexander Hellenistic artist depicted not only artisans, kingdoms of Egypt and Syria, and with musicians, hunters, archers and rulers, the Arabian desert tribes and the but numerous topless and naked oriental worlds of Persia and beyond. women, many of them dancing, not Thus Nabataean art and architecture only in the intimacy of the baths but in displayed mainly Hellenistic traits, but prominent places in the audience with influences from the other cultures chamber (Fig. 10). Fruit such as as well. started showing an pomegranates and grapes, acanthus Above, top to bottom: interest in the area from 64 BC when leaves and other luxuriant vegetation, Fig. 7. Gadara, recently excavated forum area seen from the created the Province of Syria to representations of three of the Muses, entrance area with octagonal building in foreground. the north. In AD 106, finally scenes of hunting and of artisans Fig. 8. Gadara, courtyard with possible latrines. Fig. 9. Qasr al-Kharana. annexed the kingdom of Nabataea and working, depictions of the Three Ages Fig. 10. Qasr Amra, of dancing girl. turned it into the Province of Arabia. of Man and of the signs of the Zodiac, Photos: Fig. 7 © Tim Arnold; Figs. 8, 9 and 10, © Marigold Norbye. 5 Left to right: Fig. 11. Azrak Roman fort, courtyard with principia building to the left. Fig. 12. Umm al-Jimal, corbelling (to the right of the picture) on the house opposite the Nabataean temple. Fig. 13. Umm al-Jimal, house XVIII with double-arched window. Photos: Figs. 11 and 13, © Marigold Norbye; Fig. 12 © Tim Arnold.

all suggest that the classical tradition was still strong in early and a small temple. There are a dozen or so churches, mainly Islamic art. Our leader Sam went as far as to contend that the dating from the fifth to seventh centuries, and more than a Umayyad period was an extension of late Antiquity, and that hundred houses, some with distinctive corbelling and the earthquake of AD 747 that devastated the area was as relieving arches above the door lintels (Fig. 12). Another instrumental as the new Islamic religion in destroying the notable architectural feature was interlocking corner stones. physical infrastructure of the old classical world. One grand house (number XVIII) boasts an elegant double- arched window and a functioning thick stone door that After this insight into the Umayyad world, we went back in rotates on its hinge (there was a similar door at the gate of time to the late-Roman period in the westernmost point of Azrak fort) (Fig. 13). Many of the buildings have sections of our tour, the oasis of Azrak, where there remains a well- their walls still standing, some at full height, others toppled preserved quadrangular Roman fort with rectangular towers, down, so that the full scale of the place is immediately visible heavily modified in the medieval period but still containing and the visitor has the impression of walking through a ghost recognisable Roman elements such as the HQ building town. Most striking is the fact that the buildings are made of (principia) (Fig. 11). In the late Roman period, it was probably the local black basalt typical of this area. Cisterns and taken over by Arab allies of Rome, as it does not appear in the waterways show how here, like elsewhere, a functioning Notitia Dignitatum that listed the administrative organisation water infrastructure was essential for the survival of towns of the Empire in the early fifth century. In more recent history, and villages: the disruption of water works by earthquakes its claim to fame is that Lawrence of Arabia used it as his base was a primary cause of the abandonment of places like this briefly in 1917 and again in early 1918. In the old store room, in the mid-eighth century. next to the , there is a collection of inscriptions and carved stonework from the Roman period. Umm al-Jimal is also notable for two important inscriptions relating to its Nabataean culture: an 'altar' inscribed in The day finished in another military outpost, Umm al-Jimal, honour of Dushara, a powerful god associated with Zeus and originally a Nabataean village from probably the first century Dionysus, and part of a tomb inscription which is a valuable AD. The village was fortified by the Romans, and further witness of the transition of Nabataean script to an strengthened in the fourth and fifth centuries – when it stood style and of the rise in power of the Tanukh, a confederacy of on the Arabian border (Limes Arabicus) – by the adjunction of Arab tribes whom the Romans enlisted as part of their frontier a major castellum (fort) covering c.2.5 acres and equipped forces. Unfortunately, both inscriptions have recently suffered with corner towers and four gates, three of them with towers. damage due to a lack of protection of the site. In an ideal The town grew with the military occupation, so there remain world, there would be some restoration work to shore up parts of some impressive buildings such as a possible some of the walls that are threatening to collapse. With such praetorium, later remodelled as a fine domestic residence, a large site, this would be a huge undertaking.

Left: Fig. 14. Madaba, Roman street. Centre: Fig. 15. Madaba, Byzantine mosaics in situ, clockwise from top left: personifications of the cities of Rome, Gregoria and Madaba; detail from a hunting scene border; the Hippolytus . Right: Fig. 16. St Lot's Church, mosaic floor. Photos: Figs. 14 and 16, © Marigold Norbye; Fig. 15 © Nich Hogben. 6 Left to right: Fig. 17. Mukawir (Machaerus), Herodian fortress. Fig. 18. Mukawir, a Roman camp on the of a nearby hill. Fig. 19. Mukawir, remains of a Roman siege ramp in the foreground, with the Roman camp in the middle background. Photos: © Nich Hogben.

The fourth day was dedicated to places with more Biblical The fifth and sixth days were devoted to the famous associations. Like John Bithell, we admired the famous mosaic 'Rose‑Red City' of Petra, and despite two exhaustive – and map of the Holy Land in the church of St George at Madaba. exhausting! – days there, we could have spent even more We then had the opportunity to visit the new Archaeological time there, such were the riches on offer. Like John, we walked Park in Madaba, built around the remains of the Roman high down the narrow defile of the Siq and duly admired the street (Fig. 14), containing various mosaics lifted from stunning Treasury at the end of it, also paying attention to Byzantine churches of the environs and a spectacular mosaic the less glamorous tombs recently excavated at its base representing the play Hippolytus by Euripides (unfortunately not open to visitors). Our party then split into found in a Byzantine mansion under a church alongside the two according to physical fitness; one group went with Elias street (Fig. 15). More fine Byzantine church mosaics were on to explore in detail the so-called Royal Tombs carved into the display on Mount Nebo (also on John's itinerary), and we too rock side at one end of the main town centre. We others faced admired the Roman milestone in the museum area as well as a steep ascent with Sam to a religious complex called the the view Moses was given of the Promised Land. Further High Place, where sacrifices were made, at the top of one of beautiful mosaics awaited us at the church of Saints Lot and the mountains (Jabal Madbah) surrounding the city. We were Procopius at Khirbet al-Mukhayyat, with animal and vegetal rewarded by spectacular views of the city and its encircling elements creating lively scenes (Fig. 16). mountains, and the amazing sight of two tall obelisks on a plateau; they are over six metres in height and, incredibly, We ended up at the fort of Mukawir (ancient Machaerus) on were created by carving away the mountain top (Fig. 20). top of a hill 7km east of the Dead Sea (Fig. 17). The original The High Place itself consists of various platforms and basins fortress was built by a king of Judaea, and the client-king of which probably served as altars and pools for rituals (Fig. 21). Rome, Herod the Great (40–4 BC), turned it into a fortified We walked down the other side of the mountain through palace. His son later occupied it; it may be here fantastic rock formations in rich yellow, pink and ochre that he was seduced by his step-daughter Salome into giving colours into a river valley (the Wadi Farasa). On the way we her John the Baptist's head on a plate. During the First Jewish visited a group of buildings known as the Garden Temple Revolt (AD 66–73), the fort was taken over by Jewish zealots, complex, recently investigated by Stephan Schmid for the and the Romans built a series of camps on the surrounding Palestine Exploration Fund: in ancient times, it would have hills to encircle it. We stood in the fort and, with Sam's expert been irrigated and filled with vegetation. As John Bithell has guidance, were able to spot the traces of several Roman camp explained, the Nabataeans would hold banquets in special outlines on the hills (Figs. 18 and 19). The fort itself has deep halls (usually triclinia) near the rock tombs of their ancestors, casemate walls which may have contained John the Baptist's and this particular complex contained a temple, a tomb prison. There were also baths, and the remains of an aqueduct decorated by a headless bust of a figure wearing Roman along one side of the hill which provoked an engineering armour, and a triclinium carved into brilliantly coloured rock debate as to how the water feeding system operated in this (Fig. 22). Our route led us past other grand tombs back to the hilly landscape. town centre and the far end of its colonnaded main street

Left to right: Fig. 20. Petra, the High Place: obelisks carved from live rock. Fig. 21. Petra, the High Place. Fig. 22. Petra, triclinium in the Garden Temple complex, with Marigold Norbye for scale. Photos: Figs. 20 and 21, © Marigold Norbye; Fig. 22 © Tim Arnold. 7 Left to right: Fig. 23. Petra, the Great Temple complex and the Temenos Gate to the right. Fig. 24. Petra, Bryn Walters discussing the religious significance of red paint on a column in front of the theatre in the Great Temple complex. Fig. 25. Petra, ed-Deir, known as the 'Monastery'. Photos: Fig. 23 © Tim Arnold; Figs. 24 and 25, © Marigold Norbye. with the Qasr al-Bint temple, which we postponed visiting interpretations (also to be found on the web site of the until the next day. excavation), but the ARA experts still found plenty about which to speculate (Fig. 24). There is a small set of baths on the We joined the rest of our party for lunch and enjoyed the side of the complex. We eventually emerged back down into small museum nearby, with some fine fragments of sculpture the Colonnaded Street and went through the nearby Arched and Nabataean pottery. We then walked to a complex of Gate (also known as the Temenos Gate), with its elegant Byzantine churches on the hill above the main street, where Nabataean capitals and carvings of and animals. we saw more fine sculptures (mainly column capitals) and We continued to the end of the street and the large Qasr mosaics, and some unusual blue stone columns in a small al-Bint temple, popularly known as the Palace of the chapel nearby. Our path then took us towards the tall cliff face Pharaoh's daughter, built in a mainly Hellenistic style containing the spectacular Royal Tombs which part of our between 30 BC and AD 40. It is assumed to have been the party had seen in detail that morning. Just before we reached main temple of Petra, possibly dedicated to the god Dushara. the main series of tombs, we stopped at the tomb of Sextius Much of the edifice is still standing, with an impressive cella Florentinus, of Arabia c.AD 129, unusual in (main central room) divided into three adyta (inner cult that it was made for a Roman rather than a Nabataean. It had rooms inaccessible to the public). the interesting feature of three pediments one above the other, which made it look as if the artist was trying to create a Sam had stressed on several occasions that one characteristic foreshortened effect of several buildings placed one in front of the holy places we would be visiting was that they tended of the other. We saw a similar effect with two pediments on to be built on high places, closer to the heavens and the the Urn Tomb (one of the Royal Tombs) later on. deities. On the first day in Petra, those of us physically able to do so had trudged up narrow paths carved up the rock On the second day, we started off looking at the Urn Tomb in to the High Place, wondering as we puffed along how the detail before wending our way down the cliff face and Nabataeans had had the stamina to process up such a steep walking along the main street, known as the Colonnaded mountain side in full ceremonial garb, carrying religious Street. After a brief stop at the small nymphaeum, we spent a paraphernalia and pulling along animals destined for long time in the so-called Great Temple, a large building sacrifice. In the afternoon of the second day, we were doing complex whose exact functions are unclear. The entire it again: hiking up to another holy place, the ed-Deir, known complex is partially built into the side of a hill overlooking the as the Monastery because Christian crosses were later carved main street (Fig. 23). Past several steps rising above the street in it (Fig. 25). Like the more famous Treasury, it is a huge and (the propylaeum), there is a large colonnaded courtyard (the impressive monument carved into the rock face, with lower temenos – a temenos is a sacred enclosure around a columns, a broken pediment topped by an urn, and a large temple), at the far end of which there is a further flight of inner chamber. From here one could climb a little bit further steps leading to the upper temenos, which has a little theatre up to a mountain top close by, on which are the remains of at its back, with a small temple constructed above the theatre. two small temples, and enjoy some breath-taking views of the The complex has been excavated by a team from Brown mountains and plains beyond Petra. It was a suitable climax to University which has provided useful diagrams and possible a fascinating visit to the Rose-Red City.

Left to right: Fig. 26. Beidha village. Fig. 27. Wadi Rum, Thamudic rock art. Fig. 28. Wadi Rum landscape. Photos: Figs. 26 and 27, © Marigold Norbye; Fig. 28 © Tim Arnold. 8 The next day, we followed John Bithell's footsteps into Little of holding a territory Petra, and like him, peered through a grille at the ceiling militarily. The paintings of the Painted Biclinium. It is a shame that they are crusaders built heavily not more visible, as they are exquisite when one looks at the fortified structures, details. A few hundred metres away, we visited the Beidha usually on top of a hill, Neolithic village, where the stone bases of houses still exist, which were virtually giving one an excellent impression of the layout and scale of impregnable. A fort these very early settlements (Fig. 26). We then leapt in time to like Lejjun on the a fortified crusader castle perched on the top of a hill: Shobak other hand, would (known to its founders as Mont Real), built by the king of not have been able to Jerusalem in 1115 as capital of his territory of Oultrejourdain withstand a siege in (lands beyond the Jordan). After this detour, we entered the the same way. This Fig. 29. Lejjun, North Gate. Photo: © Tim Arnold. desert of the Wadi Rum (made famous by Lawrence of tells us something Arabia) and exchanged our bus for open-backed jeep trucks. about the relations We visited a Nabataean temple dedicated to the goddess between the local Allat, made up of a rectangular podium with sixteen columns; population and the it is similar to the Kiosk of on Philae Island on the Romans: the legions Nile. The temple was expanded in the late first century AD, did not fear constant making it comparable to another Philae monument, the attacks from the Temple of Harendotes. After a short drive in the open desert, locals as the crusaders we reached a narrow gully in Jabal Khazali, a rocky outcrop, did. On the contrary, where we saw some rock art and inscriptions (Fig. 27). Our the Romans worked trucks then proceeded to carry us across the desert to the to keep the peace Abu Aina campsite where we ate and slept in tented luxury. so that the natives Fig. 30. Kerak, second-century relief of a Nabataean The experience of seeing the stars in a perfectly black and were happy for the cavalryman. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. still night, or the sun rising over the sand dunes and the Romans to protect fantastically shaped rocky pillars and outcrops, was special them against local troubles and insurrections. This may and moving (Fig. 28). help to explain why the Romans were able to hold their empire for so long: they worked with the local population The following morning, we picked up our coach again at and practiced a degree of assimilation, whereas the crusaders Wadi Rum village; four of our party who did not camp had built highly visible fortresses that acted as practical and overnighted in Aqaba and rejoined us here. We drove back symbolic reminders of their attempts to dominate the land, towards the main north-south highway, with an unplanned but never won the true cooperation of the indigenous people. stop at Rum railway station where the train buffs among us were excited to find a steam locomotive and some Kerak itself was impressive, but like John, I too will pass over from the old Hejaz railway. After that we sped northwards up its details, only pausing to point out the existence of a small the highway, which runs parallel to the old King's Highway of second-century AD bas-relief of a Nabataean warrior classical times, then headed inland to the Roman fort of embedded in one of its inner walls (Fig. 30). From there, we Lejjun in a bleak desert landscape. Its current Arab name still finally went down to the Dead Sea, which we had seen from recalls the presence of Roman legions. Elias, who had never a distance a few days before. After visiting the monastery been there before, at first expressed his amazement that we of St Lot (Deir 'Ain 'Abata) on a hill overlooking the valley, had driven one hour into the desert in order to visit a field of we drove along the coast, pausing briefly just after sunset rubble! Thanks to the explanations of Sam, Grahame, Bryn to look at the site of Callirrhoe, King Herod's favourite spa and Anthony, he did eventually concede that the site was on the Dead Sea. 'readable' if one only knew how to look at the stones and interpret them. Some areas were actually quite well On our final full day, we went to Bethany beyond the Jordan, preserved, such as the North Gate which was still partly which John Bithell has already described; the building of standing (Fig. 29). In the central crossroads, the bases of a modern churches continues unabated. Afterwards, we were large quadrifrons (a four-faced monument with two pairs of supposed to go straight back to the hotel and luxuriate in arches at right angles to each other) were clearly identifiable, the Dead Sea, but that was too soft an option for most of us, and Anthony had helpfully brought a sketch that helped us so Elias resourcefully arranged for the coach to take us up visualise it. The entire complex is extensive – one of the to the Dead Sea Panorama Complex, managed by the largest in the Eastern , 242 by 190 metres – Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, a high spot and still surrounded by remnants of its walls. It was overlooking the Dead Sea valley with stunning views and an constructed c.AD 300 by , may have held a garrison interesting little museum about the history and the ecology of 1,000 to 2,000 men at its peak, and was used for about of the Dead Sea, and the problems it is facing today (the sea two and a half centuries. One can still identify the two main is shrinking at a frightening rate, and preserving it and its high streets (via praetoria and via principalis), the principia local water supplies would entail close cooperation (HQ building) near the central crossroads, a cistern, a granary, between currently antagonistic nations). After all this, we a church, baths built alongside the north wall, and four finally condescended to play tourists and test the buoyant towers in the corners of the enclosure. waters of the Dead Sea; the end of the day culminated in a spectacular sunset over the sea where Nature provided a As we drove on to our next destination, another crusader suitably dazzling finale to what had been a most fascinating castle, at Kerak this time, Sam made some interesting and intellectually stimulating tour. comparisons between the Roman and the crusader methods Marigold Norbye. 9 Rescue, the British Archaeological Trust – still campaigning after 40 years

Rescue was founded in 1971 following The system that actually discussions amongst a group of active developed in the 1970s archaeologists with a launch meeting at was more piecemeal then Senate House, London (attended by the campaigners had over 700 people including yours truly as hoped, but various trusts an enquiring undergraduate). It was a and some urban and response to the huge amount of county-based units development damage in the late 1960s, emerged with the support and the realisation after monitoring of the Department of the new roads, particularly the M5 in Environment (formerly Somerset and Gloucestershire, that Ministry of Public Building there was far more archaeology out and Works, subsequently there than had previously been hived off as English recorded – and it was rapidly Heritage in the 1980s). In disappearing. The M5 project began order to excavate before with a single archaeological site sites were destroyed, the The distinctive Rescue 'Stonehenge' image, used on the cover of Rescue recorded on the route and showed that local archaeological units Archaeology and on Rescue's website. Courtesy of Rescue. in practice some two sites per mile were took advantage of every affected by 100 miles of roadworks. government scheme on offer that developer contribution process on big, This included a string of Roman rural provided cheap labour (such as the often Roman-period sites in the City – settlements, including many on Manpower Services Commission's but there could still be problems, for claylands previously thought to be Youth Opportunities Programme (YOP) example when the timber floor of a unoccupied until the medieval period. and Youth Training Scheme (YTS)). This Roman warehouse was discovered at left something of a gap in the post- Park Street, Southwark in 1988, on a Rescue's early campaigning was about excavation and publication process but council house development which had the need for a national structure to deal introduced archaeology to a very varied no in-built profit available for the with archaeology locally, for a funded group of mainly young people, some of archaeology. Similarly, Roman and early system that could dig the sites and whom have remained in the profession. medieval York saw some hugely landscapes that were under threat successful major excavations but also and could maintain a record of all Alongside the field work, the systems unprotected and unfunded crises such archaeological survey work, and for an of recording what was known locally as at the Queen's Hotel site in 1989. extension to the legislation protecting evolved into the county Sites and archaeology. In 1974 Philip Rahtz edited Monuments Records (SMRs, now The loudest public uproar was over Rescue Archaeology1 which summarised frequently expanded and re-branded as the discovery of the Rose Theatre in the status quo, the scale of the problem Historic Environment Records, HERs). Southwark in 1989 where an and the new projects developing as These brought together the national agreement to fund full investigation a result of Rescue's efforts. One of records, particularly the Ordnance was cancelled by a subsequent buyer, Rescue's current projects to mark our 40 Survey and information from local leading to dramatic media pictures of years is the preparation of a new book museums about the source of objects actors visiting the site and deploring its to follow up the themes of that book. in their collections. destruction. This gave English Heritage some help in negotiating the first During the 1980s Planning Guidance for Archaeology it became (PPG 16) with the government in 1990 increasingly clear which clarified a presumption in favour that there had to of preservation in situ for nationally be an obligation important sites and established the on the developer process of 'preservation by record', both to allow i.e. excavation and publication where archaeological sites were destroyed, with the work to take developer funding the work place (which (the 'polluter pays' principle). began to be established Just under two years ago PPG 16 and through the PPG 15 (which dealt with the built planning system) historic environment) were revised and, more and combined into Planning Policy controversially, Statement 5 (PPS 5, March 2010), to pay for it. apparently re-affirming the place of London saw the past as a planning consideration,

Fig. 1. Tony Robinson talks to the press in the theatre for the Rescue the successful putting the HERs at the centre of the campaign to stop the ploughing of much of the town. Photo: © Jude Plouviez. evolution of the process for assessing impacts on sites 10 and buildings, and making the point there are still scheduled sites being archaeological obligations by buying in that heritage can be a productive destroyed by the plough, only stabilised advice, probably from a neighbouring element of development. when owners can be persuaded by council. Various councils are looking to agricultural grants to change their use. external companies to both maintain Suggestions that Rescue is no longer the HER and provide planning advice. needed and that there is no 'rescue' Another kind of loss of archaeological element in modern archaeology seem knowledge in the 1980s was More inconspicuously staff numbers a little premature today. The only highlighted by the looting of a set of are being cut, so that even in substantial legislation that protects our heritage temple bronzes from Icklingham, counties the HER and planning roles are (other than scheduled monuments and Suffolk (Fig. 2) which reappeared in a being merged; inevitably, the demands listed buildings) is European; in Britain gallery in New York in 1989. Rescue of planning deadlines mean that this is applied through the planning publicised the case and arranged a maintenance of the HER, the key data process backed by government advice meeting at Westminster to campaign on which all decisions have to be based, in the form of PPS 5 – but soon to be for Britain to ratify the 1970 UNESCO will take a back seat. And the local and replaced by the simplified National convention on illegally exported academic researcher will increasingly Planning Policy Framework, the draft of cultural property, something that become dependent on the online which caused consternation in many was finally achieved in 2002. version of the HER rather than being areas of society (including the National able to interrogate the original and the Rescue continues to state the Trust and the Daily Telegraph) when it people who understand its biases. inconvenient in defence of the appeared in July 2011. archaeology – we remain unhappy with The output areas are also in disarray – A major problem is a stated the competitive element in the present museums are also being squeezed by presumption in favour of development system where many developers favour local councils. Either they lose curators, (described as 'sustainable development' the cheapest organisation over the and thus knowledge of their collections without a clear definition of what this more innovative or better researched (for example last year the Museum means). Rescue's assessment of the proposals. Competitive tendering of London replaced two highly document is that it threatens to slow controlled by the developer will always experienced curators of prehistoric development because of the lack of tend towards lower standards, and the and Roman London with one new clarity about the process for only counterweight is provided by incumbent), or close, making their archaeology, leading inevitably to the archaeologist employed in local collections inaccessible for research planning appeals, and that it weakens government to advise on whether (for example, in 2012 Malton Museum the provision in PPS 5. There is still a case the planning condition is being met may lose its current premises and for better legislation if only to protect adequately. Carmarthenshire Museum is being the status quo, but it seems very unlikely considered for closure). As local government is forced to save to be achieved in the near future. ever more cash, the number of Rescue has been monitoring and Even our scheduled sites are not well- archaeologists to monitor and press for mapping cuts to all aspects of protected – it took many years of better standards of work is declining. archaeology in the last year, with an campaigning by Rescue and local Some of the urban unitary councils online map showing what is going on archaeologists to stop the destruction believe they can dispense with directly (https://rescue.crowdmap.com/main). of large parts of Roman Verulamium by employed archaeologists – for example, We try to respond where we can, and continued ploughing (Fig. 1), finally Sandwell (in the West Midlands) encourage our members and others to achieved for this site in 2003. Elsewhere recently suggested that it could fulfil its let us know if there are threats to the archaeological provision in a local area. Rescue is only as strong as its membership, and the voluntary council members, can make it. We get no regular grant support from government or other bodies, and so have the freedom to comment within the limits of our status as a charity. Members receive three issues of Rescue News a year; subscription rates remain very reasonable at £15 per annum (£8 senior citizens and students). Full details and an online subscription form can be found at http://rescue-archaeology.org.uk/ membership.

Jude Plouviez.

1 Penguin Books Ltd (a Pelican Original), ISBN 0140214860. 2 The plight of Verulamium was discussed Fig. 2. The looted Icklingham temple bronzes, anonymously photographed in 1984. Courtesy of Rescue. by Martin Henig in ARA 9, pp7–9. 11 lyre. The 3 in x 6 in (8 cm x 15 cm) knife excavations that took place at the Anthony Beeson's was excavated from the Mediterranean corner of Baring Street and Fort Street, area more than 20 years ago and was South Shields. The excavation also Archaeological obtained by the museum in 1991. uncovered a stone building that suggests that the civilian settlement Round‑up With the exception of the knife blade, was still a going concern in the late- the tool was made entirely out of Roman period, when it is commonly sometime between AD 200 and AD 300. believed that most civilian settlements A ROMAN EXAMPLE OF THE Roman folding knives are not rare, but outside forts in the north of England 'SWISS ARMY KNIFE' most of them are made out of bronze had failed. "The discovery fits in with and have fewer parts. This is a deluxe other indications that at South Shields The iconic, multifunctional Schweizer version, and so probably belonged to the old picture of things going to Offiziersmesser (Swiss Officer's knife, or a wealthy person who travelled a lot, wrack and ruin by the 4th century is commonly, Swiss Army Knife) like a merchant or army officer. originated in Ibach Schwyz, Switzerland not quite true". in 1897. The tool has attachments The term 'Swiss Army Knife' was coined The Journal – 22. 10. 2011 stowed inside the handle of the knife by American soldiers after the Second Shields Gazette – 25. 10. 2012 through a pivot point mechanism. This who bought them in great of course is based upon the pivotal numbers but had difficulty in pronouncing the name 'Offiziersmesser'. EXCAVATIONS AT LOWER knife that has a long history. BORROWBRIDGE ROMAN FORT Daily Telegraph – 18. 11. 2010 Now it seems that as in many things AT TEBAY, CUMBRIA the Romans had thought of the idea almost two thousand years before. Members of the Lunesdale Archaeology The Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, LATE ROMAN CAMPANIAN Society gained permission from the visited by ARA members in June 2011, AMPHORA DISCOVERED AT Secretary of State to excavate a recently reopened its Greek and Roman ROMAN FORT'S VICUS scheduled area to the south of the fort Gallery following renovation. One of the at Lower Borrowbridge Farm, close to most interesting exhibits is a remarkable Excavations in the civilian settlement the M6 in the Tebay gorge, Cumbria, folding and multi-purpose tool (Fig. 1). outside of the fort of Arbeia, South where it is believed a bath‑house once Shields have discovered most of a metre stood. The building would have been The latter seems to have been designed high amphora that was imported used by Roman soldiers stationed at the especially for a wealthy traveller, and into the region between AD 250 to fort, the remains of which survive as a features a knife, a spoon, a three-tined AD 350. Nick Hodgson of Arbeia, and turf-covered platform with some fork, a spike, a pierced leaf-shaped pick project manager for Tyne and Wear surviving facing stones perched above and a spatula. The spike could have been Archives and Museums has been the confluence of Borrowdale Beck with used as a device for extracting snails quoted as describing the find as the River Lune. The valley name from their shells, and the pick may have "spectacular and significant" He said: Borrowdale means 'fort stream' but the been a toothpick or for nail cleaning. "What is special about this is it can be Roman name of the fort is unknown. The spatula may have helped pull stuck together to see what it originally In 1946 a Roman cavalry tombstone ointments or cosmetics out of narrow- looked like. Containers like this were was found re-used in a culvert about a necked bottles. The elegant fork has an used for bulk transportation. This is very mile south of the fort. elaborate trident-like head. Forks are significant because it is of a rather often said not to have existed in Roman The new excavation has exposed walls, unusual late Roman type, which only times, but examples do exist in museums foundations and traces of a hypocaust. started being imported from AD 250". throughout the world showing that in Pottery coins and a ballista bolt were wealthy circles at least they were well- The discovery shows that there was amongst the small finds. The week-long known. The handle of the knife, into still a taste for Mediterranean wine in dig also raised new questions about the which the tools fold, is pierced and has the area and that the inhabitants were original use of this building that had the general shape of a kithara or concert not content with imbibing only British been thought to be a bath-house. Site and local director Joseph Jackson said: "In the beer. The clay of the past the site has been designated as a amphora contains potential bath-house. We're still unsure volcanic rock and it of that but it is certainly a building of is believed to have importance." originated in the The structure was first sampled in an Campanian region excavation conducted in 1883 by the of , and Cumberland and Westmorland presumably was Antiquarian and Archaeological Society. imported by sea to This was followed again in 1975–6 by a the coastal fort and rescue excavation on another section vicus of Arbeia. of the building. Other pieces of similar amphora http://www.britarch.ac.uk/lahs/Contrebis/3-76-Anstee.pdf were found in a http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england- Fig. 1. The Roman 'Swiss Army Knife': a folding eating implement, with a cumbria-14362255 three‑pronged fork, spatula, pick, spike and knife (AD 200–300). Roman roadside http://www.roman-britain.org/epigraphy/rib_borders. Photo © The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. ditch during the htm#lowborrowbridge 12 CORINIUM'S EARLY ROMAN After conservation it is hoped that the CEMETERY GIVES UP ITS DEAD finds, which include an exceedingly important enamelled cockerel figure An excavation conducted by Cotswold (Fig. 2, and see below), a fragmentary Archaeology at the former Bridges pottery tettine (feeding bottle) and two Garage on Tetbury Road at Cirencester, bracelets, will be exhibited at the town's Gloucestershire, has uncovered up to 60 . One of the bracelets, burials and four cremations at one of the made of green glass beads, jet beads, earliest cemeteries ever found in Roman shale and alloy was found still Britain. The site lay outside the circuit of attached to the wrist of a skeleton. the town walls and conformed to Roman http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england- law that forbade burial within towns. gloucestershire-15759443 http://www.wiltsglosstandard.co.uk/news/9367600. Neil Holbrook, chief executive at Significant_Roman_cemetery_uncovered_ by_builders_in_Cirencester/?ref=rss Cotswold Archaeology, said he could not overestimate the potential significance of the discovery. The team THE CIRENCESTER COCKEREL are particularly excited by the discovery of a child's grave containing a pottery The most visually exciting find at the flagon, which could date to the early former Bridges Garage site is a cockerel Roman period, between AD 70 and 120. statuette, found in a child's grave. The If the near-perfect flagon was new and striking figure is made of bronze or a Fig. 2. The Cirencester cockerel. not an antique when it was buried similar cast copper alloy, is around © Cotswold Archaeology. along with the child, and if the burial 125mm in height and is believed to could be dated to this early period then date from the second century AD. objects, ranging from brooches, cult it could "challenge the current belief Although still awaiting conservation and votive objects to decorative items. amongst archaeologists" that and caked in earth, it is possible to see Loving the play of colour, the Iron Age inhumation burials were not common details of the beautiful enamelled inhabitants of Britain developed their practice until the later Roman period. decoration. The breast is covered with own form of the craft. It was at first not It is hoped that close dating of other a diagonal chequerwork of white and true enamelling in the usual sense of burials will be possible, so as to solve possibly blue, whilst the cockerel's the word, as the glass was only heated this conundrum. A large number of the wings, eyes and probably the comb are until it became a malleable paste inhumations were in shallow graves also inlaid with enamel that appears to before being pushed into place. This within a marked enclosure, which could be green and blue. The tail feathers technique is often called 'sealing-wax have belonged to a single family. The may be represented by a separate enamelling', and may be more truly flagon, which was likely to have been plate and be fanned, but until the described as 'glass inlay'. made in nearby Purton, was found in earth is properly removed it is The Greek sophist Philostratus III the child's grave within this enclosure. difficult to be certain. gives us the first literary reference to The excavation continues one carried The cockerel is depicted in the act of enamelling in pre-. In out in the 1960s before the construction crowing, perhaps a symbol of awaking describing decorated horse harnesses of the garage during the great period of for the dead. In the spring the cock was of the he says "It is said that the annual excavations at Cirencester. This associated with Persephone and the barbarians in the Ocean pour these disclosed 46 cremations, six burials and renewal of life, and it was also a gift that colours on heated bronze and that they part of an inscribed tombstone dating an older man gave to a youth that he adhere, become as hard as stone and from the first to third century. Project desired. Its early crow was said to preserve the designs that are made on manager for Cotswold Archaeology, shatter and confuse the evil demons them" Philostratus III Icones (Book I, 28). Cliff Bateman, said: "It is amazing that of the night. The cock was a companion The true technique of enamelling, so much archaeology has survived of the god (Hermes) who was where glass paste is spread into cells the comprehensive building works." often considered to be the conductor and fired until it liquefies, is believed to When Bridges Garage was first built of the dead to Hades. A god of have been introduced by the Romans on the site in 1961, local archaeologist commerce, he appears to have been into Britain. The study of its production Richard Reece managed to salvage 46 particularly popular in the wealthy in Britannia is still really in its infancy, Roman cremations and six inhumations town of Corinium. Although the bird but deserves much attention. before work was completed. may simply have been a toy or favourite This exciting addition to the corpus of possession of the child with whom it "We didn't know how comprehensive enamelled objects from Britannia is was buried, it was placed close to the the works of the 1960s would have now awaiting cleaning and child's head, as if to awaken the sleeper. been and how much the massive fuel conservation. The compacted earth tanks would have damaged the A similar cockerel is known from Roman needs to be removed from it and the surviving archaeology," Mr Bateman Cologne. Although there are minor enamel has to be stabilised. No doubt it said. "There was nothing to suggest differences in the enamel colours and will then become a prized exhibit in the that there would be so many burials. the tail is missing, it is almost certainly Corinium Museum at Cirencester. It's only when we excavated a third of a product of the same Romano-British http://www.cotswoldarchaeology.co.uk/beautiful-enamelled- cockerel-found-in-roman-child%E2%80%99s-grave/ the site that we discovered a ditch and atelier. Roman Britain seems to have http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england- immediately on the other side we been particularly important in the gloucestershire-16198947 found four cremations." production and export of enamelled Wiltshire and Gloucestershire Standard – 23. 12. 2011 13 Land of Eagles: Journeys in Roman Albania

Shqipëria – 'Land of Eagles': this is how crime have long overshadowed any completely abandoned. should native refer to their elusive mention of its world-class heritage sites. perhaps be more positively associated and for a long time impenetrable In the last few years Albania has with the impressive fortress that stands nation. Despite lying only 70km across emerged from the darkness of its self- at its heart (Fig. 1). Most of what you see the Adriatic Sea from the boot of Italy, imposed isolation, finally eager to share dates from the Ottoman period, but Albania is still cited by many as one of its undiscovered treasures with the Roman masonry is visible at the south- 's last remaining frontiers. world. And the consensus is they won't west corner. The formidable walls now Decades of communist rule, harsh stay undiscovered for long. As my guide enclose only a restaurant and garden, totalitarian government and recent civil said to me upon my arrival, "you have but the lofty towers and battlements unrest have ensured few visitors to the come at just the right time". are well worth exploring – though as is country over the years and imbued its the way in Albania, don't expect much mountainous lands with a sense of My tour of Albania, a country in the way of safety rails. Broken mystery. Persistent whispers telling of comparable in size to , began inscriptions and carved stonework lie blood-feuds and rampant organised and ended in the capital city ; strewn around the fortress interior home to a third of the nation's three (Fig. 2), just a hint of the stronghold's million inhabitants. No doubt many ancient significance. visitors arrive expecting a featureless, grey, communist sprawl but Tirana is a Continuing east along the route of modern, colourful city with scenic parks the Via Egnatia I passed briefly over and bustling boulevards. The centrally the border into the former Yugoslav located National Museum is a good way Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) in to start or finish a visit to the country order to explore the banks of Lake and houses an excellent selection of . A World Heritage Site, artefacts, statuary and mosaics from the is the deepest lake in the and nation's many ancient sites. At the time divides its shoreline between Albania of my visit the building, recognisable by and FYROM. At the northern end of the the enormous communist mosaic on lake lies the city of Ohrid (ancient Fig. 1. The walls of Elbasan's fortress. the facade, was surrounded by a sea of Lychidnus): renowned for its selection of Photo: © Gareth Harney. roadworks, yet it remained open and early Christian churches, it also boasts staff will happily supply an English- some impressive Roman remains. The speaking guide. Hellenistic theatre predates Roman occupation of the region and, as was The Via Egnatia, one of the great roads customary, incorporates its seating into of the Roman world, began at the the natural contours of the hillside. The coastal city of Dyrrachium and stretched theatre underwent later modifications, almost 700 miles eastward to with the first few rows of seating being Byzantium. Striking south-east from stripped away, perhaps so that it could Tirana, my first ancient site was the city host beast fights and gladiatorial of Elbasan, once an important stop on contests (Fig. 3). Further up the hill is the the Via Egnatia. Affectionately extensive Plaosnik archaeological area. nicknamed the 'belly button of Albania', Ongoing excavations around the

Fig. 2. Inscription fragments inside the fortress. this historic city expanded greatly monastery here have uncovered early Photo: © Gareth Harney. during the communist era when it Christian basilicas, built atop Roman housed an enormous steelworks, now residential buildings (Fig. 4).

From Lake Ohrid I journeyed south towards the Ionian Coast, through the historic city of Korça, the highland town of Përmeti and the ancient mountain fortress of Gjirokastra. The temperatures soared as the azure waters of the Ionian Sea finally came into view and awaiting me at the coast was perhaps Fig. 4. Excavations around St Pantelejmon monastery, Ohrid. Albania's most famous Fig. 3. Roman theatre in Ohrid. Photo: © Gareth Harney. Photo: © Gareth Harney. archaeological site. 14 Fig. 5. Walls of the Sanctuary of Asclepius, . Fig. 6. Fountain and the treasury building. Photo: © Gareth Harney. Photo: © Gareth Harney. Butrint1 (ancient Buthrotum) is situated habitation by successive colonies: on the far south coast of Albania, close Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and to the Greek border in what was once Venetian. Luckily there are regular the land of ; just a few kilometres signs in English to help visitors piece across the water (and an easy day trip) the puzzles of the site together. The from Corfu. The Roman colony nestles itinerary wastes no time in bringing on a land-tied island at the edge of the you to the monumental heart of the Fig. 7. Manumission inscriptions on the theatre walls. large and wonderfully scenic coastal ancient city. A short, leafy walk from Photo: © Gareth Harney. lake of the same name. Though there is the entrance and you are confronted the manumission of slaves (Fig. 7) that evidence for Iron Age occupation of the by the imposing remains of the were formally registered under the site, the legend of the city's founding is Sanctuary of Asclepius, a grand public auspices of the League of Epirus and described by none other than Virgil, space dominated by the Hellenistic then of the Prasaiboi, the local people; who recounts how Trojan hero Helenus theatre. As you approach, the path they date from the second and early sacrificed an ox on the site; the animal follows the course of the Hellenistic first centuries BC. The theatre dates to fell into the lake but managed to swim wall that surrounded the city, a good the third century BC and once sat to the shore where it finally died. opportunity to appreciate the around 1,500 spectators (Fig. 8). Helenus built a city on the auspicious intimidating size of the blocks and During excavations in the 1930s, a spot and called it Buthrotos, meaning precise masonry work (Fig. 5). Passing selection of fine marble sculptures "the wounded ox" (Aeneid, Book III). through an archway, you cross a bridge were discovered around the stage, Romantic as this tale may be, in reality to the theatre: the whole area is now some of which can be seen in the site's the city's strategic location was a serene, green pond. Here at the museum. The temple of Asclepius from probably more of a factor in its beginning of the visit is evidence of which the complex takes its name founding. Its natural inland harbour, why the city declined; tectonic shifts would have stood proudly above the shielded from Mediterranean storms in the Roman period raised the water rear of the theatre but today its by nearby Corfu, could not have been table and caused persistent flooding. remnants have been swallowed by the better chosen. As you pass a small fountain and the surrounding trees. Carrying on through treasury building (Fig. 6), remember the Roman-era scenae (stage building) The remains now on display at Butrint that they all once occupied dry land. the route passes one of the many represent many levels of occupation public baths identified in the city, from two thousand years of continuous Upon entering the theatre through the though its location undoubtedly 1 Oliver Gilkes gave a presentation on his parados, look again at the retaining wall makes this one of the most prestigious; excavations at Butrint at the 2003 ARA at your side. The entire wall is covered in a hot room with pools and raised Symposium (see ARA 16, p19). fine Greek inscriptions, declarations of hypocaust floor are visible (Fig. 9).

Fig. 8. Butrint, Roman theatre. Photo: © Gareth Harney. Fig. 9. Caldarium of the central bath-house. Photo: © Gareth Harney. 15 Continuing eastward, you pass the fifth century. It takes its name from its surprising remains of a large peristyle grand, three-sided dining room, the dwelling (Fig. 10). The location of the remnants of which are still visible. The building is surprising: directly adjoining immense palace even had its own both the theatre and forum, it is private harbour – no surprise, then, that connected to the former via a private a mosaic at its entrance speaks of an staircase. Such a property, it has been owner of senatorial rank. Nearby, some theorised, was likely used by priests impressive boat-houses and storerooms attending the cult of Asclepius and associated with the palace abut the other locally represented deities. coastline. Evidence suggests that the complex was not even finished when Adjacent to the building and at the end the rising water table forced the owner of an evocative ancient pathway there to abandon its construction. In the Fig. 10. Peristyle complex adjoining the theatre. stands an elegant, marble-clad well. , the ruins were reoccupied Photo: © Gareth Harney. There are deep grooves in the marble, by scattered domestic dwellings and worn by the continuous friction of also used for burials. An infant buried in ropes over the millennia (Fig. 11). The an amphora was found on the site, and path then passes through the remains the poignant remains are displayed in of the forum, discovered in 2005. A trio the museum (Fig. 13). of vaulted shrines (the central one known from inscriptions to have been Retracing your steps inland, the path dedicated to ) can be seen but, east will bring you to one of the most frustratingly, the vast majority of the iconic structures of Butrint, recognisable forum still lies under two metres of soil. from the covers of most guidebooks to Similarly, passing through the peaceful the site: the baptistery (Fig. 14). This woods to the south, it is difficult to incredible sixth-century building is one imagine that this whole area was once of the most architecturally elaborate of the centre of a bustling ancient city. the baptisteries of late antiquity, and demonstrates that the city became a The path emerges at a building, once vibrant focal point for early clad in sumptuous marble, known as following the fall of the Western Roman the 'gymnasium' (Fig. 12). This complex, Empire. Unfortunately the feature for dating to the early Roman period, is which the building is most famous, its constructed around an ornamental elaborate mosaic floor, is only

Fig. 11. Marble-clad well-head. Photo: © Gareth Harney. pool and fountain, which still has uncovered for the public on rare mosaics visible in its niches. Despite the occasions. It depicts vividly a wide name, the building's function is highly variety of early Christian symbols: contentious; Oliver Gilkes thinks it more peacocks stand at the entrance, while likely that it is a part of a shrine to the a plethora of other animals dance in east of the forum. concentric circles around the central baptismal pool. This was no doubt one One of Butrint's most interesting of the most luxurious baptisteries in the structures lies nearby on the southern Empire – extant plumbing even shows coast of the peninsula. The Triconch that the baptismal waters supplying Palace began life as a large but the pool were heated, in keeping with conventional house in the early Roman the ornate surroundings. era but was greatly expanded in the Continuing the Christian theme, a Fig. 12. View of the 'gymnasium'. Photo: © Gareth Harney. short amble uphill brings you to the Great . This most impressive structure dates to the same era as the baptistery. The three-aisled basilica, which survives up to roof height, illustrates clearly the evolutionary progression from the basilica of the Roman world, with its central

Fig. 13. Infant burial from the Triconch Palace. nave and high Photo: © Gareth Harney. Fig. 14. The baptistery, Butrint. Photo: © Gareth Harney. colonnades (Fig. 15). 16 Fig. 16. The Roman nymphaeum. Photo: © Gareth Harney.

Fig. 15. Interior of the Great Basilica. Photo: © Gareth Harney. The Great Basilica may grab the course of the wall. This equally attention but do not overlook the impressive gateway of the same era exquisite remains of the Roman takes its name from the worn lintel nymphaeum opposite. Marble overlay is carving of a lion battling a bull (Fig. 18). still present at ground level, and there Passing through, you will find yourself are niches for statues of Dionysus and at a Roman well-head known as the Well Apollo (Fig. 16). Part of the Augustan- of Junia Rufina. A Greek inscription on era aqueduct system that supplied the the marble balustrade shows it was city, this is one of numerous structures dedicated by this local woman, who that celebrate water in the city. It is declares herself "friend of the nymphs". likely, given the Sanctuary to Asclepius, The faintly visible paintings of peacocks that by Roman times Butrint had above the well were a later Christian Fig. 17. The 'Scaean' Gate. Photo: © Gareth Harney. developed into a spa town with a addition. The steps now up to the reputation for healing waters; in turn, acropolis, where the site's wonderful this may have led to it becoming a museum is situated. Renovated in 2005, baptismal centre for early Christians. it houses many interesting finds from Excavations have shown that under the city including an impressive the Great Basilica lies another of the selection of inscriptions and statuary. city's Roman bath-houses. My journey through Albania continued A fine stretch of Hellenistic city wall north along the virgin beaches of the the visitor around the northern Ionian coast. From the resort of Saranda edge of the peninsula, providing a winding coastal road climbs gradually, wonderful views over the flat expanse taking in Ottoman castles along the of the Vrina Plain. Excavations have way, eventually reaching the heights shown that the Roman colony of the Llogara National Park, an alpine Fig. 18. The Lion Gate with relief carving on lintel. Photo: © Gareth Harney. expanded across the water, forming a wilderness with incredible views of the thriving suburb on the mainland to coastline. Julius Caesar passed through barracks, after antiquity the site was not which Butrint was connected by a this area in 48 BC route to besiege the built on. Future generations would be bridge; and temples have been Pompeian forces at the nearby ancient assured of a rich cultural prize if the site uncovered and discoveries are ongoing. city of Oricum. I instead went north, to was more fully excavated. Nevertheless, the ruins of another city, . what is on show is well worth seeing Following the mammoth ancient wall and speaks of a city every bit as you will soon come to the Hellenistic Cicero, one of Apollonia's many famous important as Cicero described. Lake Gate (Fig. 17). Often associated visitors, described it in one immortal with the 'Scaean Gate' that Aeneas line: magna urbs et gravis – a great and Founded by Greek colonists and passes through in Virgil's Aeneid, this important city. The vast majority of the developed into a key port, Apollonia fourth-century BC gateway, built greatness Cicero described still lies was lauded in the annals of history. without mortar, is one of six that unexcavated; this has led to the site Aristotle praised its oligarchic system of allowed entrance to the Hellenistic city. being nicknamed the 'Pompeii of rule, whereby a small number of Another, known as the Lion Gate, lies a Albania'. Aside from the Byzantine ruled peacefully over the native few hundred yards further along the monastery and some communist-era populace. Similarly, Roman geographer 17 describes it as "an exceedingly Visits start at the Monastery of St Mary, worthies and gods, found during the well governed city". Clearly, ancient which functions as the site's museum. 1920s excavations. Apollonia was doing something right. This is somewhat appropriate as the It was also an important centre for building itself is built almost entirely At the other end, the recently excavated philosophy and education: Octavian out of stone scavenged from the foundations of a temple and a came here to study, and it was here that surrounding ruins. Look out for a reconstructed archway can be seen. he learnt of Julius Caesar's assassination. marble lion's head and floral architraves From here a path runs north-west to a reused as masonry by the entrance, and hillside that gives expansive views over a well-head in the forecourt fashioned the landscape. Bunkers sit like concrete from a cross-section of a huge Roman mushrooms in the middle distance and column (Fig. 19). On display are some it is possible to make out the remains of fine examples of sculpture and statuary a partially uncovered bath-house found during excavations; Apollonia is nearby. Yet if you look again at the being explored by an Albanian-French hillside you stand on, with its distinctive team and a German expedition. concave shape, you realise it is the city's Apollonia has been explored and ancient theatre, lying unexcavated. excavated by the French for more Only some partially exposed columns than 80 years. and rubble in the orchestra area betray the ancient structure's presence. A large-scale map outside the museum

Fig. 19. Roman column adapted into well head, Apollonia illustrates the size of the city, with vast As you return to the entrance, continue Museum. Photo: © Gareth Harney. swathes remaining blank and past the museum and look down the unexcavated. The most logical route slope at a wonderful, partially around the visible remains takes you excavated peristyle villa with a large across the parched grassy landscape water feature (Fig. 23). The corridors are straight to the monumental centre of bedecked with mosaics, although the city. The impressive facade of the frustratingly these are gravelled over. Roman-era bouleuterion is the postcard An adjacent aqueduct channel supplied image of Apollonia (Fig. 20). Its six water to the luxurious property. Corinthian columns and Greek I completed my visit to Apollonia by inscribed pediment have been walking the intact southern walls of the questionably restored with unflattering city, accessible down a rugged slope concrete, yet the enigmatic structure behind the restaurant. The walls are an remains majestic. In front are the interesting mix of Hellenistic and remains of a monumental gateway Roman brickwork and reach imposing leading to the elegant Roman odeon heights. Defensive towers can be opposite (Fig. 21). This small theatre identified, as well as a monumental could seat about 300 citizens for music outlet for the city's waste water channel Fig. 20. Facade of the bouleuterion. Photo: © Gareth Harney. and poetry recitals. It has the nicely (Fig. 24). Follow the line of the wall for a preserved side entrances and extensive few hundred yards and you can climb a Imperial-era brickwork. Stretching steep hill back into the site. Incidentally, north from the odeon are the clearly the landscape visible to the south is the recognisable remains of the Greek stoa site of the city's large necropolis in which – a colonnaded public walkway, many tumuli have been excavated. traditionally used by philosophers as a place to spread their ideas (Fig. 22). Apollonia is difficult to reach for those Along its length there are seventeen not using private transport and, like visible niches that held statues of local most of Albania's ancient sites, you will in all likelihood have the site more or less to yourself – a refreshing

Fig. 21. The Roman odeon. Photo: © Gareth Harney. experience in these days of mass tourism. Sadly, the site is not yet listed as a World Heritage Site, which equates to a lack of both funding and protection from development: currently a road- building scheme to improve access to the coast threatens Fig. 22. The Greek stoa. Photo: © Gareth Harney. Fig. 23. Partially excavated villa, Apollonia. Photo: © Gareth Harney. part of the site. 18 Fig. 24. Water outlet in Apollonia's city walls. Photo: © Gareth Harney. Fig. 25. Partially uncovered amphitheatre of Durrës. Photo: © Gareth Harney.

On my return journey north I stayed in currently sits at the top of a famous Hansen, IL, 2009, Hellenistic and Roman the World Heritage town of , with travel publication's list of 'must-see Butrint, Butrint Foundation. its distinctive Ottoman architecture and destinations'. Albania is a secret that Hodges, R, 2007, Roman Butrint, magnificent mountain-top fortress. can't be kept for much longer. I did Oxbow Books. indeed go at just the right time. Hodges, R, 2008, The Rise and Fall of The last ancient stop on my circular tour Byzantine Butrint, Butrint Foundation. around Albania was at Albania's Bibliography McAdam, M, 2009, Western Balkans, second-largest city, the bustling port of Bowden, W, and Hodges, R, (eds), 2011, Lonely Planet Publications. Durrës (ancient Dyrrachium). The city's Butrint 3: Excavations at the Triconch Archaeological Museum has an Palace, Oxbow. Mitchell, J, 2008, The Butrint Baptistery extensive collection of artefacts from and its Mosaics, Butrint Foundation. Condi, D, Butrint: History, Monuments all eras of Albania's history. Durrës is and Museum, Argjiro Publishing. Vickers, M, 2000, The Albanians: also home to the biggest Roman A Modern History, I.B. Tauris. amphitheatre in the Balkans, which Dimo, V, et al, 2007, Apollonia d'Illyrie : www.butrint.org is provided by the once sat around 20,000 spectators Tome 1, Atlas archéologique et historique, Butrint Foundation, with text from (Fig. 25). The monument has many Ecole Française de Rome. IL Hansen, R Hodges and others, and distinctive features, not least the Evans, A, 2007, Ancient : An includes an interactive map of Butrint: modern houses which still stand in the Archaeological Exploration, Oxbow Books. www.butrint.org/explore_6_1.php. middle of it! Only discovered in the late Gilkes, O, et al, 2009, Gjirokastra: The 1990s, the authorities have struggled to Essential Guide, Butrint Foundation. Gareth Harney. present and maintain the remains in a [email protected] Gilkes, O, (forthcoming, 2012), Albania: suitable fashion. My guide assured me An Archaeological Guide, I.B. Tauris. that deals have been struck with Editor's note: I would like to thank John residents and they will soon be moving Gloyer, G, 2008 (forthcoming, 2012), Wilkes and Oliver Gilkes, both of whom so that a full-scale excavation of the Albania, Bradt Travel Guides. provided advice in relation to this article. amphitheatre can begin. The site is still worth a visit: an exploration of the subterranean corridors reveals stonemason's marks inscribed on the marble steps, and a lovely mosaic- covered Byzantine chapel built into the amphitheatre's cavea (Fig. 26).

So ended my journey around the 'Land of Eagles'. Although my tour took in some of Albania's most impressive ancient sites, there are many more I did not reach: Antigonea, and Oricum to name but a few. Over the next few years, as the country continues to rapidly improve its infrastructure, more of its cultural sites will surely become available to visitors. Signs suggest the country is nearing a tipping point, when its undiscovered treasures will be embraced by western tourists en masse; auspiciously, it Fig. 26. Small Byzantine chapel built into the amphitheatre's cavea. Photo: © Gareth Harney. 19 Romans in Commagene

Romans in where? If I mention Zeugma astride an important trade route and their sons the two Caesars, you will correctly conclude eastern was therefore an acceptable trading and Geta – Geta's was presumably Turkey, in the upper reaches of the partner for both Romans and Parthians. removed after his murder and damnatio River Euphrates. Zeugma is the name Commagenian traders could travel by Caracalla. A fuller history of given by the Romans to the Greek city freely through the land of the Parthians Commagene can be found in two Seleucia. It was infamously lost to the and bring exotic spices from and recent books: a history and an excellent lake created by the Birecik Dam, but silk from China. Eventually to facilitate illustrated archaeological guide written many outstanding mosaics were Rome's war with Parthia, particularly by two archaeologists.1 saved in a massive rescue excavation. the campaigns of Septimius Severus, it Commagene was a Hellenistic kingdom became part of the of There are many sites in this part of that managed to stay more or less an Armenia. Tolls on trade were probably a Turkey of interest to any archaeologist. independent state until well into the major reason for the wealth of Zeugma. These include a ninth millennium BC Roman period. It may have survived by Neolithic site at Göbekli Tepe, which the playing off the Roman Empire against The war with the Parthians resulted in excavator believes to be the world's Armenia and Parthia, or because it sat Roman occupation in Commagene. oldest temple; Assyrian and Among many other Roman Neo-Hittite sites; gigantic propaganda relics, there are many Roman monuments by Hellenistic kings; and bridges on the army's supply the remains of perhaps the oldest routes built by order of Islamic university. But for ARA members Septimius Severus. Many are the greatest draw must be the mosaics now just a few broken arches, of Zeugma (there is also a splendid but one still stands, and collection of mosaics in the Hatay carried vehicular traffic until Museum in Antakya (), which a few years ago. This is the can and should be included in a tour). bridge at Cendere over the The Zeugma mosaics are now housed in River Chabinas, east of the the new Mosaic Museum at the nearby The Bridge of Septimius Severus at Cendere. A column on the far side, Euphrates. The main arch town of Gaziantep. This was opened in presumably for Geta, is missing. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. has a span of 34 metres. An September last year by the Prime inscription records that it was Minister of Turkey. It is claimed to be the built by Legio XVI Flavia Firma biggest mosaic museum in the world in AD 198/200, to replace a and exhibits over 1,500 square metres bridge built by Vespasian. The of mosaics, as well as archaeological inscription also records that it artefacts from Zeugma. It cost some was financed by the four cities £20m, which puts English government of Commagene. The bridge support for our heritage to shame. originally had four inscribed columns, one each for the Accounts of the international rescue , the empress, and excavations have perhaps been unfairly

Gaziantep Mosaic Museum: view from the upper gallery, to show a simulation of the interior of a Roman house. Photo: © Rebecca Newman.

Scene from the story of Queen Pasiphae and the bull: after King Minos fails to sacrifice the white bull sent to him by Poseidon, the god makes Queen Pasiphae (King Minos's wife) lust after the bull. The Frescoes from the Euphrates House identified as Achilles's lover Deidamia Queen (seen with her daughter Ariadne) through her wet-nurse instructs Daedalus and his son Icarus (left) and Penelope (right). Gaziantep Mosaic Museum. to make a wooden cow, with the intention of climbing inside it so the white bull will copulate with her. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. She thus begot the Minotaur. The Labyrinth is visible in the background. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. 20 critical of the Turkish government. note. We saw on our tour that Before deciding to construct the dam the dam has benefited the the Turkish government, perhaps region. It has helped to foster prompted by the excavations and much-needed improvement of campaigning from 1988 onwards of the impoverished south-eastern David Kennedy (Professor of Roman region of , and has History and Archaeology, University contributed to the regeneration of Western Australia) commissioned and local pride of the city of University of Chicago archaeologist Gaziantep. Guillermo Algaze to survey the region to determine how the dam would A Turkish company stepped up affect historical and cultural heritage. as a sponsor of the rescue Algaze established that some 245 areas efforts, providing funds for the of historical importance would be museum in October 1999. Heavy submerged. He presented his findings earth-moving equipment and in international scholarly publications trucks given by the company and submitted them to the Turkish sped up the work. The sponsors government, but at first no foreign also brought in a firm institution or university heeded specializing in archaeological Kennedy's urgent call for rescue restoration work, which excavations. successfully removed all of the mosaics to the museum. The Working largely on their own, local firms Celal Küçük and Mine archaeologists from the museum in Ünsal worked overnight to Gaziantep, the region's principal city, salvage a Venus mosaic from a began excavations in 1992. Muammer subterranean room in imminent Bronze statue of , second century AD, Gaziantep Mosaic Museum. Güler, the governor of Gaziantep, danger of collapse. These Photo: © Dick Osseman. (The editor would like to thank Mr Osseman for giving the ARA permission to use renewed the call to save Zeugma in conservators have now his picture; more of his images may be seen at http://www.pbase.com/dosseman) 1998, channelling funds intended for undertaken the work of the building of schools and hospitals to restoring and preserving these mosaics. with a $5m grant from the Packard the rescue excavations. "We can build By 2000, a third of the site was already Foundation. Bear this and Herculaneum schools and hospitals next year," he under water. The international in mind when you next choose a printer explained, "but we can't save Zeugma". 2 community did eventually begin a for your computer. Whitehall and local councils please thorough rescue excavation in 2000, Of course much has been lost as a consequence of the construction of the dam, but paradoxically it has led to the spectacular display of the mosaics. Normally they would have been reburied after excavation, or looted. Attributions in museums around the world such as "said to be from Eastern Turkey" may hide a looted mosaic from Zeugma. Instead the new museum does indeed provide a spectacular display. I hope these pictures will give a flavour. Light and airy inside, the lighting is just right. Clever use has been made of part of an upper floor to allow mosaics to be viewed from above. I was also impressed by the simulation of the interior of a Roman house, complete with columns round the mosaic, and with a trompe-l'œil window and view of mountains.

As well as the mosaics there are some unusually well-preserved frescoes, and a spectacular statue of Mars found in the House of Poseidon at Zeugma. It is 1.5m high, hollow and made from 2–4mm thick bronze. The eyes were made of silver with a inlay for the Oceanus and Tethys mosaic. Hatay Museum, Antakya. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. pupils. Its remarkable preservation is 21 probably due to deliberate burial of the statue for safety prior to the sack of the city in AD 253 by the Sassanid King Shapur I. The bouquet of flowers held by the left hand is strange for a statue of Mars. The excavator suggests it alludes to the symbolization of fertility as one of the attributes of Mars. During the spring festival which occurred in the month which bears his name Mars was worshipped with the attributes of earth and fertility.3 Martin Henig suggests it is more likely that the 'bouquet of flowers' is part of the handle of a shield since lost, which would be normal on a statue of Mars.

Not all of the site at Zeugma was flooded, and since 2005 excavations have been carried out by the Zeugma Archaeological Project on parts of the site that remain above water.4 An open- air museum is being established there, Excavations in progress at the House of the Muses, The House of Danae, Zeugma, named after its mosiac. and we were there just a day or two Zeugma. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. after the site of the houses was opened Notes 2 See Archaeology Magazine Volume 53 to the public under the protective 1 Sartre, Maurice 2007 The Middle East Number 5, September/October 2000, structure seen in my photograph – under Rome. Belknap Press of Harvard for a full history. 3 one of the lightest and least obtrusive Univ. Press, 978-0674-025-65-3. See Zeugma Interim Reports, Journal of I have experienced. The photographs Roman Archaeology, Supplementary series, Blömer, Michael and Winter, Engelbert demonstrate an excellent series of n.51, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 2003. 2011 Commagene: An Archaeological 4 internal viewing platforms, and very See http://www.zeugmaarchproject.com/ Guide. Istanbul Homerkitabevi, index.php/english.html complex stratigraphy, but as far as I 978-9944-483-35-3. Buy online direct know no interim report is yet available. from www.homerbooks.com Rebecca Newman.

Above: New arrival at at the Hatay Museum in Antakya (Antioch). The Yakto Mosaic. Fifth century AD, from Harbiye. The central figure is a woman, representing the Great Spirit or Lion from the Neo-Hittite Period (Early Iron Age) from Tell Tayinat. Megalopsychia. The hunters are named mythological figures: Narcissus fighting a lion, Meleager fighting tigers, The lion is 1.3 metres tall and 1.6 metres long, probably from a Actaeon fighting a bear (before he saw Artemis!) and Adonis in another bear hunt. Hatay Museum, Antakya. monumental gate complex. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. Photo: © Rebecca Newman. 22 Excavation at Charles Street, Dorchester

Simons Development Ltd and their construction company Cowlin are developing a site on Charles Street, Dorchester (Fig. 1). The final design will include a new set of council offices, a library and a shopping precinct with car parking. Wessex Archaeology are the contract archaeologists selected to achieve the archaeological design of the development process. The initial test pit excavation revealed an infant burial near the earth rampart that backed the town wall. The development design calls for a minimum of deep but narrow bore pilings to minimise archaeological destruction, with total archaeological examination of the area where destruction of remains was inevitable. This has resulted in a very long and narrow trench, with a maximum depth Fig. 1. Map of Roman Dorchester, showing the Charles Street site. Photo: © Wessex Archaeology. of two metres to natural surface in an area where there is a natural dip or bowl. Below the medieval dark earth so common in Dorchester there is a series of very visible robber trenches, which indicates a range of rectilinear rooms, with occasional large spreads of flint nodules in lime mortar left undisturbed at the base of the trenches. The insides of the structure footings were backfilled with puddled chalk at the time of construction. Some fallen wall with painted plaster was found lying beneath stone roof tiles within a room that had an opus signinum floor. They Fig. 3. The copy Probus coin. Photo: © Wessex Archaeology. found fragments of box tile, infrequent and loose tesserae and a partial turned that this was a property of some column (Fig. 2) of very similar type to substance, possibly a courtyard house Obituary those found at the Roman townhouse or one with a half-colonnaded veranda. Peter Yates on the Colliton Park site. These indicate The property alignment seems to fit that of the accepted early military road Sadly, the Director and Membership that cuts the town with no respect to, or Secretary received news just before for, later insulae. This could mean that last Christmas from Mrs Helen the road was possibly still in use at a Newall, daughter of Peter Yates, later date than was earlier thought. of her father's passing on the A single coin was found in a sealed 11th December at his home in the deposit, probably at the time of village of Moncarapacho in , construction of the main property. It to where he had retired and had was identified by Dr Nicholas Cook as a been enjoying the tranquillity of the copy of a Probus (276–282) barbarous Portuguese countryside. A long- radiate coin (Fig. 3). Other properties standing member of the Association seen in the trench are smaller but and former 'Friend of the Roman equally visible, with very firm robber Research Trust', Peter was well trenches, and on a similar alignment. known to the many older members Further information is available at of the Association from the days www.wessexarch.co.uk – select when he regularly attended our 'Gallery', 'Archaeological Sites' and tours and other events. We passed 'Charles Street Dorset'. on our sincere condolences to Helen Fig. 2. The partial stone column. and her family. Photo: © Wessex Archaeology. John Bithell. 26 Spotlight on: Lunt Roman Fort

Editor's note: Lunt Roman Fort is one need for a major north-facing gateway, dug on the outward facing side of the of the sites included in this year's Long normally essential to the symmetry of ramparts, on the site of an original ditch. Weekend Summer Tour (see p24). a Roman fort. All in all, would Archaeologists have been surprised at have been left scratching his head at how well this structure has survived The Lunt Roman Fort at Baginton just this one. Perhaps we should see it as a since its reconstruction in the 1960s. outside Coventry has been much demonstration of the 's Originally the defensive structures overlooked in the world of archaeology ability to adapt to the terrain in which it would have surrounded the entire fort, in recent years but is an important site found itself. The fort would have been with a double V-shaped ditch or vallum for several reasons. Firstly it deviates ideally positioned on the wooded slope to deter attackers. The ditch had a from the playing card shape of almost from which the name 'Lunt' is thought narrow channel at the bottom which it every other Roman fort, whether timber to derive, in a strategic position has been suggested would have served or stone, in that its eastern wall has overlooking the river. as an 'ankle-breaker', to stop potential been curved to accommodate a feature attackers in their tracks. that is unique in Roman Britain: a gyrus. Today the site is approached through This circular structure (Fig. 1), which has the eastern gate (Fig. 2), which would Once you pass through the been reconstructed on the site in the form have led onto the via principalis, and reconstructed gateway the other rebuilt of a circular timber palisade, suggests was set further south than was usual in features of the fort are immediately the presence of a sizeable contingent the eastern facing wall, to accommodate visible. Just to the north of the gateway of cavalry at the fort. Equestrian fittings, the gyrus. The imposing timber gateway sits the gyrus. This circular structure was found at the site during excavations stands to its (assumed) full height, originally 34m in diameter and which took place between 1966–73, having been reconstructed between possessed a funnelled entrance and suggest that its use was for training 1966 and 1977 by the officers and men two gateways. Today the wooden horses and cavalrymen, not as more of the 31 Base Workshop Squadron stockade lends the fort a dramatic feel. fanciful suggestions (and doubtless Royal Engineers and prisoners from The gyrus was not an original part of the generations of school children) would HMP Leicester. The reconstruction was fort but was added in the second phase have it, as a training ground for very much the brainchild of site of construction, perhaps between gladiators or even an amphitheatre. archaeologist Brian Hobley, who carried AD 64–78: an operation which involved out excavations at 'the Lunt', as the site shortening two of the fort's barrack Secondly, the fort (which was probably is known, between 1966 and 1971. blocks. Stratigraphic evidence suggests first constructed around the time of the He was ahead of his time in wanting that the gyrus was also the last part of Boudiccan rebellion in AD 60–61) has to see the fort reconstructed as an the fort to be dismantled, sometime been partly reconstructed in its turf and archaeological park for the benefit of between AD 78–80. It has been timber form, offering a tantalising archaeologists and students alike. Many suggested that it was used as a storage glimpse of what the majority of Roman other Roman sites could benefit from depot and stockade for soldiers as they forts in Britain would have looked like in Hobley's inspirational thinking, which dismantled the rest of the fort, possibly the first century AD. turned the site of a lost timber fort into on the march northwards during the a thought-provoking attraction. campaigns of governor Julius Agricola. One other intriguing feature, again deviating from the standard playing The east gate, like the other card plan, is the lack of evidence for a reconstructions at the site, is set in the gate in the north wall of the fort. original post holes of the excavated area. The undulating terrain at that end of Its design is based on forts from the years the site together with the presence of AD 64–78, using evidence from Trajan's the River Sowe perhaps negated the column, similar sites and from Roman accounts written by military personnel. As such it can only ever be speculative, but the double-gated entrance topped with a wooden palisade with steps up to a lookout platform is imposing.

A long section of the fort wall was reconstructed either side of the gateway. The section in the north-east corner of the fort has a timber walkway and crenellated parapet. The rampart has turf walls front

and back and is filled in with Fig. 2. View of the east gate from exterior of Lunt Fig. 1. The gyrus, Lunt Roman Fort. Photo: © Martin Elvery. earth. A V-shaped ditch was Roman Fort. Photo: © Martin Elvery. 27 The other major reconstructed feature Evidence on display for the at the Lunt is the granary (horreum, presence of horsemen at the Fig. 3). The post-holes underneath this site includes a bronze phallic structure suggested a date of AD 64–78 pendant, which has fittings for its construction; an earlier structure for a horse's harness, and a believed to be a praetorium has been temporary or located underneath it. The horreum was hipposandal, found in the built at a similar time to two other commander's building. granaries that were situated just inside Many military fittings such as the northern rampart. rivets, buckles and harnesses were also found, as well as an The reconstructed horreum is S-shaped clasp for attaching impressive, with a covered entrance- a chain-mail cape. A bronze

way and its floor raised on wooden patera is another impressive Fig. 3. The horreum reconstruction, Lunt Roman Fort. posts. Inside, the horreum is the hidden exhibit. Photo: © Martin Elvery. gem of the Lunt: a well-presented museum containing key finds from the Other features on show at the site, a gift shop and reconstructions of Lunt include gravel paths a Roman foot soldier and a cavalryman, representing building interiors, complete with weaponry (Fig. 4). concrete lines marking Around the top of the walls runs a excavated walls and concrete colour frieze depicting scenes from pads for post holes of many of Trajan's column that provided evidence the other buildings inside the for the likely design of structures found fort, such as the commanding at the Lunt. officer's house, several sets of barracks and the headquarters While some of the artefacts on display building or principia, where the in the museum are replicas, others are military standards and treasury originals found at the Lunt in the 1960s. would have been kept. Lunt The most striking of these is a beautiful Roman Fort provides an Fig. 4. Reconstruction of a foot soldier and an auxiliary cavalryman. set of blue-tinted beads, known as informative and memorable Photo: © The Herbert Art Gallery & Museum. melon beads because of the sliced experience – and its evocative structures). The new barracks may have scoring on their surface. The beads have setting is a lovely location for a picnic been built for the cavalry contingent. been placed on a string to reconstruct a on a summer's day. beautiful necklace (Fig. 5). This fine Hobley suggested that during the next artefact was found in one of the barrack Hobley's excavation phase of development, which he put blocks immediately west of the via In his 1973 report Hobley used evidence between AD 78–80, the fort may have praetoria; it has been speculated that from stratification and coin finds to been in a state of demolition and that this could be evidence for the presence divide the occupation of the fort into the squads responsible for packing up of a commander's wife at the fort. four periods. the fort may have been accommodated A beautiful tiny Flavian-period intaglio, in the gyrus. Following this, Hobley made from the gemstone cornelian, is He suggested that the first period of tentatively suggests a short period of also present. Engraved with an image of occupation was between AD 60–64. re-occupation in the period AD 260–268. Fortuna, the goddess of luck, this fine From this period Hobley located many Substantial ditches enclosing most of object may have been used as a mark interior buildings but only found a small the original fort site and a southern for wax seals on correspondence. area of defences, to the east of the site. gateway were the only structures found dating from this period. Hobley suggested that the gyrus was built in the second phase of the first Coin evidence has proved to be the occupation, perhaps in AD 64 itself, and most accurate way of dating the fort's therefore posited that a contingent of development. 30 bronze coins of the auxiliary cavalry moved to the fort at emperor and 22 bronzes of this time, possibly a cohors equitata Claudius were found by Hobley's teams. quingenaria. This led him to suggest an initial date of occupation for AD 60 – late enough for Hobley identified a second level of the Claudian coins to come into occupation which he dated to AD 64–78. circulation. He also posited that In this period new barracks were construction of the fort may have constructed, overlaying earlier buildings coincided directly with the need to deal in the southern half of the fort. Also with the disturbances that erupted added were a principia, an officers' during the Boudiccan rebellion in house and what Hobley considered to AD 60–61. be an ablutions block but might be a

Fig. 5. Melon bead necklace, Lunt Roman Fort. valetudinarium (a hospital, see ARA Beyond this, 19 coins of Vespasian have Photo: © Martin Elvery. News 26, pp18–20 for more on such been found and one of . Only one 28 of the Vespasianic coins and the coin of defences, with the new ditch enclosure Visiting Lunt Roman Fort Titus date from post-AD 75, so Hobley and southern gate which overlay the Lunt Roman Fort is open from 10:30am suggested these were isolated losses earlier fort. It is though impossible to to 4:30pm on Saturdays, Sundays and and not a sign of consistent loss during say exactly what form this later Bank Holidays from April to October, occupation. This, and the fact that there occupation may have taken. and also on Wednesdays, Thursdays and were no coins for the reign of , Fridays during Coventry school holidays led him to conclude that the fort was Hobley, however, goes as far as to (28 July to 6 September 2012). Entrance probably abandoned sometime in or suggest that this last period of is free to ARA members. around AD 80 as the main forces of the occupation may coincide with the Phone: 024 7678 6142 Roman Army moved further north with turbulent period when the home-grown Email: [email protected] Julius Agricola. A magnificent hoard of emperor rebelled against the Website: www.luntromanfort.org 37 Trajanic coins was excavated from a emperor Gallienus in AD 259 and ditch by the eastern gateway. This again established the ( is thought to be an isolated burial and Galliarum), an independent empire in Holidaying on Vectis Insula not evidence of further occupation. This Britain, and . This rebellion The Isle of Wight is one of the most fine hoard of silver is on display in the continued until the emperor attractive and interesting places along Lunt museum. reunited the Empire in AD 274. the south coast, and has been a popular holiday destination since the 19th Only four further coins were found at the Alternatively he suggested that the century, when Queen Victoria and site, one each belonging to the reigns of reoccupation may have been due to Prince Albert built their palatial retreat Gallienus (AD 260–268), incursions by Irish and Saxon sea of Osborne House. As well as medieval (AD 269–271), Carausius (AD 286–293) raiders who were penetrating deep sites and spectacular landscapes, there and (AD 350–353). Hobley inland during the third century; again, are a number of Roman attractions, suggests that these coins probably do this can only be conjecture. especially the villas at Brading and not indicate substantial occupation; he Newport (free to ARA members). allows that the Gallienus coin, along The dating evidence can only ever with a decorated rim of a piece of grey remain speculative; future excavations ARA members Dave and Tricia Reeves ware pottery of the Wappenbury type may yet shed more light on the moved to the island on their retirement. that was independently dated to the turbulent and tantalizing history of Recently, Dave was appointed late third century, suggest that the fort the province in the third century and Chairman of the Friends of Brading may have been reoccupied briefly at the rebel empire of Postumus. What is Roman Villa. The couple have converted this time. He stated in the conclusions certain is that Hobley had the vision a large Victorian house at Sandown, to his 1973 report that the Gallienus to create a permanent record of what which incorporates modernised self- coin was found in the soft bedding fill was essentially a temporary Roman catering apartments for holidays. The between sandstone packing in the post fort, constructed during the fast- house is only two minutes' walk to the hole of a gateway, which indicates it moving tide of occupation during beach and just over a mile from Brading was lost at the time of construction the first century AD. The Lunt is a villa. Dave and Tricia are offering rather than demolition. fascinating insight into Roman apartments to ARA members at an military engineering. exclusive 10% discount. To obtain To this can be added the evidence for further details, visit their website: what Hobley calls the period IV Martin Elvery. www.99stationavenue.co.uk

These are both fund-raising events Investigating the Roman What's on to support the preservation of the archaeology of , Rutherford villa, organised by the 'Friends of College, University of Kent, Canterbury. These events are not run by ARA. Most '. Tickets are £10 to 14 April 2012, 2pm to 5pm. Talks on require booking; please contact the non‑members and £8 to ARA members excavations at East Farleigh and organisers if you wish to attend. If you and 'Friends'; book by telephoning Roman villas, Reculver and know of a Roman-themed talk or event, 01983 611298. Dover forts, and Roman Thanet. A joint please tell the Editor. event held by the Kent Archaeological Roman Army School, Durham. Society and the Council for Kentish Mosaics – The Broader Picture, 31 March–4 April 2012. The Hadrianic Archaeology. Free for Friends of the CKA, Brading, Isle of Wight. 17 March 2012, Society will be holding its annual Kent Archaeological Review subscribers 2:30pm. An illustrated talk by Roman Army School, a residential and members of KAS, £5 for non- Dr Stephen Cosh on the meaning course meeting in Durham, open to members. Contact CKA, Dick Ansell, 7 and inspiration for the mosaics in anyone interested in the Roman Army. Sandy Ridge, Borough Green, TH15 8HP. the Brading Roman villa and a Non-residential places also available. consideration of who laid them. Topics include: Septimius Severus; The cost of living in Rome, Woodford Also, Orphic Halls, 1 September 2012, Emperor Maurice; ; County High School, Woodford Green. 3pm (provisional). An illustrated talk by cavalry tactics; Vegetius; Heraclius. 11 June 2012, 7:45pm. Illustrated talk by Bryn Walters on the proliferation of For further details apply to Mrs Pat Amelia Dowler of the British Museum. 'Orpheus mosaics' in Roman Britain, Burgess, 59 Station Road, Golcar, All welcome, voluntary donation with an emphasis on the detached villa Huddersfield, HD7 4ED or you can appreciated from non-members. buildings containing what he calls download an application form at Contact: West Essex Archaeological 'Orphic Halls'. A buffet will be provided. www.hadrianicsociety.com. Group, Anne Stacey, 020 8989 9294. 29 From Julius Caesar to Claudius: the Late Iron Age/Roman transition Report on a conference at the University of Leicester, 5 November 2011

This was the latest of what is becoming barbarian, a common motif throughout Atrebatic lands, there were also some an annual event centred on research the Roman Empire; what was really from northern central , an and display of the Hallaton Treasure, found, therefore, is various parts of four original Atrebatic heartland. Other finds and which is now attracting an ever- helmets. The helmet also has an included a relatively large number of wider audience. The conference was elaborate brow guard depicting a coin moulds, indicating an Atrebatic introduced by Jackie Dickinson, female figure flanked by lions passant, mint at Calleva. There were also Chairman of Leicestershire County which Dr James speculated might considerable livestock remains, horse Council, and Professor Colin Haselgrove reflect worship of the Goddess Cybele, harnesses and a huge array of spindle of the Department of Archaeology & who was popular with the Roman army. whorls. at Leicester University. The Hallaton Helmet was returned from the British Museum in January 2012, Dr Tom Moore of Durham University Marilyn Hockey and Fleur Shearman of and is now on show at Harborough considered a potential history of the the British Museum Department of Museum in Market Harborough. Dobunnic oppida at Bagendon, Conservation & Scientific Research gave Gloucestershire. It would appear that a a fascinating presentation on Continuing the input from Leicester number of kings or chieftains existed conservation of the Hallaton Helmet, University, Frank Hargrave considered contemporaneously, and this might originally excavated in two blocks of soil the significance of shrines such as that explain their overlapping coin (see ARA News 25, p27). The smaller at Hallaton in the context of oppida distributions – as well as the famous block contained fragments of the (Iron Age towns). Of undoubted reference in Dio Cassius, where some of helmet and approximately 600 coins. relevance are ritual landscapes in the 'Bodunni' are described as being The larger contained mainly the helmet Ireland often with walled, only partly subject to the Catavellauni and thus the but also included further coins, animal defended sites, with evidence of most ready people to come over to the bones and extremely thin, folded sheets feasting and often associated with high Romans. Excavations at Bagendon itself of silver that were most probably to be quality La Tène ware. There are obvious revealed evidence of a scattered used as overlay. The iron helmet appears parallels between these and Hallaton, settlement and horse corralling, to have originally been covered in such but they also occur scattered across possibly a 'Royal' estate but probably a silver overlay, which in turn was gilded, northern France, central and seasonal occupation. It was emphasised though most of this has been lost. as far east as the Czech Republic. that there is only evidence for the site's use in the pre-Roman Iron Age. Dr Simon James of Leicester University Alex Brogden, a professional silversmith, dealt with further interpretation of the then considered the Hallaton Silver Finally, Andy Taylor of Thames Valley helmet. It would have been worn on Bowl. This was found together with an Archaeology and Kelly Abbott of parade rather than in battle. Only a few unused silver ingot. Both bowl and Wiltshire Conservation told us of the such helmets are known, two of which ingot are 85% pure silver content, but Iron Age Warrior Burial discovered at have been recovered in excellent investigation has shown they are from North Bersted, near Bognor Regis, West condition from the River Waal in different origins. The bowl was made . The warrior was discovered with Germany. There are no less than four from bullion but the ingot from melted a splendid array of grave goods, right-hand and three left-hand cheek down coins. Alex had been asked to including a helmet and an amazing pieces, all depicting a mounted warrior produce a replica bowl and presented cuirass, both in copper alloy, and an iron (the Emperor?) riding down a defeated illustrations of this process, which is sword that had been ritually 'killed' by called 'peening', involving hammer being bent in half. The cuirass consists working of silver sheet on a flat of an ornamental lattice that probably surface. We all expected to be told fitted across the shoulders; if so, it could that this was a pretty lengthy not possibly have had a use other than process, so were suitably surprised ceremonial. Both the helmet and cuirass to be informed that it was the work are extremely fragile, and Kelly's well- of about half a day. illustrated account of the highly delicate conservation process had us on After lunch, the conference the edge of our seats. It was a fitting end considered a number of wider to an excellent conference. issues. Professor Mike Fulford of Reading University took us through Stuart Bailey. recent excavation of the pre-Roman Iron Age oppida at Calleva, modern A book on the Hallaton Treasure by Vicki Silchester. Excavators found Score, Hoards, Hounds and Helmets: large‑scale pottery imports from A conquest-period ritual site at Hallaton, the Roman world dating from the Leicestershire, will be published soon mid-first century BC onwards. While (ISBN 9780956017963, hardback, £30,

Fig. 1. The Hallaton Helmet. most of the coins found were from University of Leicester School of Photo: © Leicestershire County Council. Catavellaunian mints to the east of Archaeology and Ancient History, 320pp). 30 The imagery of the Hallaton Helmet – Decoration depicting Roman victory revealed by restoration

The Hallaton Helmet's restoration helmet does not predate the conquest) allows us to glimpse something of the that not only does this show a province grandeur of this early first century AD disarmed but that it shows Britannia creation, and the new reconstruction herself. The earliest representation drawing by Robert Whale (Fig. 1) known so far of Britannia is from the further elucidates this. Sebasteion at Aphrodisias and shows her defeated by Claudius. The cavalry helmet is one of the earliest discovered in Britain and also the only The most notable aspect of the Hallaton one to retain much of its silver-gilt Helmet, however, is the brow guard. plating, which in itself is a rare survival. This is scalloped with its upper edge The piece was fashioned from sheet bordered by a ribbon-tied garland, the iron that was then covered with a thin twisted ends of which continue around decorated sheet of silver that in itself its lower edge. Dominating the guard is was part gilded. When new it must have a female bust flanked by two lions with been a superb creation and one of the prey. This is surely intended to represent highest quality. Cybele the great mother goddess. Originally the mother goddess of , The decorative scheme is one of Roman she was imported into Rome from victory. The bowl of the helmet is in 210 BC in the form of a sacred Fig. 1. A reconstruction of the Hallaton Helmet. clasped by a wreath of bay laurel, the stone, as a result of a prophecy that by (Originally the Cybele may have worn a mural crown on her hair.) Courtesy of Bob Whale. symbol of victory, whilst vegetal doing so Rome would ultimately be decoration is also present on the neck victorious over . Her chariot in show of skill in conducting complex guard. The cheek and ear guards iconography was drawn by lions and group equestrian drills, with much portray a triumphant rider she is depicted enthroned and flanked labyrinthine interweaving of horsemen. accompanied by the goddess Victoria by them. Rome knew her as Magna It is not by chance that parade helmets who holds another wreath above his Mater, and by Imperial times she had such as that from Crosby Garrett, with its head symbolising his triumph. Below been transformed in the pantheon as Trojan prince's face and Phrygian cap, or the horse sits a figure in the pose of a being a Trojan goddess and the helper this from Hallaton refer to sacred Troy in mourner (Fig. 2). This pose with the of Aeneas, the ancestor in folklore of the their imagery. Whether or not they were hand raised to the cheek, whilst the Roman people, to reach Italy. Apart all actually used in Troiae or not, torso is clasped by the arm in a self- from her connection with victory and they would have given the wearer the comforting gesture, appears in Roman as being a protector of the Trojan's kudos of an aristocratic background. funerary art and may be seen on the descendents, Cybele was a natural great Horkstow mosaic now in Hull choice for a cavalry helmet. During the This year's ARA Long Weekend Summer Museum where a triton comforts a early Imperial period the Tour will include a visit to Harborough grieving Nereid below the medallion (the Troy Game) was widely promoted, Museum to view the newly restored holding the scene portraying the remembering Julius Caesar's claim to Hallaton Helmet (see p24). death of Penthesilea. Trojan ancestry. This was an aristocratic Anthony Beeson.

Although restored in the drawing as male, the seated figure on the cheek guards is without doubt female and wearing a woman's tunic, the folds of which may be seen clearly behind her left arm. She sits next to an abandoned shield and helmet, the arms of the conquered, and she represents a defeated province. Recalling how Britannia was later portrayed on coinage with shield and arms, it Fig. 2. Left, a conserved cheekpiece (cf. ARA News 25, p27). Right, the author's identification of a female figure representing a defeated is even possible (if the province (white), her shield (blue) and helmet (red). Photo: © Leicestershire County Council. 31 some 90 metres from its original site, possible through ringing a local Anthony Beeson's nine metres above its original level, set telephone number for admittance by in modern cement mortar and adorned the key holder. The thieves easily gained Archaeological with its now notorious 'crazy paving' entry into the wooden cover building Round‑up flooring. It was hoped and intended by removing some of the wooden slats that in 2009 the temple could be that comprise its walls, and then used relocated back to its original location hammers and chisels to smash out the THE LONDON MITHRAEUM beside the ancient Walbrook, as part of panels. The loss of one panel is ON THE MOVE the demolition of Bucklersbury House, particularly upsetting. This was a central and the creation of the new Walbrook figurative scene that depicted Bacchus The first steps in the restoration of the Square development. This project, in Triumph (Fig. 1). Its loss is irreparable. London Mithraeum (see ARA 20, p71) however, ran into difficulties and Also stolen were two rectangular panels have taken place with the start of a faltered. In December 2010, Bloomberg from the border at opposing ends of the dismantling process on 21st November LP purchased the Walbrook Square site mosaic. These each showed dogs called 2011 that will see the ruins restored to to build its new European headquarters Notus and Boreas (the ancient names their original site and, eventually, a building. Following the granting of for the South and North winds) chasing more faithful reconstruction than had Listed Building consent for the a stag and a doe. Two remaining side previously been achieved completed. dismantling of the 1960s Temple of panels escaped the disaster and portray Mithras reconstruction, specialist stone the East and West winds personified by Found during excavations conducted masons have been commissioned by Eurus, a dog chasing a hare and Zefyrus by Professor WF Grimes, Director of Bloomberg LP to carefully extract the (sic), a dog chasing a gazelle. the Museum of London in 1952, the Roman building materials from the Even worse than the theft is the fact Mithraeum was, perhaps, the most 1960s cement mortar. Then for a second that the looters must have broken up famous of all Roman discoveries in time the material will be moved to safe th the largest Bacchus panel in order to fit the city during the 20 century. Its storage. Finally Bloomberg LP will it through the entry hole that they had discovery was pure serendipity and the return the temple to its original Roman made into the cover building. result of Grimes wishing to record a full location and it will be presented to the section across the Walbrook valley in public in a more historically accurate The floor was formerly one of the best an effort to clarify the nature of this guise. Upon completion of the new preserved Roman mosaics of the Iberian important feature in the topography Walbrook Square development, the Peninsula, rare not only for it size of 66 of Roman London. The discovery restored ruins of the Temple of Mithras square meters (710 square feet), but engendered a huge amount of public will be displayed in a specially designed also for its excellent state of interest in post-war Britain, and resulted and publicly accessible museum within preservation. At its centre was the rare in a press campaign that in itself the building. depiction of two Bacchic scenes generated heated debate over the Museum of London Archaeology press release – 17. 11. 2011 depicting the god's betrothal or preservation of the site. This was marriage to Ariadne and his Triumphal further fuelled by the discovery of the return from India; it is paralleled by wonderful cache of sculptures that had IMPORTANT SPANISH MOSAIC only two other known mosaics, one of been buried in the temple. The head of IRREPARABLY RUINED BY which is in Córdoba, while the other Mithras himself appeared on the final ART THIEVES one is in Israel. The two scenes are day of the 'dig'. The temple to Mithras superimposed. The surviving marriage was originally built during the mid-third An important Spanish mosaic has been panel shows a drunken Bacchic century, but the main group of very badly damaged by thieves who procession with the tottering god sculptures seems to have been buried have stolen three panels from the leaning on the shoulders of his beloved during the first quarter of the fourth composition. They broke into the young satyr Ampelos whilst clasping century when it fell out of use as a unguarded Roman villa outside of the Ariadne by the wrist. The stolen panel Mithraeum. The religious life of the tiny northern Spanish town of Baños de (2.50m long and 2.22m high) represents building continued well into the Valdearados and brutally hacked out the Dionysiac/Bacchic Triumph, with Christian era and it is now suggested the panels of a fifth-century that the worshippers were followers floor mosaic dedicated to of Bacchus. the god Bacchus. The theft Its original site lay on the east bank of was discovered on 28th the now covered Walbrook stream. As December by tourists the idea of preserving the structure in visiting the Roman villa of situ failed and a new building Santa Cruz. They noticed that (Bucklersbury House) was to be erected several of the wooden slats on the site, the temple was dismantled of the cover building that at that time and the Roman building encloses the pavement were material put into storage. For a while in missing and that sections of 1954 it was re-erected on a temporary the mosaic were gone. The site in an angle between Budge Row site had last been visited on and Sise Lane in the City. In 1962 the 23rd and the pavement was building was reconstructed on a then intact. There is no

windswept podium at Temple Court, security at the villa during Fig. 1. The central panel of the mosaic, showing the Marriage and Triumph adjacent to Queen Victoria Street. It is the winter and visits are only of Bacchus. © Anthony Beeson. 34 three figures participating: Bacchus, collection of leather shoes found near Putney Bridge in West London. Ariadne and Pan, who appear on a dumped in a ditch near the gateway to The token is smaller than the modern background of decorative motifs: birds, the second-century fort. The footwear, ten pence piece and has on the reverse Gordian knots, baskets and geometrical comprising some 120 items, was side the numeral XIIII (14) and on the motifs. Bacchus is standing in his presumably discarded by the soldiers. obverse a depiction of a couple chariot, which is being pulled by two "I think they dumped the shoes over the engaged in a sexual act. They are dark-coloured panthers, while Pan plays side of the road leading into the fort," depicted as on a garlanded and upon a syrinx and Ariadne has to hand a said Martin Cook, chief archaeologist on mattressed couch. The heavier, active, woven flabellum or flag fan with which the site. "Subsequently the ditch silted figure is kneeling and about to to fan her beloved. up with organic material, which penetrate the other from behind. preserved the shoes." Despite being The second passive figure is slighter It is now believed that the only recourse discards, the hobnailed shoes are in and presumably represents a youth or to safeguard what remains of the floor relatively good condition. a woman. He or she supports themself is to remove what is left of the mosaic on their elbows and grasps the couch and to take it to a museum. The supermarket site includes the end whilst appear to be turning remains of a first-century Roman fort The Roman villa of Santa Cruz was towards the man. What seems to be a and ancient field systems, but discovered in November 1972 during leg belonging to the passive excavations have centred on the area of ground levelling work. Excavations only participant is raised behind the active the younger Antonine fort. Martin Cook uncovered an estimated quarter of the partner suggesting a side penetration, describes this as "a really substantial site but revealed an elaborate villa with somewhat similar to one of the structure, with stone walls and three or at least ten rooms, including baths positions depicted in the two scenes four ditches around it". Two previous heated by a hypocaust system, and four of men and youths on the Warren Cup excavations at the site, one in the 1900s halls. The home is typical of late Imperial in the British Museum. and the other in the 1970s, also found period (between the fourth and sixth evidence of Roman occupation. The fort Whilst there is some delight in thinking centuries) latifundia, or great was at the north-west frontier of the that this is a brothel token, it must be agricultural estates manned by vast Empire and would have had a said that although these items do numbers of slaves and owned by significant strategic role, as well as appear throughout the Roman world, absentee landlords. being in one of the most heavily none, to my knowledge, has been An excellent and recommended paper populated areas of Scotland in Roman found in a building that could without in English on the mosaic as it was times. "The Roman fort at Camelon doubt be claimed to be a brothel. The found, written by Spanish mosaic would have been one of the most other suggestion is that this might well specialist Guadalupe López important forts in Scotland. It had a port be a gaming piece and that the number Monteagudo, is available on-line at and was in a central location," Mr Cook is actually the obverse side and the sex http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/ said. AOC Archaeology has dug less scene just reverse decoration as with a 19459/1/monteagudo.pdf than 5% of the fort, leaving much to modern pack of cards. A row ticket to http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2081175/Thieves- be found by future generations of the theatre or amphitheatre might be chisel-Roman-mosaic--Exceptional-Spanish-archaeological- archaeologists. Most of the site will be an alternative suggestion. site-thought-targeted-order.html#ixzz1jWzt9q5h preserved in situ. "The main body of the Times (p14) – 12. 10. 1954 However, even if it is not a brothel fort is on the other side, the north side, ticket it is the first such example known of the railway which shows just how from Britannia and a welcome addition big it really is," Mr Cook added. The to the province's corpus of erotic art. new Tesco supermarket is to be built EXCAVATIONS AT CAMELON As a brothel token the numeral XIIII has on the east side of the site to allow the DISCOVER SIXTY PAIRS OF been interpreted as the cost of the archaeology to be preserved under SANDALS token at 14 asses (about a day's pay for new car parks. a labourer in the first century AD) or Excavation during the construction of The Camelon excavation team is the number of the sexual position a new supermarket at Camelon, near hoping for evidence that could requested by the customer from the Falkirk in Scotland, has revealed further challenge the accepted date of the brothel's menu. It must be said, information about two Roman forts Roman abandonment of the region, however, that the same position that were last excavated in the 1970s. but so far this has proved elusive. appears elsewhere on other such The forts date from the Flavian and http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-tayside- tokens but with different numbers, Antonine periods, and the latter would central-15165914 so sexual positions were obviously have been used while the Antonine Wall Falkirk Herald – 30. 9. 2011 not standardised in the brothels of was being built. Boats would have come National Geographic News – 10. 10. 2011 the Empire! to the forts from the River Carron. The token has been donated to the The Camelon site, home to the former Museum of London, where it has been Wrangler factory, has been cleared POSSIBLE ROMAN BROTHEL put on display for a limited period. to make way for a Tesco store by TOKEN FOUND IN LONDON Members are advised to ring the contractors Barr Construction. AOC Museum to confirm that it is still on Archaeology, who excavated the land An extremely rare bronze token claimed show before travelling there for a for them, uncovered a varied collection to be one used for admission to a special visit. of finds including Samian pottery, brothel in Londinium has been found by National Geographic News 10. 10. 2011 trumpet brooches, a Roman axe and pastry chef Regis Cursan whilst metal http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/8991212/Roman- spearhead, coins and a remarkable detecting on the banks of the Thames brothel-token-discovered-in-Thames.html 35 Latin epigraphy: How to read and understand Roman inscriptions, Part II This is Part II of a two-part article on Unlike English, Latin is an inflected grammar (how to decline a noun and how to read Latin inscriptions. In Part I, language, where the end of words conjugate a verb, even at a basic level) (ARA News 26) I discussed the variety of changes according to the grammatical would take you to a whole new level of inscriptions that exist and their historic role of the word in the sentence. In the understanding, enabling you to grasp value, and I provided some background phrase 'the master hits the slave', the the relationships between the words information that can help when reading master is the subject of the verb 'hits' (who is doing what to whom?). and interpreting inscriptions. In this and the poor slave is the object of his Fortunately, for basic formulaic texts, part, there is practical advice on how to action. In Latin, the word for 'master' whose structure remains the same, read inscriptions, illustrated by specific would end in '-us' (dominus) and the you can get the general sense without examples, followed by a bibliography, word for slave in '-um' (servum) to having to turn to Latin grammar! and a list of common abbreviations and reflect their relationship with the verb. expressions.1 Similarly, in the expression 'the son of Three detailed examples of how to read the master', the word for master would inscriptions (from the British Museum) Introduction end in '-i' (domini), and in 'he gives a Pudens tombstone (Fig. 1) present to the slave', or 'the work is done The inscriptions selected for this article by the slave', the word for slave would T(itus) Valerius T(iti) f(ilius) are all carved in stone, as they are the end in '-o' (servo). These are known as Cla(udia tribu) Pudens Sau(aria) most commonly found, and the easiest 'case endings', and there are separate mil(es) leg(ionis) II A(diutricis) P(iae) to read for a novice. The letter forms in endings for the same word in the plural, F(idelis) themselves should not cause problems as well as numerous other endings for c(enturia) Dossenni to the reader, as they are the same capital other types of nouns. Adjectives follow Proculi a(nnorum) XXX letters that we still use in upper case. the pattern of the nouns. If you don't aera [V]I h(eres) d(e) s(uo) p(osuit) However, note that the Romans did not know Latin, it is well to be aware of this, h(ic) s(itus) e(st) so that you are not put off when you have separate letters for I and J, or for Titus Valerius Pudens, son of Titus, find the same word with different U and V: this distinction between the of the Claudian voting-tribe, from endings (e.g. in the first two examples, vowel and the consonant started in the Savaria, you will find the word for 'soldier' as Renaissance. In classical Latin, I/J was a soldier of the Second Legion 'miles' or 'militi', because in the first pronounced like the French or Italian 'i' Adjutrix Pia Fidelis, example the soldier is the subject of (somewhere between 'ship' and 'sheep') in the century of Dossenius the inscription, in the second, the whether it was used as a vowel or a Proculus, aged 30, inscription is dedicated to him). Verbs consonant: 'ibi' or 'iniuria' (spelt 'injuria' of six years service. His heir at his own too have many endings, to a much from the Renaissance onwards, and expense set this up. greater degree than English. Knowing the origin of our word 'injury', but Here he lies. pronounced 'in-yew-riah'). Unlike their even the bare elements of Latin Renaissance forebears, modern editors Note the conventions used: in curved respect classical usage and usually brackets are the letters supplied by transcribe the word as 'iniuria'. the editor when expanding the abbreviations into complete words. Similarly, U and V were interchangeable, In square brackets is a letter, the 'V' in representing the Italian vowel 'u' (as in the 'VI', which is missing in the original and English 'book') or the English consonant which the editor has reconstructed 'w'; this sound was written as a 'V' in based on his own observations and capitals, and as our 'u' in certain 'lower knowledge. These conventions are case' book scripts. Thus VOTVM is the standard, generally used by all scholars. same as 'uotum' (pronounced 'wo-toom'). Some editors nowadays use 'u' The heavy abbreviations may seem throughout to respect classical usage, but unintelligible at first, but imagine many modernise the spelling to 'votum' abbreviating all the formulaic language which is easier on the eye for the reader. in English. You might end up with something like: A reminder that the letter 'C' originally stood for the sound 'g'; this archaic use T. Valerius Pudens, s. of T., is found in the first names C. and CN. of Cla. from Sav., nd which stand for 'Gaius' and 'Gnaeus' sold. of the 2 leg. A. P. F. respectively. Thus 'C. IVLIVS CAESAR' will of the c. of Dossenius normally be transcribed as 'G(aius) Proculus, 30 y.o. Iulius Caesar' in the original Latin text, etc. though English commentary will then If these abbreviations and formulae refer to him as 'Julius'. were used for every soldier's tomb, Fig. 1. Tombstone found in Lincoln, now in the British 1 I wish to thank my colleague Dr Benet Salway Museum (RIB 258 – see bibliography). you would soon know them by heart. for his helpful suggestions and advice. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. The only variable information is that 36 pertaining to the individual soldier, and legion was still in Lincoln, whereas XI Line 5: 'ann...' is usually the word for this tends to be the least abbreviated. If would take it to the year 81, by which 'year', so he was 40 years old. most members of a particular unit came time the legion was in Chester. Savaria Line 6: some specialist vocabulary, he from the same area, even that place was a Claudian colony in was on a 'stipend' (military pay), i.e. in name (here Savaria) got shortened. Superior (modern-day Szombathely in military service, for 22 years. Hungary). Much of this legion was The Latin abbreviations in this Line 7: the standard 'he lies here' phrase. recruited from the Ravenna fleet, which inscription are fairly typical: would explain the nautical decorative G(aio) Saufeio - First names are almost always elements (dolphin and trident). Thus G(ai) f(ilio) Fab(ia tribu) Her(aclea) abbreviated: here Titus and his background historical knowledge is militi legio(nis) father Titus become 'T'. necessary for the full interpretation of VIIII - 'Son/daughter of': 'filius/filia' this inscription. annorum XXXX stip(endiorum) XXII becomes 'f'. Saufeius tombstone (Fig. 2) h(ic) s(itus) e(st) - All male citizens belonged to a Try to guess some of the abbreviations voting‑tribe of Rome (if, like here, of this tombstone: To Gaius Saufeius they were from outside Rome, they son of Gaius, of the Fabian voting-tribe, C SAVFEIO were still associated with one of the from Heraclea C F FAB HER original Roman tribes): there were soldier of the 9th legion, 40 years old, MILITI LEGIO 35 of these tribes, each with their 22 years' service VIIII standard three-letter abbreviation. he lies here. (Full list in Keppie, Understanding ANNOR XXXX STIP XXII Roman Inscriptions, p140). Valeria Victrix inscription (Fig. 3) H S E - Military terms, such as soldier, legion, This short building inscription century, etc. would be routinely Line 1: We start with his name: C is for introduces some imperial titles: abbreviated. Gaius, followed by Saufeio (in the dative case: 'to Saufeius'). Imp(eratoris) Caes(aris) - Each legion had its own names Traian(i) Hadri- Line 2: C is for Gaius again, and F for associated to it, which would be ani Aug(usti) p(atris) p(atriae) 'filius': son of Gaius (we won't worry familiar to the military men who saw leg(io) XX V(aleria) (Victrix) these tombs: here the 2nd legion about the proper case endings). After Adjutrix (to distinguish it from the his father's name, we have his voting [This work of] the Emperor Caesar 2nd Augusta) is known also to be tribe. The list in Keppie would inform Trajan qualified as Pia and Fidelis you that FAB is the Fabian tribe. One Augustus, father of his country, th (god‑fearing and faithful). would need some more historical and the 20 legion Valeria Victrix [built]. geographical knowledge to work out Note that any superfluous words are - Age and years' service: the words the name of his home town: Her(aclea). beside the numbers are regularly removed ('built' 'this work/building'), shortened, especially the word for Lines 3 and 4 are straightforward: 'militi' all that is left is the essential information: year ('annus'). is 'soldier', in the dative case like his the name of who built it, and in whose name, of the 9th legion. honour. As in the previous example, - Years' service: the word 'aera' literally the name of the legion is highly means 'copper coins', by extension abbreviated. The 20th legion, which had 'military pay', and thus years of military been based in Britain since the invasion service. by Claudius, used the titles 'Valeria - Standard declarations like 'his heir at Victrix': 'Valerian and victorious'. There his own expense set this up' get are interpuncts separating the words, drastically shortened, just as we do but in two cases, they are not dots but with expressions such as 'a.s.a.p.' little ivy leaves (after 'Imp' and 'Traian'). - 'Here he lies' is directly comparable to In the word 'Traian', there is a ligature our 'Rest in peace' or 'RIP', and gets between the final A and N, with the two abbreviated accordingly. Note the example of how one letter can represent different abbreviations according to the context: 'f' here stands for 'filius' in the man's name, and 'fidelis' for his legion's name. In this particular case, the 'V' is missing from his years' service. Scholars reconstructed this number by looking at the width of the missing space; it would have to be V or X. From their knowledge of the history of the 2nd legion Adjutrix, which was created in Fig. 3. Building inscription found in Moresby in AD 69, they calculated that VI would Fig. 2. Tombstone found in Lincoln, now in the British Cumbria, now in the British Museum (RIB 801). give a date of death of AD 76 when the Museum (RIB 255). Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. 37 vertical strokes of the A doubling up as of titles, handed down the generations, narrower and more curvy shapes. the first two strokes of the N. Unusually, after their names; more and more titles Here is an example of small rustic the Gs in 'Aug' and 'leg' are shaped like got added in the course of the capital letters, with the long vowels Cs, probably reflecting the fact that the centuries. One of the earliest titles, indicated by an 'apex' (which looks like original letter for the sound 'g' had first bestowed on Augustus, was that an acute accent). The text is in poetry, been a 'C'. of 'father of the country', Pater Patriae. elegiac couplets, which would be a Hadrian only adopted this title in 128; particular reason for wanting to Here we have the names and titles of therefore this inscription can be dated distinguish the length of the vowels. an emperor, which tend to be heavily to between 128 and his year of death, Note that this piece of poetry, an abbreviated. Most used the AD 138. original composition albeit not of high tripartite name Imperator Caesar quality, is not abbreviated at all. Though Augustus, initially the adopted More examples, with general difficult to see in the photograph, forename, family name and cognomen commentary (inscriptions from there are still small interpuncts (dots) of the first emperor Augustus. In effect, Museo delle Terme, Rome) separating the words. these three names became titles as much as names. To identify themselves, Marcus Claudius inscription (Fig. 4) Nothus was a librarius (secretary, emperors would insert their personal This is a typical example of good quality copyist) and this stele was dedicated by names between these standard three 'monumental' capitals, the most his wife. Unlike the previous scribe, this names. Note that this can be confusing, common letter form found in formal man was a former slave; his cognomen is especially when an emperor adopted inscriptions. a Latinised form of Greek. The fact that one or more names from previous he was married to his wife ('coniunx' in Marcus Claudius was freeborn as rulers: here, the emperor is Hadrian, line 1) suggests that they were indicated by fact of his father's name who also uses the name Trajan from his freedpersons, as slaves could not legally being mentioned, and he was the predecessor. It cannot be Trajan himself, marry. For reasons of space, perhaps, president of a group of scribes who because he preceded Hadrian and did the names of his former master, which worked for two sets of town officials. not use the name Hadrian. he would have adopted as his own, are His executor who had the monument not inscribed. Looking up a list of Roman emperors erected was his senior freedman, is essential. Keppie (pp136–7) has a rendering a final service to his former Published in CIL VI 6314 (i.e. in the Corpus useful list showing which names each master. The text is highly abbreviated, Inscriptionum Latinarum, volume 6, item emperor used. In it, one finds out for being full of standard official job titles 6314). instance that three emperors used and other common words such as 'son' Title (not in photograph): Nothi librari a exactly the same combination of or 'freedman'. There is no verb in the manu names: (the 'good' main sentence, as the expression 'this Nón optata tibi coniunx monimenta philosopher-emperor), Caracalla and (monument) was erected' was so locávit Elagabalus (known to posterity by formulaic that it was often left out ultima in aéternis sédibus ut maneant their nicknames and reviled as 'bad' altogether, as seen above in the spe frustra gávisa Nothi quem prima emperors). Each emperor had a string Moresby inscription. ferentem M(arcus) Claudius aétátis Plúton invidus éripuit M(arci) f(ilius) / hunc etiam fletit quaequális turba et scr(ibarum) honorem mag(ister) supremum digne funeris inposuit. q(uaestorum) et Of Nothus, a scribe by hand. Your wife aed(ilium) / had no desire to place this monument cur(ulium) arbitratu for you so that your final remains should / Philarguri maioris survive in an eternal dwelling. In vain l(iberti). did she delight in the object of her Marcus Claudius, hope, Nothus whom jealous son of Marcus, snatched in the prime of life. Indeed, president of the a multitude has mourned for him and scribes of the has rightly bestowed the supreme quaestors and the honour of funeral rites. curule aediles. By the decision of Libya: Cyrene, Leptis Magna and Philargurus, his Sabratha senior freedman The ARA-organised trip to Libya in 2009 [this was erected]. revealed some interesting inscriptions, of which the following are a small Nothus inscription selection. Inscriptions from the western (Fig. 5) part of the country (Tripoli and The other common surroundings) were published in Fig. 4. Funerary monument to a president of the association of scribes, end of form of capital JM Reynolds and JB Ward-Perkins, 1st century BC (upper inscription). Fig. 5. Funerary stele to the secretary Nothus, first half of the 1st century AD letters is called The Inscriptions of Roman (lower inscription). 'rustic' or actuaria, (British School at Rome, 1952). This is Both at Museo Nazionale Romano (Museo delle Terme), Rome. Photos: © Marigold Norbye. with slightly now online (referred to as IRT below) at 38 http://irt.kcl.ac.uk/irt2009/index.html. There is a similar project for (the eastern part) but as yet, there is no search facility online.

Bilingual Hadrian inscription (Fig. 6) Cyrene in North was founded by the Greeks, and was still Greek-speaking when part of the Roman Empire, hence this inscription to Hadrian being in Latin then in Greek. Imp(eratori) Caesari / divi Traiani parthi/ Fig. 7. Official dedication to the emperor Gallienus and his wife Salonina, AD 265. Leptis Magna, Libya. ci filio divi Nervae / nepoti Traiano / Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Hadriano Aug(usto) pontif(ici) / Gallienus and Salonina dedication To emperor Caesar Publius Licinius max(imo) trib(unicia) pot(estate) II co(n) (Fig. 7) Gallienus, victor in Germany, Pius, s(uli) II / civitas Cyrenensium. A good example of a stone inscription Felix, Augustus, chief priest, greatest victor in Germany, holding tribunician To the Emperor Caesar, son of the in rustic (actuaria) capitals, dedicated power for the thirteenth time, deified Trajan Parthicus [i.e. victor in by the inhabitants of Leptis Magna in acclaimed victor twelve times, consul Parthia], grandson of the deified Nerva, Libya. Note the two uses of the word six times, father of the country, (to) Trajan Hadrian, chief priest, in his 'imperator': as the emperor's very first proconsul, and to Cornelia Salonina 2nd year of tribunician power and 2nd name, usage dating back to Augustus our most virtuous Augusta, wife of year as consul, the city of the Cyrenians the first emperor; and meaning Gallienus, our Augustus; the [offered this]. 'acclaimed victor' followed by the number of times he was acclaimed. Lepcitanians Septimian and The Greek is not abbreviated, unlike the Published and translated in IRT, Saloninian [set this up] publicly. Latin, and stops after the word 'Hadrian'. number 456. Historians of language would be Severan Basilica inscription (Fig. 8) interested by the fact that 'Nerva' is Imp(eratori) Caes(ari) P(ublio) An inscription in situ, still part of the transliterated into 'Neroua' in Greek Licinio Gallieno Germanico Pio Fel(ici) monument to which it belongs, the script, suggesting that the letter 'V' was Aug(usto) pont(ifici) max(imo) / grandiose Severan Basilica in Leptis still pronounced 'w' as in 'Norway' Germanico max(imo) trib(unicia) Magna. The fragments tell us that rather than the later 'v' as in 'nervous' pot(estate) XIII imp(eratori) XII co(n) Septimius Severus (a native of Leptis which it became in late antique Latin s(uli) VI p(atri) p(atriae) proco(n)s(uli) / Magna and later emperor) started this and the . The et Corneliae Saloninae sanctissimae building in AD 210 and that his son inscription can be dated to AD 118 Augustae n(ostrae) / coniugi Gallieni Caracalla completed it in AD 216. Note from the emperor's titles. Aug(usti) n(ostri) / Lepc(itani) the tall 'I' of 'Imperator' (compared to Sept(imiani) the previous 'I') which indicates that it is Saloniniani a long vowel. IRT online, number 428: publ(ice). [o]cties imperator: 'octies' refers to the 18th year of Septimius's tribunician power ('trib. pot. decem et octies') (AD 209/10), followed by 'imperator' in the sense of 'acclaimed victor' which would have had a number after it.

Fig. 6. Bilingual inscription to the emperor Hadrian (AD 117–138), AD 118. Cyrene, Libya. Fig. 8. Fragment from the Severan Basilica, AD 209–10. Leptis Magna, Libya. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. 39 Fig. 9. A bilingual dedication in Latin and Punic, AD 1–2. Leptis Magna, Libya. Photo: © Tim Arnold.

Annobal Rufus inscription (Fig. 9) When Emperor Caesar Augustus, son of but the 'ae' sound was no longer A copy of the original inscription (now the deified (Caesar), chief priest, (was) pronounced 'a-e' but simply 'e', in the National Museum in Tripoli) holding tribunician power for the which became reflected in the spelling dedicating the theatre of Leptis Magna. twenty-fourth time, consul for the ('e' gradually became the norm in Leptis was in Tripolitania, which had thirteenth, father of the country, medieval Latin writing). The letter 'V', been under Carthaginian (Phoenician/ Annobal Rufus, adorner of his country, which had earlier been pronounced Punic) influence before being lover of concord, (local priest), like the English 'w', evolved conquered by Rome. One and a half suffete (magistrate in a Phoenician city), phonetically to a sound between centuries later, the local magnate in charge of sacred things, son of 'b' and 'v' and was therefore often (Annobal Rufus, see line 2) who paid for Himilcho Tapapius, saw to the written 'b': hence 'bixit' for 'vixit' the theatre building still used the Punic construction at his own expense ('lived') and 'requiebit' for 'requievit' language in his official dedication, and also dedicated it. ('went to rest'). showing that regionalism was not Christian tombstone (Fig. 10) The abbreviation for 'Christo' is 'xpo', entirely dead in the Roman Empire. the 'x' being the Greek letter The first names of both the magnate This tombstone from Sabratha in representing 'ch' and the 'p' the Greek and his father betray their Phoenician modern Libya dates from the troubled for 'r', making the abbreviation 'chr-o'. origins. IRT online, number 323: period when the Empire had fallen in This abbreviation has survived to the Imp(eratore) Caesare Divi f(ilio) the west and Tripolitania was occupied present day, hence our 'Xmas'. Aug(usto) pont(ifice) max(imo) by the invading (439–530), IRT online, number 212: tr(ibunicia) pot(estate) XXIV co(n)s(ule) before the Byzantine emperor Justinian XIII patre patr(iae) /Annobal Rufus reconquered it for the Empire. The + Ind(ictione) III + / ornator patriae amator concordiae / rough script of the inscription tells its Bone memor-/ie Liberatae / flamen sufes praef(ectus) sacr(orum) own story. bixit annos / XL pl(us) m(inus) pa-/ Himilchonis Tapapi f(ilius) d(e) s(ua) The dating element is at the beginning, uci et mali et / requiebit in / (Christ)o p(ecunia) fac(iendum) coer(avit) / relating to 'the 3rd year of the indiction'. men(se) Iu-/lio com(- - -) VIII idemq(ue) dedicavit. An indiction was a 15-year cycle, first (cross) In the third indiction (cross). invented for tax collecting purposes, To the good memory of Liberata. then gradually used as a general dating She lived approximately 40 years, few tool in the Roman Empire, and lasting and bad, and went to rest in Christ in in certain contexts throughout the the month of July, eight (?). Middle Ages. However, as individual indictions were not numbered or Back to Britain: keeping the qualified, one needs other dating clues; 'barbarians' at bay in this case, all we have is the general context of a cemetery. The tombstone is And finally… here is a cast of a plaque Christian, as evidenced by several clues. erected at the Antonine Wall by the There are two crosses at the top of the detachment ('vexillatio') of soldiers stone. The number of years the dead recording the completion of a section person lived is qualified as 'plus minus', of the wall. The men belonged to a to show Christian disdain for the exact legion which we encountered building time spent on this earth (the eternal life for Hadrian in figure 3. being more important). The deceased 'went to rest in Christ'. Antonine Wall inscription (Fig. 11) Try to read what is on the photograph; Linguistically, the inscription's then match it to this basic transcription: non‑classical spelling reflects evolutions in the pronunciation of the IMP C T AEL HADRIANO ANTONINO

Fig. 10. Christian tombstone, 5th–6th century AD. Latin language: 'bone memorie' would AVG PIO P P VEX LEG XX V V FEC P P III Sabratha, Libya. Photo: © Marigold Norbye. be 'bonae memoriae' in classical Latin, (bar above the III) 40 To the Emperor Caesar Inscriptions of Roman Britain, published Titus Aelius Hadrianus by the London Association of Classical Antoninus Augustus Teachers, Original Records No. 4 Pius, the father of his (LACTOR 4), 1st edition 1969, 4th edition Country, a detachment 2006 (available from LACTOR, some of the 20th Legion Valeria earlier copies available second hand). Victrix constructed Apart from the selection of inscriptions, 3000 paces (or feet) it contains a map of Roman Britain, [of the wall]. a date-chart of Romano-British history, several indices, and a concordance with The emperor is known Collingwood's RIB. The inscriptions all to us as Antoninus Pius, concern Britain, the vast majority being adoptive son and found in Britain: transcriptions, successor of Hadrian, translations and brief commentaries. who adopted the title 'Pius' at the beginning The same association has also of his reign. In this produced as a source book for students inscription, we also see Inscriptions of the Roman Empire, Fig. 11. Distance slab concerning the Antonine Wall, found at Hutcheson Hill, Bearsden in 1865, original destroyed by fire in 1871, cast in Hunterian the traditional imperial published by the London Association of Museum, Glasgow, AD 131–169 (RIB 2198). Photo: © Nich Hogben. title Pater Patriae. Classical Teachers, Original Records No. Note that we have two 11 (LACTOR 11), 1st edition 1971, 2nd There are numerous distance slabs abbreviations 'P P': one for the imperial edition 1996 (available from LACTOR, found along the wall recording the title, the other for the measurement of some copies available second hand). achievements of various army units in distance. building sections of the wall, many of List of common abbreviations and them livened up with decorations. This Select bibliography: collections of expressions legion had a wild boar as a badge, and inscriptions concerning Britain This list overleaf is in alphabetical order the boar often appears as a decorative RG Collingwood and RP Wright, for ease of reference. It includes the motif. The inscription itself is fairly plain, The Roman inscriptions of Britain. most used abbreviations found in the but there are attempts at serifs on some Vol. 1, Inscriptions on stone (1965, new examples above, as well as other letters, and the triangular interpuncts edition 1995); Vol. 2, Instrumentum common abbreviations culled from the are clear. Note the ligature between the domesticum (1995); Vol. 3, RSO Tomlin list by Keppie and from inscriptions in A and V of 'AVG' at the end of line 4, et al, Inscriptions on stone, found or the LACTOR collection concerning probably to squeeze the word in the notified between 1 January 1955 and Roman Britain. available space. 31 December 2006 (2009). Similar and more abbreviations can be This is THE reference work, which has This emperor has numerous names, found online on http://www.roman- superseded the CIL volume dedicated followed by a traditional title. By what britain.org/latin-abbreviations.htm. to Britain. It contains transcriptions, name(s) do we know him? After the There are lists in the books by Keppie drawings, translations, bibliographies legion and its titles, we have the word and Gordon in the bibliography in Part I, and brief descriptions of the inscriptions 'fec': this is the verb 'fecit' ('made'). The as well as by one of the authors of the found in Britain. Volume two was inscription finishes with what the men RIB, in RG Collingwood, The Archaeology published in separate fascicles, covering made: the quantity is III with a bar over of Roman Britain (Methuen, 1930) personal belongings and such like: it, which multiplies it by 1000. The unit chapter XI, pp178–184. e.g. military diplomata, metal ingots, of measurement, preceded by the dies, labels, vessels of metal and glass, As Latin is an inflected language, the abbreviated preposition 'per' ('through, jewellery, objects of wood and leather, same abbreviation can represent the for') is P: this could stand for 'pedum' stamps and graffiti on tiles, painted same word with several endings, which ('feet') or 'passuum' ('paces'). Some letters (dipinti) and graffiti on pottery, only the grammatical context will reveal translators of these distance slabs etc. Organised geographically, by place (e.g. 'd' could be 'dedit' or 'dederunt': assume that they refer to paces, but of discovery of the inscriptions. 'he gave' or 'they gave'). Names, nouns others interpret them as feet. At this Abbreviated to RIB, with the number and adjectives on their own are usually stage, unless one can find that follows relating to the item number in the nominative ('subject') case; I give incontrovertible evidence, for example in the book. There is a summary of Vol. 1 a second case if it differs confusingly a comparable distance slab where the on the www.roman-britain.org website. from the nominative. word starting with P is written in full, the editor-translator gives way to AC Burn, The Romans in Britain. I have put abbreviations and military historians and archaeologists An Anthology of Inscriptions (1969) abbreviated expressions in capitals who can debate which unit of (available second hand). to reflect the appearance of the measurement is the most likely. A selection of inscriptions, transcribed inscriptions. Full words are in lower and translated, placed within a case for ease of reading. Occasionally, Now for the full transcription: continuous historical narrative, used some words or expressions appear Imp(eratori) C(aesari) T(ito) / Ael(io) as illustrative material and commented twice, when they are used both in Hadr/iano An/tonino Aug(usto) / Pio upon in detail. A few black and white abbreviated and full forms in the P(atri) P(atriae) vex(illatio) / leg(ionis) XX photographs. Short glossary of inscriptions themselves. Single letter V(aleriae) V(ictricis) / fe(cit) / p(er) abbreviations, several indices. abbreviations of two words or more p(assuum) or p(edum) III (milia). Much information about military life. come after the single words. 41 A: annus; year, years old collegium: guild, college F: filius/filia; son, daughter A: Adiutrix; (legion) Adjutrix COR: corona; crown F: fecit; made/built (this), had it made abnepos, abnepotis: great-grandson COS: consul; consul, followed by the FAB: Fabia tribu; of the Fabian tribe A D: ante dies (followed by number); number of times elected in the case of FABR: fabri; smiths [n] days before (see section on dating emperors FAC: facere/faciendum; to make/set up, in Part I) CVR: curulis; curule (relating to the to be made ADIVT: adiutor; assistant, auxiliary official chair used by the aediles) FAC COER: faciundum coeravit; saw to AED: aedilis; magistrate in charge of CVR: curator; guild-treasurer it being done buildings curante: under the charge of F C: faciendum curavit/curaverunt; AEROR: aerorum, from aes; 'copper curia: assembly had (this) made/set up coin', by extension 'military pay' and FEC: fecit; did/made/built (this), had it thus 'military service' D: the number 500 (often written with a made ala: wing of an army, division of about bar through it) FEL: felix; fortunate, successful; used as 500 men D: decreto; by the decree of a title ('Felix') for emperors and legions ara: altar D: decurio; decurion alike arbitratu: by the decision of D: dominus; lord flamen: priest Fortuna: the goddess Fortune a solo: from ground-level (when D: donum; gift restoring a building) D: dedit/dederunt: gave G: genius; presiding spirit or genius of AVG: Augustus, third name/title of D: dedicavit/dedicaverunt; dedicated a place emperors, cognomen of the first DEC: decurio; decurion (military); GERM: Germanicus; conqueror of emperor member of the council of a Germany, used as a title Germanicus AVGG: Augusti; the two Augustuses municipality/colony, councillor GVBER: gubernator; pilot when there were four emperors at once: dedicavit/dedicaverunt: dedicated two senior ones called Augustus, and H: heres; heir DESIG: designatus; designate, i.e. two junior ones called Caesar H C: hoc constituit; set this up nominated for next year's office (usually HISP: Hispanus/Hispania; Spanish, Spain Augusta: title of the wife of the emperor consulship) HS: sesterce (money unit), always AVR: aureus/a; of gold de suo: at his/her (expense) followed by a form of 'nummus' ('coin') BAL: balneum; bath‑house deus/dea: god, goddess H S E: hic situs est; here s/he lies BEN COS: beneficiarius ; one dies: day(s) I: the number 1 seconded for special duties by the dis manibus: to the spirits of the provincial governor departed ID: Idus; Ides bonae memoriae: of good memory divus/a: deified (of an emperor or IMP: imperator; 'Imperator' (name/title BRIT: Britannicus, Britannia; Britannicus member of the imperial family) of emperors), by late second century also means 'acclaimed victor' (imperial title), British; Britain domo: from the home town of IOM: Iovi Optimo Maximo; to / C: Gaius domus: house Jove the Best and Greatest C: the number 100 DON: donavit; s/he gave iudiciis: by the decrees C: centuria; century, unit headed by a D M: dis manibus; to the spirits of the K or KAL: Kalendae; Kalends centurion departed C: centurio; centurion D N: dominus noster; our lord (the L: Lucius C: cives; citizen emperor) L: the number 50 C: coniunx, coniugis; spouse (usually a DD NN: domini nostri; our lords (two L: Latinus; Latin wife) emperors) L: libertus/a; freedman/woman C A: curam agente; having the matter in DDDD NNNN: domini nostri; our lords L: laetus or libens; gladly or willingly (four emperors) charge lato clavo exornatus: adorned with the CAES: Caesar, second name/title of D I M: deo invicto Mithrae; to the (senatorial) broad stripe (on his toga) invincible god Mithras emperors; late Empire: junior emperor LEG: legio; legion CASTR: castrum; camp, fort D S P: de suo posuit; at his/her own LEG: ; legate, ambassador (expense) set up censor: censor, a type of magistrate in LEG AVG PR (or PRO) PR: legatus charge of morals D S P: de sua pecunia; with his/her Augusti pro praetore: emperor's legate money CHO/COH: cohors, cohortis; of the with powers of a (title of cohort (military unit) EBOR: Eboracensis; from York governors of the province of Britain) LIB: libertus/a; freedman/woman civitas: the city (usually followed by the EQ: eques; member of a cavalry name of its inhabitants) regiment LOC: locus; place cives: citizen EQ: equitata; part mounted (of a M: Marcus CLA: Claudia tribu; of the Claudian tribe military unit such as a cohort) M: mensis; month classis: fleet ex decreto: by decree MAG: magister; school master; COL: ; colony ex testamento: under his/her Will president, master 42 memoriae: to the memory PROC: procurator; manager, VET: veteranus; veteran soldier MEN: mensis; month administrator, procurator VEX: vexillatio; a detachment of soldiers meritus/a: well-deserving PROCOS: proconsul; proconsul united under one flag MIL: miles; soldier, military pro salute: for the health/welfare vexillarii: soldiers in a vexillatio MIL: militaris; military PROVINC: provincia; province VIC or VIK (later): vicani; inhabitants of a 'vicus' a subordinate unit of a 'civitas' MIL: militavit; served in the army PVBL: publice; publicly (town) MON: monumentum Q: Quintus vigilis: member of the vigiles (night M P: milia passuum; miles (a thousand Q: the number 500,000 watch) paces) Q: quaestor; quaestor (a class of vixit: lived (usually followed by number MVNIC: ; borough, magistrate, often in charge of the of years) municipality treasury) V M: votum merito; the vow (was) N: nummus; coin, always in the form R: Romanus; Roman deservedly (fulfilled) 'nummum' when 1000s are indicated reddidit/reddiderunt: restored VOT: votum; vow N: noster/nostra; our (often after REG: regionarius; in charge of the region V S L M: votum solvit libens merito; 'dominus/a': lord/lady; later title for willingly and deservedly fulfilled (his/ requievit: went to rest emperors) her) vow restituit/restituerunt: restored NAT: natus; born, aged V S L L M: votum solvit laetus libens nepos/nepotis: grandson S: (plural); sacred things/matters merito; gladly, willingly and deservedly NN CC: nobilissimi Caesares; the two SAC: sacerdos, sacerdotis; priest fulfilled (his/her) vow th 'most noble Caesars' in the era of four SACR: sacra (plural); sacred things/matters V V: Valeria Victrix (epithets of the 20 emperors legion) sanctissimus/a: most virtuous (in the NOB: nobilissimus/a; most noble pagan sense) X: the number 10 NON: Nonae; Nones S C: senatus consulto; by decree of the XPO: Christo; in Christ NVM or N: , numinis; divine power Senate (e.g. the Divine Power of the emperor) SCR: scriba; scribe Abbreviation by suspension: a few word endings were quite regularly P: Publius SIGN: signifer; standard-bearer shortened at the end. Nouns and P: pedes/pedum; feet (unit of distance) S P Q R: senatus populusque Romanus; adjectives with the case ending '-ibus' P: passus; paces (unit of distance) the Senate and People of Rome often appeared as 'ib.' with a full stop. STIP: stipendium; military pay; in the P: posuit/posuerunt; set (this) up Words ending with '-que' could be plural: years of military service PATRON: patronus; patron written '-q.'; those ending with '-dem' '-d.' S T T L: sit tibi levis; may the earth P C: ponendum curavit; had (this) set up lie lightly on you (|) or Φ: the number 1000 (many variants on that basic shape) P D: pecuniam dedi; I gave the money sub cura: under the charge per: through, through the agency of |)) : 5000 |))) : 50,000 P F: Pia Fidelis; loyal (and) faithful T: Titus ((|)) : 10,000 (((|))) : 100,000 PL M: plus minus; more or less (on TER/TERT: tertium or tertio; for the third Superposed bars over numbers: Christian tombs) time Any numeral can be multiplied by 1000 PONT MAX: pontifex maximus; chief TEST: testamentum; Will by means of a superposed bar. priest (imperial title) TI: Tiberius posuit/posuerunt: set (this) up TR/TRIB/TRIBVN: tribunus; tribune A numeral can be multiplied by 100,000 by a three-sided box around it. P P: pater patriae; father of the country (military rank) (imperial title) TRIB POT: tribunicia potestate: holding But… a bar can also be used over P P: primus pilus; chief centurion the tribunician power (followed by the numerals to indicate numerical prefixes number of years) of composite words like 'decemvir' PR: (abbrev. of many titles, including) tribu: of the voting-tribe (with name, (literally: 10-man, a member of a , praesidis: governor (of Britain ten‑man official body). Usually the after Diocletian reorganisation) usually abbreviated to three letters, of one of the 35 tribes) prefix is separated from the noun by PRAEF: praefectus; prefect, overseer, in some punctuation, e.g. X.vir (with a bar TVR: tur(ma); regiment charge of over the X). PRAETOR: praetorian (the emperor's VRB: urbanus; urban Ordinal numbers are regularly barred praetorian Guard in Rome) uxor: wife when they are adverbial: 'for the nth time' praetor: leader, president, chief Ordinal numbers are generally barred magistrate, commander V: the number 5 when designating the number of a V: vir; man PRINC: principia; the headquarters legion or cohort. building V: vixit; lived There are other uses of bars, see Gordon princeps/principis: leader, commander V: vovit; vowed (p47) for details. PR (or PRO) PR: pro praetore: on behalf V C: vir clarissimus; most distinguished of the praetor (see 'legatus') gentleman (of senatorial rank) Marigold Norbye. 43 The Lost City of the Legion Preliminary excavations in Caerleon's monumental suburb hint at great future discoveries

On the 30th August last year Grahame conducted all over the vast Soffe and I gladly accepted an site, through the digging of invitation, on behalf of the ARA Board, nine trenches, in order to from Dr Peter Guest, Senior Lecturer in assess the nature and quality Roman Archaeology, Cardiff University. of what remained. Time Team This was to attend the Tea-On-The-Dig were present and conducted closing celebrations for the excavation their own three-day at Caerleon, headed by Peter for the investigation into an enigmatic University's School of History, building in the centre of a vast Archaeology and Religion. The purpose courtyard that fronted on to of the 2011 excavation was to make the presumed quay. preliminary investigations into the tremendous find of 2009–10: a I visited the exciting previously unsuspected range of huge excavation for the first time public-style buildings buried beneath four days before the closing Fig. 2. The quay or 'Tegula Wall' under excavation. Visitors stand where the sloping meadows between the ceremony, and was both the original dockside would have been. The later infilling that amphitheatre and the River Usk. The astonished and thrilled by expanded the dock into the river can be seen in the foreground. discovery was a pure piece of some of the archaeology that Photo: © Anthony Beeson. serendipity, and made by students I beheld. It was also extremely surveying this extra-mural area of Isca rewarding to see the same during a training exercise in the use of trenches at the later visit and geophysical equipment. It was followed witness how far the in 2010 by the digging of two small test investigation had progressed pits that located what appeared to be even in such a short time. a quayside wall. ARA members are Peter Guest has promised ARA directed to my earlier accounts of this his own paper for the ARA discovery in the last two editions of Bulletin, but in the meanwhile ARA News. I have had his permission to report on my impressions as a The meadows below the amphitheatre visitor to the investigations. show signs of buried architecture in The geophysical results their irregularities, and structures had suggested the presence of been long predicted in the area, but two large building complexes. no one could have imagined that such The first, fronting onto the Fig. 3. A possible shallow pool constructed from slabs in Trench 5 with two large buildings lay beneath. The fields presumed quayside, consisted drains running beneath a flagged floor. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. seem only to have been used for of a vast courtyard almost the pasture following the desertion of Isca size of the amphitheatre surrounded and thus much survives even after the by corridors and rooms and 'centred' inevitable stone robbing of past by a small building, presumed to be a centuries. The 2011 excavations were temple. A range of important rooms backed this courtyard, and behind these was another complex seemingly constructed around two smaller courtyards and thought to have been centred on a basilican hall. These buildings lay on the same alignment and presumably connected with the large baths discovered next to the amphitheatre in the 1920s. The huge apsidal or near-circular chamber of

one of the rooms of these Fig. 4. The damaged edge of a mosaic or tessellated baths remains uncovered pavement in a chamber in Trench 5, buried under and was dated, in its earliest the fall of roofing tiles. Many of the tesserae are Fig. 1. A plan of the trenches placed over the geophysical plan of the rectangular and in their singularity perhaps monumental suburb of Caerleon. The River Usk is to the right and form, by REM and TV Wheeler suggest a military rather than a civilian mosaicist. the amphitheatre is top left. Courtesy of Cardiff University. to the Flavian period. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. 44 Evidence has now emerged of a port at at first thought. Its axial Caerleon. The river here is tidal and it position, however, suggests would be expected that it would have that it was of some importance. been used for transport and supplies, Its excavation discovered a but to find proof is very rewarding. beautiful intaglio decorated The quayside wall was built of tegula with Capricornus, a dolphin, roofing tiles, and was founded on a an eagle and a cornucopia: all timber sill beam which itself is no symbols of good fortune and doubt sitting on a row of wooden Rome (the Capricorn was the piles. This was referred to on-site as birth sign of Augustus and a the 'Tegula Wall'. symbol of the Second Legion). The surface of the courtyard is At some later date the quay was described as being of 'beaten expanded out into the river with earth', which is an enigma, and an infill of tile and stone. That this this has now suggested to the Fig. 5. The lead water-pipe beneath a flagged floor under excavation in Trench 6. A branch from it, seen below the excavator on the left, quayside was quite evident in the excavators that perhaps it was a probably fed a fountain close by. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. twelfth century is suggested by stockyard for holding the large references in Geoffrey of Monmouth's number of cattle needed for the same room the very edge of a mosaic History of the Kings of Britain and Gerald Second Augustan Legion. Whilst this is has been located still buried under of Wales' account of the site where they a possibility, it should be remembered roofing tiles. Enough was visible to imagined foreign dignitaries using the that in peacetime the cattle drove was show the use of white and unusually port to visit King Arthur. the traditional manner of moving herds shaped rectangular tesserae. This is rather than by sea or river. Also, it would exciting because the Second Augustan For on one side it was washed by seem more logical that cattle stockades Legion's baths at Exeter provided that noble river, so that the kings and would be sited in the meadows fragments of the earliest figurative and princes from the countries beyond surrounding the settlement and would polychrome mosaic in Britain and this the seas might have the convenience not require a backdrop of formal may well be another first-century of sailing up to it. architecture or the problems of driving pavement and perhaps the work of a History of the Kings of Britain, livestock into it. Again the mess and military rather than civilian mosaicist. Book 9, Chapter 12. smells generated by vast numbers of Indeed the exciting prospect is that the cattle would hardly be a benefit to buried buildings may hold a gallery of Caerleon is beautifully situated on the those occupying the surrounding early mosaics. Trench 5 cut diagonally bank of the River Usk. When the tide chambers. Even if lacking the across the western range of rooms of comes in, ships sail right up to the architectural refinement of paving, the massive courtyard building; the city. It is surrounded by woods and I would be more inclined to see a more corner of one room with plaster still meadows. It was here that the Roman formal or military use for this great remaining on the walls was displayed, legates came to seek audience at the courtyard. Either way, this must be mere as well as what appeared to be a great Arthur's famous court. speculation; it is too early to decide until shallow pool made of stone slabs Gerald of Wales, a fuller investigation has taken place. together with its drain. The Journey Through Wales, Chapter 5. monumental suburb seems to be However, another clue is provided by honeycombed with drains, which is It is assumed that beyond this quay the fact that in Trench 5 the edge of a only to be expected considering the visitors or produce entered through a room was located that appears to be vast expanse of roofs that the complex gateway into the vast formal courtyard. on a direct alignment with the riverside must have had. Managing the rainfall at Here was the small rectangular and courtyard entrance and was obviously Caerleon must have been an art in itself. enigmatic tile-built building partially built to impress. We were shown the Considering the traces of architectural excavated that final week by Time Team. remains of collapsed tufa from vaulting quality in Trench 5 one again wonders It is now believed to be administrative or from a single or double-arched what the function was of the great rather than religious, and is larger than entrance, and fallen box-flue tiles. In the courtyard that they looked out onto.

For me, one of the most exciting finds was in Trench 6, the nearest excavation to the amphitheatre. There a splendid length of Roman lead water-main remained in situ. The large-bore pipe was tapped by a smaller branch that almost certainly fed a nearby fountain situated, tantalisingly, somewhere beyond the excavation. The upper and excavated end of the pipe showed a

Fig. 7. The beautiful panther or lion's square plate and nails that attached it to head mount was probably a a lost wooden pipe or tank. The Wheelers' furniture or leather ornament excavation of the amphitheatre yielded and was discovered in the Fig. 6. The stone inscription reading AVG found near the entrance to excavation in Priory Field in 2010. several pipes that may have drawn the great courtyard by the quay. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. water from the same source as this one. 45 Trenches 7, 8 and 9 were positioned Finds on display to visitors to examine the remains of the two included a beautiful bone die courtyard complexes covering the found in Trench 6, together western side of the monumental with a fragment of inscribed suburb. Both of these appear on the stone bearing the letters AVG geophysical plan to be reminiscent of that may have come from the fora, courtyard marketplaces with entrance to the courtyard basilican buildings attached on their by the quay. Some of the northern sides. Trenches 8 and 9 conserved finds from the disclosed the walls of these buildings, 2010 Priory Field excavation whilst the rooms between were were also on display, clogged with rubble and roof tiles. In including an exquisite bronze Trench 9 two successive opus signinum decoration for furniture or floors were found superimposed, hinting leather in the form of a at the amount of use and longevity of panther or lion's head. Fig. 8. A selection from the enormous quantity of tiles found on the site: almost complete imbrex and tegula roofing tiles, and rare examples the rooms that they floored. Fishbourne of the segmented tiles commonly used in Italy for constructing Palace has a similar example of What is noticeable about the columns quickly and inexpensively. Photo: © Anthony Beeson. superimposed mosaic floors. Trench 8 monumental suburb is the disclosed a wall with a roughly- great amount of tile used both in constructed drain of stone and broken construction and in roofing, much if yet been robbed for their materials: tile that emptied into a courtyard that not all bearing the legionary stamp of It was constructed with great care again seems to have been unpaved. the Second Augustan Legion. It would by the Romans, the walls being built Perhaps this and the great courtyard be interesting to know if this tile was of brick. were grassed in antiquity rather than made on site or imported from Journey Through Wales, (Chapter 5). just of beaten earth. One wonders legionary bases elsewhere to build how differently 'well-trodden earth' the suburb. Fine examples of nearly It was noticeable that the small building and 'beaten earth' compare in the complete imbrex and tegula roofing excavated by Time Team showed no archaeological record. Trench 7, the tiles were displayed. Various sizes of sign of rendering or marble cladding. most westerly excavation, contained curved segmented tiles used in I mentioned the presumed similarity the remains of a badly robbed Roman buildings for columns are of the appearance of the tile-built hypocaust. Pilae tiles had supported red amongst the finds, and rare for buildings of Isca to those of Ostia and sandstone slabs and an opus signinum Britannia. The columns formed by elsewhere to Peter and he quipped floor, the ruins of which had sealed the them were generally stuccoed, fluted "Ah, the Ostia of the North!" That has remains of the last firing of the stoke and painted. The Temple of Claudius a rather nice ring to it. hole, perhaps providing dating at employed them in evidence. Red, blue and white wall its precinct. Hopefully the exciting excavations at plaster was discovered on the floor Caerleon, which have raised so many and lifted. The walls had been robbed Parts of the site may have resembled in questions, will be continued in future completely from this section of the the appearance of its buildings what years with the support of the ARA. complex. Stone or tile robbing seems we now see at Ostia Antica near Rome, Without a doubt the site is one of to be piecemeal on the site, with some and one cannot forget Gerald of Wales' the most impressive in Britain and parts barely touched whilst others are description of what he observed on his of the utmost importance for our stripped bare. visit when the buildings of Isca had not understanding of the Romans in Wales. It could prove to be a wonder of Wales if made the subject of a lengthy campaign of excavation. It will be extremely interesting to read Peter Guest's own conclusions of his work when published. I must stress that the above impressions are purely my own observations and interpretations as a visitor to the site.

For a wonderful impression of the structures at Roman Isca as they might have been in mass rather than detail, there is a 3D digital animation produced by 7reasons, an Austrian company specialising in computer reconstructions of ancient and medieval sites. This is available on YouTube at http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=m7VDgTLAAM8

Fig. 9. A reconstruction of the monumental suburb and the fortress of Isca by 7reasons. Image: © 7reasons. Anthony Beeson. 46 Ramblings of an ancient volunteer archaeologist digging through his memories

On a sunny afternoon at the end of believed lost, and even the location of July 1964, in the North Wing of the the dig site was unknown until the ARA celebrated Roman Palace at Fishbourne, visited the area in 2010 and pinpointed human remains resting in a hollow cut its precise location under the driveway into the opus signinum floor were being of the appropriately named 'Roman excavated when senior police officers in House'. Following the Second World a hurry came to advise the young Barry War, many excavations were instigated Cunliffe about a possible threat to the in Southampton prior to rebuilding the remains. Apparently an active coven damaged city. Young volunteers were of witches responsible for desecrating the backbone of this endeavour and led churchyards in the area, by freelance archaeologists; one I recall would, if aware of their existence, like to was John Wacher, who later held the Excavating the skeleton at . use these pagan bones for their revels. chair in archaeology at Leicester and Photo: © Sussex Archaeological Society. It was Lammas Eve, a high point in the was the author of several books on witches' calendar for carousing with the Roman Britain. who also got involved, cleaning finds, devil. Volunteers were called for, so that fetching and carrying. I remember a night a colleague and I placed our Southampton was once dominated by a happy crew of all ages wending their sleeping bags either side of 'Yorick' and, castle; it was long ago demolished and way, sometimes singing "we'll dig, dig, after lighting some joss sticks placed the site built over. Amongst the post- dig!" as they walked to the village inn at around him, settled down to a sleeping war investigations was one very deep lunchtime. The other volunteers had watch. Fortunately for our immortal trench cut to ascertain the dimensions occupations and so could only dig at souls, no hellish hags appeared and we of the castle's moat/defensive ditch. weekends; however, before I left school awoke unscathed to another fine day This trench was so deep that we for the Royal Navy, Mr Morley Hewitt for trowelling. excavators had to throw the soil was happy to let me work midweek on forcefully upwards onto a platform, my own during the summer holidays – Action stations! We were to be from which it was again thrown a schoolboy with a whole Roman villa to honoured by a visit from Sir Mortimer upwards to the top of the trench. himself! One of my tasks was to clear the Wheeler, at the time the most famous Inevitably, some spoil did not make ash from the furnace that served the living archaeologist, star of TV and it and rained back down on the bath-house hypocaust. Although it radio. Hours were spent making the site excavators. There was not a hard hat had been buried for centuries, trapped immaculate, trench sides were shaved to be seen: those were the days! gases rose from the ash, smelling as and made plumb, grass was mown and though the fire had only quite recently stray wisps trimmed with scissors and For several years I dug at Rockbourne been extinguished – quite spooky! The spoil heaps sculpted. Chattering and Roman villa. Those of you who have day after exposure, the smell had gone. loose soil were to be kept to a minimum visited (using your ARA 'passport') will during his tour. The great man arrived, recall it was discovered in 1942 by a When out in the Far East, I and a and moving swiftly through he came farmer digging out his lost ferret from shipmate wandered into the Hong to my trench. He glanced down, sniffed an old cricket pitch. After trial trenching Kong museum and casually enquired if and passed on – something of an proved the villa's existence, Mr Morley any digs were currently under way in anticlimax from archaeological royalty. Hewitt, a local estate agent with a the colony. The enterprising Curator of passion for archaeology, purchased Antiquities asked if we would look at a My interest in archaeology was inspired the field, organised its excavation and Warring States Period (481–221 BC) site by the great discoveries in the Near East established an on-site museum. The on the neighbouring island of Lan Tau. and fostered by spending Saturdays excavation had the ethos of a family Taking some members of the crew of doing unpaid work at my local museum affair. Diggers came with their children HMS Triumph, camping gear, rations (Red House Museum, Christchurch, to and tools, we set of for the village of Man be visited by the ARA in July 2012). I Kok Tsui which occupied the site. There believe I was about nine years old when farmers, refugees from Guangdong this began, and I wonder: would this be China, used every patch of land to grow possible today? Would health and crops; to make a living they worked all safety and other legal considerations the hours of daylight. From a Western allow a museum curator to give a viewpoint they were desperately poor, youngster free amid the collections having few possessions other than their scattered in various storerooms? agricultural tools, yet they were possessed of a quiet dignity and a great My first taste of excavating was a Roman generosity of spirit. Every evening after inhumation cemetery at Bitterne, sundown the villagers came to our Southampton, with the late Mrs Molly campsite for an hour or so to socialise Left to right: Grahame Soffe, Lisa Thomas, Prof Tony Cotton. Alas, the dig was never King and Michael Looker, in front of Roman House at with us. Despite not knowing each published; all records and finds are Bitterne, Southampton. Photo: © G Soffe. others' languages, I recall the friendly 47 atmosphere of Rockbourne Roman a "Humph," and a "Get on with it". villa, although this time there was no A short while later I called him back – village pub to troop to so our singing and he was not best pleased! Several was saved for the End of Dig party in years later while visiting the palace I was December. Why a party so late in the surprised to see the modest black and year? Folkestone produced so much white mosaic I had found conserved more grade one archaeology than had and on display, despite being very been expected that we continued until badly damaged by ploughing and cut the middle of November rather than the by the water main that led to the end of August as had been anticipated. palace's discovery. It now has an entry There was a small touch of comfort: in the scholarly Roman Mosaics of Britain there were public toilets with washing by Neal and Cosh. facilities alongside the site, and For the last three or four decades some Mosaic in Room N19, Fishbourne Roman Palace. although these were normally closed have eschewed the involvement of © Sussex Archaeological Society. over the winter, they were kept open non‑professional archaeologists. But I chatter and laughter going back and until the end of the dig by the kindness know that volunteers have made and forth… Sadly our test pits revealed only of officers of the local council. They will continue to make a significant badly disturbed ground. were much appreciated! contribution towards writing of the In ARA News, March 2011, the article Back to where I started this piece: story of our shared past. I urge anyone '' by 1964, North Wing, Fishbourne Roman who has the passion and the chance archaeologist Keith Parfitt ended with Palace. In what was to become Room to volunteer and get trowelling. The an invitation to ARA members to join N19, I jokingly told the future Professor rewards include fresh air, exercise, the 2011 season's excavation. Manna Sir Barry Cunliffe that, if he was lucky, the company of like-minded people, from Heaven! I answered the call, as did a mosaic would stop us carrying out his friendly banter and maybe seeing your one other ARA member. We both had a instructions to dig quickly down to the discoveries displayed and written into very rewarding time! For me it was a base of the foundation where dating the archives. step back in time, to the family style evidence might be found. This elicited Michael C Looker.

A MAJOR ROMAN BATH the oldest Thames crossing. The newly from Oxford Archaeology and BUILDING DISCOVERED discovered complex includes an apsidal Pre‑Construct Archaeology to excavate AT SOUTHWARK cold plunge bath and hypocausted the site. Chris Place, the archaeologist rooms, and is being described as one of for Network Rail, said: "This is a Just as the Museum of London the most significant finds on the South significant find and offers a further publishes Londinium, a splendid new Bank in recent years. Elsewhere on the insight into London's long history. In map and fold out guide to Roman site, substantial walls have been found Roman times the main settlement was London, yet another significant find has that are thought to belong to on the north bank of the River Thames been made in Southwark on the south predecessors of St Thomas' hospital, and was connected to the settlement at bank of the Thames. This time it is in the which used to stand on the site. Southwark by the first London Bridge. Much archaeological work has been form of a major Roman bath building. Up until a couple of decades ago done in Southwark over the years, but The remains have been found on land Southwark was imagined to have been we were still surprised to discover [a] being cleared by Network Rail for the a somewhat mediocre southern suburb ruin of this nature and size." The bath- Thameslink project on a site at the of Londinium, but exciting finds of house site has been earmarked for a corner of Borough High Street and monumental buildings and religious new office block, but the developers are London Bridge Street, the approach to precincts have quite transformed exploring how to preserve the remains, archaeologists' understanding of life and will give key finds for display to the on the city's opposite bank. Roman Museum of London. Southwark was a network of small separated by creeks. It now Meanwhile, on an adjacent site at seems that although it housed London Bridge Place, early structural warehouses it was also a major remains from around AD 80 have been settlement with important buildings discovered. These include traces of a and expensive architectural details and hypocaust and the walls of two was far more official in character than buildings. the rackety district of Shakespeare's Londinium; a new map and guide to Roman London. age that has so deeply entered the Museum of London Archaeology, 2011, £6.25 http://www.networkrail.co.uk/Roman_bath_house_ public imagination. Network Rail unearthed_at_Thameslink_site.aspx Cold plunge bath, Southwark. © Network Rail. commissioned a team of archaeologists http://www.london-se1.co.uk/news/view/5520

Director: Bryn Walters BA Chairman: Grahame Soffe BA 75 York Road, SWINDON, Wiltshire, SN1 2JU Treasurer: Andrew Hemmings ACIB, BSc Telephone/Facsimile: 01793 534008 The Association for Roman Archaeology Limited is a Charitable Company Limited by Guarantee Company Registered No. 3218318 (Wales) British Registered Charity No. 1056599 Registered Office: The Association for Roman Archaeology Limited, 75 York Road, Swindon, Wiltshire, SN1 2JU 48