Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Retrospective Theses and Dissertations Dissertations
1-1-2005
The role of the bicycle in the development of early American streamlining
Bradley D. Tierney Iowa State University
Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd
Recommended Citation Tierney, Bradley D., "The role of the bicycle in the development of early American streamlining" (2005). Retrospective Theses and Dissertations. 20958. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/rtd/20958
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Retrospective Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The role of the bicycle in the development of early American streamlining
by
Bradley D. Tierney
A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS
Major: Interdisciplinary Graduate Studies
Program of Study Committee: Frederic C. Malven, Major Professor Dennis W. Field Michael J. Barone
Iowa State University
Ames, Iowa
2005
Copyright© Bradley D. Tierney, 2005. All rights reserved. ll
Graduate College Iowa State University
This is to certify that the master's thesis of
Bradley D. Tierney has met the thesis requirements of Iowa State University
Signatures have been redacted for privacy Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWARD v
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2. OUR LONG RELATIONSHIP WITH THE BICYCLE 7 A Model for Mass Production 8 Ties to Transportation 9
CHAPTER 3. MARKETING OF THE MACHINE AESTHETIC 11 Form Follows Function: Industrial Design Irony and Contradiction 13 Chicago World's Fair: A Century of Progress Exposition, 1933-1934 21 "Streamlined vs. Stream-lined:" A Comprehensive Definition 31
CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDIES OF STREAMLINING LANDMARKS 41 Dymaxion Car, 1933 42 Loewy Pencil Sharpener, 1934 45 Harley-Davidson Motorcycles, 1933-34 47 "Cleanlining" 53 Sears "Toperator" Washing Machine, 1933 53 Standard Gas Equipment Company Stove, 1933 55 Sears "Coldspot" Refrigerator, 1934 57 Chrysler Airflow, 1934 61
CHAPTER 5. THE EXCHANGE OF INFLUENCE BETWEEN BICYCLE AND MOTORCYCLE: THE 'MOTORBIKE' 66 The Balloon Tire 79
CHAPTER 6. THE SCHWINN AEROCYCLE INTRODUCES STREAMLINING TO THE INDUSTRY: AN ANALYSIS 84 "Streamline Aerocycle" Arnold, Schwinn & Company, I 934 84 Elgin "Twin-Bar Falcon" & Columbia "Twinbar Airider-The Stream-lined Bicycle" Sears, Roebuck and Company, by Westfield Manufacturing Company, 1934 l 00 Streamline Bicycle Designs, Post-I 934 106
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION 113 IV
APPENDIX A. PATENT LISTINGS 132
APPENDIX B. ADDITIONAL PATENT DOCUMENTATION 134 Articulated Rail Car or Similar Article (U.S. Patent No. Dl00,000, 1936) 135 Weighing Scale (U.S. Patent No. 2,047,681, 1936) 137 Streamline Power Vehicle (U.S. Patent No. 1,648,505, 1927) 141 Motor Vehicle (U.S. Patent No. 2,101,057, 1937) 145 Gas Stove Casing (U.S. Patent No. D90,108, 1933) 154 Bicycle (U.S. Patent No. 2,199,536, 1940) 157 Bicycle Tank (U.S. Patent No. Dl07,443, 1937) 166 Two-Wheeled Vehicle (U.S. Patent No. 2,147,732, 1939) 168
BIBLIOGRAPHY 172
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 180 v
FOREWORD
We subjectively accept the streamline as valid symbol for the contemporary life flow, and as a badge of design integrity in even smaller mechanisms, when it emerges as form expressiveness.
- Sheldon and Martha Chandler Cheney
Art and the Machine, 1936 l
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
While investigating a thesis topic, three areas of interest initially revolved around aspects of design, marketing and materials as related to the history of the bicycle. I had also always had a particular affinity for the products created during the art deco and streamlining era of design.
1broughout the literature review, it became increasingly apparent that the bicycle had influenced other diverse aspects of society, in addition to the integral role it played in mechanical development, transportation and product design. The long journey of identifying a thesis topic inevitably settled on a personal interest: antique and classic balloon tire bicycles. This thesis will explore the role that the bicycle played in the introduction and development of American streamlining, from functional, applied roots in major modes of transportation, to the subsequent use of the sty le in stationary objects.
General history and all that lends itself to viewing the world from another time and place had always piqued my curiosity. It is through the remaining, preserved and restored artifacts of these time periods that we as observers, are allowed to revisit a time gone by in a most personal
way. In a museum setting or otherwise, the displayed objects allow viewers to be transported to
a time in which the given object was created. 1brough observation, we can see product evolution happen before our eyes. As times change, so do the products that represent them. As physical evidence, these products provide insight into what factors contributed to, and
influenced their inception.
The content analysis of historic literature is the basis for t~is research of the bicycles' role in the streamlining movement of the 1930s in America. A number of historical sources
were examined to form a knowledge base that would frame the bicycle in the context of
streamlining, relative to other objects dated from the same period of time. Portions of the
research were compiled from several sources, while other information could only be
substantiated by a single source. In this research, the bicycle as an object, is used as a cross
referencing gauge to define a time when streamlining made a transition from the origin of use in 2 modes of transportation, into stationary objects of American industrial and/or product design culture.
To accomplish the research, several categories of literature on the topic were identified and reviewed: publications dealing with the history of the bicycle in general, role in society, technological development, etc. Specifically, content analysis was done on early advertisements and promotional items of the many companies and cycles contributing to the development and use of streamlining in the industry. These advertisements typically featured "new developments" and latest trends representing style and design directions of the period.
Considerable time was devoted to identifying and categorizing bicycles by style and general date of production, release, etc. Following that, substantial time was spent focusing on those models which fit in the ever-shrinking window of pertinent time period when streamlining was introduced to objects beyond the origin of the transportation industry.
On a more general level of investigation, attention was given to publications and articles regarding the time period itself and societal events sparking the adaptation of streamlining to everyday products in the 1930s. With any historiography, pinpointing factual data regarding dates of product conceptualization and patent dates leading to eventual production release dates was of utmost importance in identifying and categorizing pertinent bicycles. Nothing was more rewarding and disheartening at the same time than seeking information, finding it, only to later identify a cross-reference proving the initial, assumed fact to be incorrect. Without significant, dependable and substantiated dates, any historical research is merely hearsay.
In the search for provable, undeniable facts and dates in the context of historical research, few resources surpassed what was provided through patent documentation. Clearly and concisely, each patent illustrated product chronology through individual issue dates, and more importantly in this case, application dates. Application (filing) dates pertain to the time period when the idea was first conceived and refined to the degree the creator had envisioned, so as to be patented. U.S. Patent information provided an irrefutable part of this research and 3 documentation process. The product assessments included in this research owe much to the information provided by patents. It should be noted that even though APA citation requirements call for the listing of issue dates concerning patent information in the documentation of the paper, it is the application/filing dates that convey more pertinent facts in the context of this discussion. As a reference guide and for simplification in comparisons, a list of each patent, along with the corresponding filing and issue dates are included in Appendix A on page 133.
As is the case with many aspects of the digital realm, the use of the internet as a research method can be both a blessing and a curse. There is an unending amount of information on every subject at the fingertips of anyone who is online today. With this wealth of data and the freedom of information exchange that accompanies it, comes an increased responsibility on the researcher's behalf, to be selective and certain of the sources providing the information in question. Beyond such caution however, the internet is an invaluable tool in research and communication. The resources needed to make contacts and do lead follow-ups were condensed through the convenience and bulk of information provided online. It truly has revolutionized communication, and consequently, made many aspects of this research process
simpler.
Internet resources also provided an eager audience of historians and bicycle aficionados
with whom to consult. What began as page listings of websites dedicated to the preservation
and restoration of antique and classic bicycles, were soon revealed as an information-rich
network of enthusiasts aiding in and contributing to research results. For some initially, the
subject matter seemed to be a tired and exhausted discussion of streamlining. Upon further
review and discussion however, it was a subject ripe for investigation, suitable for determined
and opinionated debate.
In the specialized circles that make up the enthusiasts of any given hobby or collector
trade, there are a dedicated number of individuals representing each brand of cycle. These are 4 the "Ford vs. Chevy" devotees of the bicycle-collecting hobby. With each respective group offering its take on the subject matter, there was never a dull or un-opinionated view regarding what a specific cycle make or model meant to the industry in retrospect. With each fervent perspective offered, increased importance was placed on substantiating the provided view with well-documented, historic fact. Many of these websites offered interaction with other visitors and users by way of postings and web forums. These forums offered opportunity for communication with all those involved and even remotely interested in the hobby. Forum postings and the resulting responses often provided useful, direct and indirect information in the form of leads from those who may not have had the information, but were aware of those who
would.
While much of the literature review surrounded the subject matter of the history of the
bicycle, other sources included books from the 1930s, lending period perspective to the subject
at hand. Invaluable information was found in publications devoted to industrial designers of the
era and their related design ideals, philosophies and most importantly, the products created from
their visualizations. When facts were not available and/or were disputed in publications, the
established and still-existing design firms or in certain instances, the families of these designers
were consulted for access to firsthand information and archives unavailable elsewhere. With
few exceptions, these sources proved to be lucrative and almost always encouraging and
forthright in their assistance. One could only assume that this was due to the continuing
interest by relatives and proteges, in the proliferation of that designer's legacy.
Streamlining was, at least initially, applied to major modes of transportation. Aircraft,
streamliner trains, ships and automobiles all purposefully incorporated streamlining in designs
to lessen wind resistance and/or to minimize aerodynamic drag. In the early to mid-1930s,
following the Great Depression, America looked toward streamlining as a way of lifting public
spirit and boosting confidence in a new way of life, by showing optimism and progress through
speed. Soon after the Chicago World's Fair, "A Century of Progress" Exposition of 1933-34, 5
stationary objects began incorporating design traits that revealed an ingrained belief in machine efficiency. Common household items such as desk lamps, vacuum cleaners, furniture, etc., were
given makeovers with rounded edges and smooth-lined designs. Though streamlined bicycle
design followed that of other transportation, because of the inherent relationship between the
industries, the time lag prior to the adaptation by the bicycle industry was relatively short. The
Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle was included in the transportation display at the Chicago
World's Fair and so, chronologically, was on the leading edge of this movement.
Significant to this study are the years 1933 and 1934, a timeframe demonstrating an
initial stronghold for the use of streamlining in transportation, followed by the introduction of
the design movement beyond this origin. This thesis will explore the role of the bicycle, due to
the unique position it occupied in the market, and the influence it subsequently had, in the
introduction and proliferation of streamlining and machine deco beyond major forms of
transportation, to the smaller static objects of everyday use in America during this time period.
Having been both a method of transport and a smaller product at the same time, the bicycle
acted as the link of introduction, the sole object to embrace and incorporate the trend of
streamlining beyond the original application to major forms of transportation, the functional
root of the styling movement.
As both a contributor and benefactor of progression in the realm of transportation
design and development, it came as no surprise that the bicycle trade, especially during
challenging times, reached for inspiration from the industries it had earlier birthed and helped
proliferate. The bicycle has remained a device of constant reinvention and of marketing
strategies often dictated by the allure associated with other methods of transport. This
association of the bicycle with the transportation industry and the styling and imagery
propagated through the relationship, underscores the entire subject matter of this paper.
The bicycles' established proximity to other forms of transportation via designers who
were simultaneously involved in the creative processes of both, allowed for the overlap and 6 extension of influence from one to the other. The bicycle, particularly in the youth market,
undoubtedly benefited stylistically from the age-old relationship it shared with major modes of
transportation. This kinship, coupled with the marketing-guided imitation of motorcycles and
automobiles in particular, allowed the bicycle to inherit the trend of streamlined styling.
Specific bicycles will be identified and discussed as originators within the context of the many
bicycles of the era to have incorporated streamlining in their respective designs.
Finally, discussion will focus on the bicycle that represented the overt beginning of
functional streamlining in the bicycle industry, the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle. While it
should be noted that other cycles predating or concurrent to the Aerocycle had claimed
streamline attributes, these models failed to present the style in the three-dimensional manner,
focused on the functionally applied aspects that the Aerocycle incorporated. Through content
analysis of what constituted "streamlined" as an adjective in a product description, differences
were discovered and identified, such that there were two separate strains of streamlining used in
product promotion and design during this time: the use of linear "stream-lining," in other
cycles as compared to the aerodynamic "streamlining" presented in the Aerocycle.
Differences and comparisons will be discussed at length.
Revealing the role of the bicycle in the development of streamlining proved to be an in
depth examination of the design movement, language and definition(s) of the style itself. The
nature of the subject matter relies heavily on the study and analysis of visual examples provided
throughout. This thesis will provide a brief history of the bicycle, discuss the contributions it
had on the industrial revolution, and through analysis of case studies, patent documentation and
period advertising, will demonstrate that the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle played an integral
role in the introduction of streamlining from transportation, to stationary applications. 7
CHAPTER 2. OUR LONG RELATIONSHIP WITH THE BICYCLE
For some the experience was a long time ago, for others not so long. Regardless of time passed, for most of us, the moment seems like only yesterday. It is difficult to forget the first one-on-one encounter with the bicycle that provided a first burst of individual freedom and brief panic, followed by calm coasting down a cement sidewalk or grassy path. Undoubtedly, somewhere behind this bicycle was a guiding hand, slowly falling back as words of encouragement and lively coaxing grew more obscure in the distance. Perhaps the only other comparable level of exhilaration was that first successful collision-free completion to the ride.
Exactly where or when it took place is never quite as memorable though, as the bicycle it happened on. As much as the day when we uttered our first word, learned to tie our shoestrings, or took that first exerting step up into the school bus, the initial attempts at balancing while maneuvering on two wheels, was a rite of passage. From that point on, the journey from point A to point B took a dramatic and exciting turn. It is a common experience we've all shared on a bicycle that, regardless of the condition it was in at the time, was the best set of wheels anyone had ever graced. Whether the rider was a kid on the daily grind of a paper route, in midst of winning a first race over the bumpy gravel of an alleyway, or just coasting safely through a grass-padded meadow, the bicycle embodied that experience for them. Often compared to learning and subsequently remembering any daily activity, the age-old analogy of
"it's like riding a bike" is a constant reminder of taking a first step toward learning something new, and being able to reapply that lesson to a lifelong journey.
Above and beyond the splendor of a childhood memory, the bicycle as an agent of social change, a marker of status and method of transportation is oftentimes overlooked.
Perhaps it is the seeming simplicity of the machine's design or the underlying fact that it has been a part of us for so long now, which overshadows the effect it has had on cultures worldwide. 8
... the role of cycling in the social history of the Wes tern World has been sadly
underestimated. Some social historians fail to mention cycling even when it was the
principal recreation or form of transport of those they are describing. There are also
histories of transport which seem to denigrate anything without an engine. Cycling was,
especially from the late nineteenth century onwards, an important and exciting agent of
change. It became a battleground for all manner of Victorian values: propriety versus
public pleasure, aged wisdom versus youthful indiscipline, femininity versus
emancipation, the exclusivity of amateur gentlemen in sport versus the brashness of
working-class professionals. The basic but incomparably efficient act of propelling
oneself on an arrangement of wheels is still able to upset established values, as cycling
has revived in the midst of the motor age. (McGum, 1987, p. 9)
A Model for Mass Production
Stating that the bicycle was an innovator in manufacturing and mass production would be a gross understatement. Early attempts by the artisans and pre-manufacturing builders of bicycles were nothing short of hubs of experimentation and invention, of the purest form.
Had it not been for the early entrepreneurs of the bicycle, developments in aviation and more so the automotive industry would have been left to the inventors of a later and likely, less prepared generation. During many stages of development in new material and metallurgy, the bicycle was the first benefactor.
The manufacture of bicycles began in small and generally unhealthy workshops, where
craftsmen hammered out parts, shaved the spokes of wooden wheels, poured castings,
brazed joints, and switched leather saddles. As the bicycle subsequently evolved into a
sophisticated machine, so also did the methods used to manufacture it. By 1896 large,
integrated bicycle factories had been built in most of the major industrialized countries, 9
factories that later served as models for even larger works with moving automobile
assembly lines. (Harrison, 1969, p.287)
Ties to Transportation
The bicycle, in all its simplicity, was the origin of transportation by wheel and wing.
Innovators in all aspects of early transportation experimentation and design were, in many cases, the product of a background in cycle development and evolution. Because of this progress rooted in cycle development, a continuing correlation existed in later ventures taken on by these same experimenters.
At 1127 West Third Street, in Dayton, Ohio, two brothers, Wilbur and Orville Wright
conducted a bicycle business. They made fine, custom-built bicycles to order, and sold
and repaired standard makes. They devoted much of their time to experimenting with
flying machines, and in December, 1903 they made the first successful flight in a
heavier-than-air machine. From their bicycle experience they knew the strength of light
tube structures and with their knowledge of aerodynamics, they gave the world the
flying machine. Glenn Curtiss, pioneer bicycle and motorcycle manufacturer, made
many contributions to the airplane and airplane engine design. (Arnold, Schwinn &
Company, 1945, p. 24)
Undoubtedly, the steady acceptance, progression and success represented in the bicycle industry, proved to be inspirational and thought provoking to the imaginations of pioneering minds. Having been schooled in the world of cycle design, engineering and manufacturing, endeavors of motorized and gravity-defying machinery must have seemed that much more attainable.
It's a far cry from the bicycle to the modem airliners, but the fact remains that the
bicycle industry was the father of the motor car and the grandfather of aviation. The
bicycle was the first machine for the transportation of an individual free from timetable 10
restrictions, and the limitations and bother of the horse. It caught the public fancy, and
by 1895 its popularity knew no bounds. That the bicycle designers invented and
developed many of the mechanical devices vital to the motor car and important to the
airplane, is irrefutable. It schooled the minds of engineers. It trained the craftsmen and
mechanics and contributed much to the development and improvement of materials.
(Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945,p. 25)
Historically, bicycle design reflected, and is renowned for developments in material.
Wood, iron and rubber had all been incorporated into early wheel structures. Frame designs utilized a gamut of early industrial materials such as wood, bamboo, heat-treated metal forged fixtures, and of course, steel tubing. Developments concerning proper ergonomics, structural engineering as related to frame design, and hardware mechanisms including steering, braking and gearing devices all had been introduced by way of the bicycle. Some examples of primitive automobile designs were little more than paired bicycles held together in unison by a simple frame structure. By all accounts, the first automobiles and planes were essentially modified bicycle concepts altered in a larger experimentation process.
By 1929, the ingenuity represented in the bicycle trade would, like many other manufactured products of the time, require refinement following the Great Depression. Sales were down, profits nil, and budgets tight. It was during this time that the industry sought to reinvent itself and establish new opportunities and a previously undiscovered, but primary marketing niche. New methods in production, increased awareness with regard to styling, and triumph out of tragedy were the challenges of the day. The bicycle industry shared in the challenge. 11
CHAPTER 3. MARKETING OF THE MACHINE AESTHETIC
In the years following the Great Depression, America yearned for a tum in the economic tide. Weary from the struggle and years of sacrifice, with hope for a better tomorrow, American efforts began taking shape to promote and encourage an optimism by way of new and inspiring product design, and thereby a new economic outlook. This was centered not only around the ideas of production and efficiency, but more so the idea that redesigned products could spearhead the stagnant market still lingering from the Great Depression. Newly designed products and their redesigned counterparts offered the potential to demonstrate progress and confidence in an age where machines contributed to a new resolution to the existing economic woes.
Products redesigned in the new style would stimulate the economy by attracting
customers. Underconsumption, considered by most businessmen the nation's major
economic problem, would be ended. With economic friction overcome, material
progress (as well as corporate profits) would again soar like the airplane whose image
inspired the movement. (Meikle, 1979, p. 4)
The influence of an increasing demand for efficiency in major modes of transportation cannot be underestimated in the introduction and proliferation of streamlined products during this time in America. After all, where could the effects of streamlining be more beneficial than in the industry at the core of transport through air, sea, and superhighway? Faster, more efficient transportation is by definition, streamlining. As a result, the traditional was second guessed during this period of time.
Automobile companies like Ford with the Model T for example, though a long-standing success story in terms of efficiency in production and profitability, saw an increasing amount of public demand for something new and modern. No longer acceptable was the idea of marketing and selling a product that consumers could have in what Ford described in the old familiar adage as "any color so long as it is black." Though many established and well-accepted 12 products like Ford's Model T excelled in the past decade, the idea of driving something that resembled a horse carriage on wheels had become obsolete in America by the end of the twenties. Produced from 1907 to 1925, the Model T changed very little stylistically through the duration of reign as performance and low price leader. Ford introduced the Model A in 1927 after Model T sales steadily and significantly declined.
The critic, Werner Graff, writing 'On the form of the motor car' in 1925-6 observed:
'We Europeans pride ourselves on the fact that we disappointed Henry Ford by not
adopting his motor car as widely as he expected, in spite of its extraordinary cheapness
and reliability. We are also rather pleased that as a result he has recently decided to
concern himself with its form.' While styling can be presented as a way of providing
built-in obsolescence to the advantage of industry, this statement suggests that it is
welcomed just as much by the consumer. (Lambert, 1993, p.48)
Though alluding to European consumers, the same pertained to the economy and demands in America. The genius simplicity of consumer products such as Ford's Model T were being challenged by consumers with an ever-expanding palate of taste, styling choices and customized products reflecting the mood of the 'Roaring Twenties.' As a result, and more so following the effects of the Depression, manufacturers were feeling increased pressure to reject the status quo and develop advanced products rooted in science, progress, and the belief in a new and improved tomorrow. Likely, pressures of this sort led to competitive design solutions among the manufacturers of various forms of transport of the day.
You only have to visualize present-day electric street cars and interurban cars to realize
how old-fashioned they are in every particular. In this field much experimental work is
under way. Mechanical improvements are being studied by competent engineers. But
engineers are only farseeing in terms of engineering. The engineering problems are the
most obvious and easiest division of the problem to solve. The one important factor that
would get people into the cars is being almost completely ignored. Competition 13
between the various transportation systems will undoubtedly bring about a change for
the better before long. (Geddes, 1932, p. 243)
Industrial Designers, as they would come to be known, played an integral role in transforming uninspiring products of the day into objects designed to reawaken a public attention span still stunted from a long and draining Depression. In his 1932 book Horizans, at the lowest point of the Great Depression, designer Norman Bel Geddes speculated on the future of product design and one of the many purposes streamlining would serve:
In support of my belief that all the common objects of our everyday life will continue to
undergo vast changes as a result of the impetus toward design, facts of aesthetic and
economic significance can be cited almost without limit. There is every indication that
the mass of people have a deep-rooted craving for satisfaction from the appearance of
the things around them. Year by year, the public judgement in such matters improves;
and the reason is that the public is becoming more and more desirous of eliminating the
uncouth. (Geddes, 1932, p. 277)
Form Follows Function: Industrial Design Irony and Contradiction
There is an underlying, age-old question that surrounds the issue of what constitutes
"good design." What defines it and how is it recognized? Can it be assumed that if any given product sells well in the intended market, it can be then designated "good design?" Is it in the eye of the beholder and relative to a certain audience at a specific place and time? Some would argue that good design is timeless and that true success in design is indicated by the duration of appreciation for a given product. In the case of streamlining, there were inevitable contradictions in the argument for form following function, and the subsequently produced designs therein. Streamlining in American industrial design began as a functional method for creating transportation design so as to be more economical, more efficient. Later absorbed by every aspect of product culture though, it evolved into a marketing trend. Everyday household 14 appliances and small stationary items began taking on the look of objects in flight or forward motion. What began in the 1930s as an earnest attempt at efficiency had, by the 1950s, turned into a blanketing of chrome "extras" and elaborately-finned automobiles.
Good design offers new advertising opportunities. Good design increases sales appeal
in any object. Good design instills a pride of ownership which increases the value of
the piece. It creates favorable discussion by word-of-mouth advertising (the most
valuable kind) that is totally lacking in an object of mediocre design. Good design adds
length of life to an object because it takes longer to tire of it. Good design tends
towards further simplification of manufacturing processes and hence to economies in
production. Good design improves the merit of the product. (Geddes, 1932, p. 242)
Renowned American product designer, Raymond Loewy embarked on a redesigning project of what, in the automobile industry, was considered a quintessential car design of the late
1950s in America. Though the 1959 Cadillac (Figure 3 .1) was a success in the marketplace,
Loewy branded it "acceptable, but for the front end and the extravagant rear fins." (Loewy,
1979, p. 178) Loewy went on to address the redesign of this Cadillac (Figures 3 .2-3 .3) with his process and methodology:
I redesigned the car and removed all the bulky chrome-plated extras, about a hundred
and fifty pounds of junk. I retained the tail lights and incorporated them in the
redesigned, simpler fenders, all aligned with a redesigned, simpler bumper.
(Loewy, 1979, p. 178)
Though Loewy' s 1959 Cadillac redesign solution could be considered a success in terms of removing excess bulk, could it therefore be considered "good design"? Gone were the Detroit excesses of chrome ornamentation and rocket-inspired tailfins. However, would
Loewy' s transformation have been successful or accepted as a 1959 Cadillac design in
America? Which then is a more appropriate gauge to determine success in design? 15
Figure 3 .1. Side view of an original 1959 Cadillac, similar to the subject of a redesigning project taken on by designer Raymond Loewy (Source: Gruwez, 2003)
Figure 3.2. Side view ofLoewy's redesign solution for his 1959 Cadillac (Source: Loewy, 1979,p.178)
Loewy implied in his analysis of Cadillac's original design that extravagance should be replaced with simplicity. But were simplicity and non-ornamentation ideal traits that most
Cadillac consumers desired and sought in their choice of luxury automobile in 1959? Also worth noting in terms of Loewy's re-styling solution is his seemingly overlooked positioning of the original tail lights in his redesign solution. His choice of positioning the tail lights would, at the very least, have been noticeably inconspicuous to highway traffic from the rear.
The abridged version could be considered less bulky and void of the original decor surplus, but with all this removed, would it have been functional and fitting in a Cadillac market?
While the Loewy design represented a "less is more" design solution, in terms of the marketplace, is less necessarily more? Loewy is still one of the most celebrated designers of the
20th Century and most notably, for his influence on and creations of the streamlining period.
Functionalists of this time dismissed streamlining as a mere sales pitch for anxious consumers.
In the eyes of Loewy, as he stated in 1929, his design philosophy was simple: "Of two 16 products that are the same in price, function and quality, whichever is more beautiful will sell better." (Hauffe, 1996, p. 96)
Figure 3.3. Original rear, upper left, compared with Loewy's rear treatment, upper right, and in progress, bottom (Source: Loewy, 1979, p. 178)
This unending question of form versus function is nowhere more present than in the bicycles designs of the streamlining era. The irony, of course, is that these bicycles of bulk evolved at a time when their genre was referred to as "streamlined." Functionalism is the belief that an object's form and design is ideally determined by its purpose as a product. As witnessed by the redesign example of above, Loewy chose a solution that slimmed down the
Cadillac, thereby making the design more functional, efficient and less wasteful in terms of weight and material. Oftentimes, the decision to add material to conceal or unify a design solution proved to be fundamentally lacking in true applied streamlining. More than anything else, streamlining evolved into a marketing ploy which product designers sometimes used to convert existing products into new offerings by adding an outer concealing "shell" to justify a
"new and improved" status of anything streamlined. 17
The public's interest in streamlining offered designers the rationale they needed to make
it an aesthetic base for mass-produced objects. For a time it was applied to every
product possible, resulting in what some have called the "streamlined era," and in the
process it seems to have fixed in the public mind the notion that industrial designers are
"streamliners." For a few years the characteristic streamline was accepted as the ideal
form for many American manufactured products, much to the dismay of some
observers. Edgar Kaufmann, Jr., wrote sarcastically that "the teardrop swelled, divided
and multiplied, became garnished with ribbons of chrome and elevated on an altar of
sales, while statistical Magnificats were sung in its honor." Laszlo Moholy-Nagy saw
streamlining as "superficial styling" to which industrial designers had succumbed
under pressure from salesmen, yet he later admitted that the new form increased the
strength of a product's shell and made it easier to manufacture. (Pulos, 1983, p. 393)
The logic of employing industrial designers to integrate the streamline form to products of this period was justified by any number of variables. Depending on the respective background, training and education of these designers, the rationale for use of this trend in design had become a subject of increasing debate amongst designers of the day. Many argued for the style use only in instances where a product had potential to benefit from streamlining in the truest sense of the term. In the minds of these design purists, if a product had no potential to benefit from, or be subjected to, wind-tunnel or fluid dynamic testing, the product should then be exempt from this use of sty ling.
Other designers however held the cause of introducing streamlining to a broader
standard. Harold Van Doren, like most American Designers of the time, saw no harm in
making manufactured products conform to the full-flowing forms of modem aircraft, in
place of the harsh angularity of the modernists or the cold intelligence of the
functionalists. (Pulos, 1983, p. 393) 18
Perhaps this was Raymond Loewy's contention when, in 1933, he converted a small stationary office tool, the pencil sharpener, into a sleek and inspired design. Admired by some as part of the new direction in design, it was not without its critics. In the opinion of these critics, this early and bold example that introduced this styling to a fixed object such as a pencil sharpener, seemed illogical. Henry Dreyfuss, a design contemporary of Loewy's, later criticized (Figure
3.4) the streamlined concept as lacking in fundamental styling ideology.
Indeed, an obscure but pointed critique of the streamlined designs of Dreyfuss's rival
Raymond Loewy is found in the marginalia of Designing for People, where Dreyfuss
drew a caricature of the famous teardrop pencil sharpener (unaccompanied by any
identification) with an over emphasis given to the two screws that mount it firmly to its
support. (Flinchum, 1997, p. 70)
Figure 3.5 presents Loewy's concept in a patent drawing filed on May 29, 1933 (U.S.
Patent No. D91,675, 1934). The accompanying description is included in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.4. "Implicitly Dreyfuss was criticizing the cognitive dissonance created by a streamlined form screwed solidly into a desktop." (Source: Flinchum, 1997, p. 70) 19
;March 6, 1934. R. LOEWY l".UC U.. SJWlP!llU Patent lm11gl:l> ni.11. -., 29, i~
Figure 3 .5. The teardrop shape presented in Loewy' s concept idea for a pencil sharpener (Source: Loewy, 1934) 20
Patented Mar. 6, 1934 Dea. 91,ti75 •
UNITED ST A TES PATENT OFFICE
SM'JS: llBSIGN FOR A. n:NCJI, SUARPENE&
~oad l...(i&wf • .N'M.J Tuk,. N. Y. Atilllicatloo lla...v ~. 19.33. Serla:I No. 4.8,BU • Tum. of patettf. S\i years T<> an: w1~!!o e r... 1ay c0tzc.erie~ Figure :2 .ts a :side tlti'llt.ional \'few of the peneU 8!J it known t..hnt l, R.\YXi:)~U JJl.~W't, 0. cl.tlzian i:harpmt'l!!'i o:r UH!. Ro:Publi.c or Prance, residlng at l'fcw Yqrt., Pjtture 3 iS ~!rout. el.avatiooal \ioew of the penc.1 in the count:;- (lof New Y-0-t:k, in. tbe sta.t4! ot ~cw ::barpr:::i:u:~r; and Ym·k, b11io'C imcntcd cCltil.in new. Q'ogjU.aJ. and or Flsure 4 !s a top p(a:n vi-ew ~ tlle. pend1. 3ha.r:t> narn.ente! Deel~n !or Peoot Shsrpen(ll', cl whfoh ep.er, the follow.mg i~ ti. $pecm~ti'l)rl. :ret~:renca being Iclmm; had th'i:ll'cin to the ai:oom~~)'. i;)1g draw:~. !arm 'I'he 01namrm~oJ. design l~'t ;'t. pe.nc-jl Sbupener i~~ ~ :ua.rt m~oo:c, wh.arein~ !;lUb~tanlJollY aa shown. Ji'ir;ute 1 i!;l. a pef$"Jlecuve \'ieW crt a. pencil sb.arp ene:r emOOdying mr ne~ de'.;ten;
•
Figure 3.6. The description for Loewy's "certain new, original, and ornamental" pencil sharpener design (Source: Loewy, 1934) 21
Dreyfuss commented in his book about the application of streamlining to what he considered unworthy products. But went on to discuss and admit that streamlining had introduced useful and lasting influences to sensible product design thereafter.
Hearses and fountain pens and pencil sharpeners were stupidly modeled after the
teardrop, which was held up as an ideal form, one which a body free to change its shape
would assume, in order to offer a minimum of resistance to air. Some critics pointed
out that fountain pens and the baby buggies seldom stirred up much of a breeze, and a
streamlined pencil sharpener couldn't get away if it tried because it was screwed down,
but the critics were readily outshouted .
. . .But out of the era of so-called streamlining, the designer learned a great deal
about clean, graceful, unencumbered design. He learned to junk useless protuberances
and ugly comers that not only spoiled good honest lines but interfered with efficient
operation. Stand a 1929 toaster with its knobs and knuckle-skinning comers and
impossible-to-clean slits and over-all ugliness next to today's model, and the difference
is apparent. (Dreyfuss, 1955, p. 77)
Chicago Worlds Fair: A Century of Progress Exposition, 1933-34
Following the Chicago Worlds Fair Exposition of 1933-1934, the te~ streamlining had become not only a style choice for industrial designers, but also a prescription for a new way of life for many Americans. In representing the mood it hoped to create, the logo for the World
Fair of 1933 (Figure 3 .7) demonstrated the overcoming of impossible odds and the achievement of dauntless tasks in its imagery.
As this post-Depression culture immersed every aspect of itself in the dawning of a better tomorrow, streamlining encompassed the collective thought. The teardrop form then, had become the poster child of the promise. In the rush to adapt and offer products signifying this new trend, many companies began using the description of "streamlined" very loosely when 22 describing products that were essentially minor alterations of a previous offering. While the term "streamlined" existed and was certainly used as an adjective prior to the Chicago Worlds
Fair, evidence suggests that the term saw limited use and was not yet lodged in the collective thought of the public during this time.
Figure 3 .7. From the Official Guide Book to the Fair, the logo demonstrated the tone of optimism the Fair presented. Note the use of "speed-whiskers" in both the graphic of the logo and flanking of the word "Chicago." (Source: Pulos, 1983, p. 348)
In the official publication for visitors to the fair, Chicago Century of Progress: Official
Guide Book of the Fair 1933, a reference in a section discussing the transportation exhibit and displays within, advises readers:
You may wish to pause and see "old Number 9 ," the first sleeping car ever built, a
wooden car with open platforms and crude berths, that looks a bit humble as it stands
between two great modem Pullmans, all of aluminum, and stream-lined, which are the 23
last word in sleeping car construction for 1933. (Century of Progress Committee, 1933,
p. 47)
Describing a transportation display contrasting old and new locomotives, the text identifies the new train as being "stream-lined." This hyphenated form of the word is found more often in advertising during years prior to the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago. Perhaps this would indicate that the exposure gained at the Exposition helped in, or at least certainly contributed to, the progression of the term out of a stage of infancy. In the years following, these futuristic trains came to be known by the term "streamliner." The fact that the two words became one in the word synonymous with these redesigned locomotives sweeping across the nation during this time, may have been a factor in the term "streamlining" becoming a unified, non-hyphenated word. By many accounts, the streamliner trains of this time did more to capture public imagination than any of the other methods of public transport.
Hoping to win passengers away from the car, railway executives sought to imbue rail
travel with an image of modernity. Within months of the publication of Geddes' s book,
the Union Pacific and Burlington lines announced plans for the first passenger
streamliners. Completed early in 1934, the UP's M-10,000 and the Burlington Zephyr
were intended as fast commuters trains. Their technically innovative designs
incorporated internal combustion engines and lightweight bodies of aluminum or
stainless steel, but it was their sleek aerodynamic forms that attracted public attention.
During the spring and summer of 1934, both trains toured the nation and attracted
thousands of sightseers. Some people went through the trains during brief stops in
small towns. Those in rural areas crowded to local crossings as the trains came
sweeping by at times announced in advance. Farm wives made blurry Kodak snapshots
as their husbands held up babies for a glimpse of the shape of things to come.
Thousands more saw the two trains as star attractions of the second season of the
Century of Progress Exposition at Chicago. Surrounded by the fair's Machine Deco 24
structures, many of them designed by New York's leading skyscraper architects, the two
streamliners heralded a commercial design sty le more in harmony with Depression
attitudes than was jazzy Machine Deco. Given the central role of the railways in settling
the American Midwest, it was not surprising that people adopted the word 'streamliner'
to refer to a train rather than to a car or to an aeroplane, either of which more fully
represented the future for which the streamline style stood as a symbol. Bridging past
and future, the streamliner suggested smooth, frictionless progress - exactly what the
American people wanted as they struggled through the Depression. (Meikle, 1993, p.
187)
Figures 3.8 and 3.9, show the two streamliner (also known as 'steamliner') trains that captivated public imagination prior to and during the Century of Progress Exposition in
Chicago. Complete patent drawings (U.S. Patent No. Dl00,000, 1936) and accompanying descriptions for the Pullman designed M-10 ,000 are included on page 135 of Appendix B.
Figure 3.8. "Union Pacific Railroad: M-10,000 'City of Salina', general view, 1934" (Source: Engler & Lichtenstein, 1995, p. 138) 25
Figure 3 .9. "Burlington Zephyr' en route in the Midwest, c.1934" (Source: Engler & Lichtenstein, 1995, p. 137)
Given the purpose and theme of the Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-34, "Century of
Progress Exposition," it is a fair assumption that the exhibits were geared toward displaying the past while eagerly accentuating the future and all things possible in it. This was an event scheduled years prior to the onset of the Great Depression. With that in mind, the organizers made a decision to forge ahead with plans, not only in the midst of the Depression, but more importantly, in spite of it.
The courageous decision of local businessmen to proceed with plans for the Fair in
spite of the precarious economic situation paid off. Although 'A Century of Progress'
was financed without government subsidies, it was not only a popular success, but a
financial one as well. More than 38.6 million people visited the fairgrounds on Lake
Michigan between opening day, May 27, 1933, and October 31, 1934, when the gates
closed for the last time. (The success of the 1933 Fair had persuaded organizers to
extend it for an additional season.) The public responded enthusiastically to the
promise of a better future communicated through a wide array of displays; whether they 26
perceived the Fair as a means of overcoming the Depression, or as a temporary respite
from its daily miseries, remains moot. (Hauss-Fitton, 1995, p.68)
During 1933, the inaugural year of the Fair, a notable reluctance surfaced on behalf of many exhibitors as to how well an exposition of this magnitude would succeed with the country in the midst of the Great Depression that had at that point, taken a toll for a few years already.
Perhaps this accounts for a certain level of caution in the exhibitions of the first year. Though most displays were undeniably designed to impress, it wasn't until the established success of the first year, that a justified second season inspired many exhibitors to upgrade displays for yet another even more promising year.
In that second year of 1934, a confidence in cause arose that had been absent in the year prior. It is widely acknowledged that displays in Chicago during these two years, are credited with introducing a mass audience to streamlining, the design movement which would shape things for decades to come in America. Although this was certainly the case concerning the sporadic introduction of the style to the public, streamlining was hardly the norm in styling during the introductory year of the Fair in 1933.
A presidentially appointed Research Committee on Social Trends observed in 1933 that
''streamlined products seemed to most people to be better-looking and more appropriate
to modem times." However, that does not mean that they were ubiquitous at the
beginning of the thirties. A survey of both the products introduced at the 1933 Fair and
contemporary reactions to them indicates that streamlined forms were exceptional, and
that they attracted a great deal of attention as technological novelties. The principles of
streamlining were almost exclusively applied to means of transportation: automobiles,
trains, ships and aircraft. Manufacturers cited greater speed and efficiency as
justification for unconventional shapes and details. Americans regarded the improved
performance of the single vehicle - and above all, its greater capacity for speed - as proof 27
that progress could not be halted, and that it would eventually transcend the present
crisis. (Hauss-Fitton, 1995, p. 68)
Content analysis of photographs from a display portfolio of the Chicago Worlds Fair of
1933-34 (Figures 3.10-3.14), shows the overwhelming and reoccurring theme in modem exhibit designs of the time, to be the use of stream-lines (also termed 'speed-whiskers,' 'triple- bands,' 'speed-lines' and/or 'chrome-ribs') as a consistent decorative styling treatment. The evident presence of these parallel lines in everything from architecture to display design at the fair, demonstrates the existence of this strain of "stream-lining" as an already established decorative direction.
The application of these stream-lines, whether horizontal or vertical, had geometric roots in the De Stijl, Cubist, Bauhaus and Art Deco schools of thought. The gradual reinterpretation of this parallel linearity into the more form-following, converging and diverging streamlines can more directly be traced back to the photographic or other graphical representations of wind- tunnel tests for aerodynamic improvements in transportation. The existence of stream-lines in styling would be reinforced to a large degree by this association.
Figure 3. I 0. Stream-lining as displayed in the exhibits of the Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-34 (Source: Century of Progress Committee, 1933, p. 63) 28
Figure 3.11. Stream-lining example: Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-34 (Source: Century of Progress Committee, 1933, p. 138)
Figure 3.12. Stream-lining example: Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-34 (Source: Century of Progress Committee, 1933, p.145) 29
Figure 3.13. Stream-lining example: Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-34 (Source: Century of Progress Committee, 1933, p.27)
Figure 3.14. Stream-lining example: Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933-34 (Source: Century of Progress Committee, 1933, p.138)
Lending credence to the restyling of products to incorporate either streamlining or stream-lining, was the apparent success of a redesigned turnstile (Figure 3.15), which 30 subsequently became a standard in the industry and was used for the first time at the Chicago
World's Fair. (Pulos, 1983, p. 352)
For many products prior to the 1930s, product appearance was never a high priority. As
late as 1931 a survey by Product Engineering Magazine found that only 7 percent of its
readers- engineers and manufacturers- felt appearance to be a crucial factor in sales. In
many companies the title of designer never existed; a product's appearance simply
evolved as part of the manufacturing process or as a gut reaction to the market on the
owner's part ...
Helping to further the idea of product appearance as a key to increased sales
were the successes of some new designs. Fortune magazine in 1934 claimed that John
Vassos' s Perey turnstile redesign had actually lowered the cost while it increased sales
by 25 percent... (Wilson, Pilgrim, & Dickran, 1986, p. 83)
Figure 3.15. Vassos's turnstile design for the Perey Company, a primary example of the 'triple-banded' appearance of linear stream-lining (Source: Pulos, 1983, p. 352) 31
"Streamlined" vs. "Stream-lined:" A Comprehensive Definition
During the formative stages of any design style, questions arise concerning characteristics the given object should possess in order to fit the mold of said style classification. In retrospect, these characteristics evolve as the style develops and inevitably incorporates additional variables in a final definition. This was certainly no exception in the case of streamlining. The lines of streamline characterization and definition were perhaps blurred most by the sheer bulk of products redesigned in·an attempt to make the latest offering seem most advanced among competition. In this rush to modernize, the transformation was almost effortless for those companies whose products had at least a perceived need for improvement through streamlining.
Benefits were obvious for transportation related objects. Not so self-explanatory though, were streamlining attributes attached to objects with little or no movement at all. This point fell on deaf ears of a public caught up in what the future might bring and imagery created in this mindset. When the transition was made from streamlining in methods of transport to stationary objects, a consuming public seemed to accept the idea in stride. "So highly did streamlining charge the imagination that its bulbous, tapering outlines caused no amusement when applied to incidental kitchen and office artefacts." (Sparke, Hodges, Coad, and Stone,
1986, p. 134)
To define streamlining is to define different attributes for diverse applications. Ideally and initially, streamlining held applied, functional benefits ranging from improved aerodynamics to increased production efficiency values. Depending on the application, however, certain products obviously had the potential to utilize more of these benefits than did others. The applied benefits of streamlining were, in many cases, abandoned as the trend adopted uses in stationary objects as a marketing tool. Being part of the futuristic appeal and capitalizing on public fantasy meant looking the part. As a result, the redesigning of these products by industrial designers, meant justifying the changes by reasons ranging from issues of economy 32 to ease of production values, beyond the perceived benefits of improved aesthetics. As most
companies were still reeling from the Great Depression, streamlining, though an anticipated
savior, had to be applied within conservative budgets while demand increased the cautious
effort.
Through in part, styling and design influences from abroad, and somewhat as a
functionally driven extension of Art Deco, streamlining flourished as a thoroughly American
creation. This styling appeared in an American culture where converging societal, economic,
industrial design and mass production factors combined to form an environment ripe for the
creation of a new visual language.
This change occurred first in the USA as part of a conscious search for a style for the
age, focusing on the design language that came to be called 'streamlining'. This derived
originally from aerodynamic experiments, such as wind-tunnel testing, for objects of
transport, but it had a number of other visual sources, including Futurist painting,
airships, the tapered forms of dolphins and porpoises, and the abstract engineered forms
of objects like grain silos, bridges and factory machinery (particularly as portrayed in
photographs by people such as Margaret Bourke-White). To these sources were added
the futuristic shapes and 'speed whiskers' used by comic-book artists. (Sparke, et al.,
1986, p. 141)
In the now renowned 1976 book, Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the
Social Roots of Consumer Culture, streamlining is branded in hindsight, a marketing cliche:
While art decoratifhad become passe as an expression of high culture, by the mid
thirties many mechanical products had internalized these designs- now called
"streamlining." In physics, streamlining was a design that was a "graphical
representation of movement. .. Streamline form is given to a body ... to the end that its
passage through a material may meet with the least resistance." As streamlining
became applied to consumption and product design, physics became transformed into 33
cultural allegory- a design which passes through the greatest amount of popular
resistance. (Ewen, 1976, p. 107)
Proponents of streamlining pointed out the natural fluid shapes found in birds, fish and more prominently the believed shape of a falling drop of water. Figure 3 .16 shows the photo used by
Bel Geddes to justify the idea that streamlining frequently occured in nature.
Figure 3.16. Norman Bel Geddes used the above photo of a 'sheet of ice in flowing stream demonstrating nature's streamlining' in his book, Horizans (Source: Geddes, 1932, p. 45)
Derivatives of streamlining origin are quite evidently traced back to the functionally justified roots of wind-tunnel testing for early uses in improving transportation efficiency.
Regardless of the initial reasoning for these tests, the subsequent application of streamline characteristics in any given instance oftentimes surpassed the original reasoning, to include unforeseen benefits. In the case of origins in streamliner trains, the sheet metal casings originally used to alleviate wind protuberances in locomotive travel were later used less for economy and more for passenger comfort in relation to the interior environment of the moving train: 34
Prominent among the designers of external cladding and colour schemes for American
locomotives and coaches were Otto Kubler, Henry Dreyfuss and Raymond Loewy.
Almost all the steam locomotives had the boiler turned into a projectile by placing a
blunt nose on the smokebox, and the chassis enclosed to make a box with a curved
apron round the front to meet the legal requirements for a cow-catcher. Many carried
decorative 'whiskers' radiating from a point low on the front and continuing along the
sides as straight 'streamlines', sometimes as corrugations reminiscent of Junkers
aircraft.
The 'projectile on a box' formula and the bright colouring that went with it
certainly sold seats, but probably did little to reduce fuel consumption. Wind-tunnel
tests were carried out in some cases, but probably with the main object of curing the
problem of smoke being drawn down over the cab, to which these designs were prone in
a crosswind. (Self, 1978, p. 19)
It was through such wind-tunnel experiments, using graphical representations and research
photographs documented to show airflow improvements and detractions, that designers and
engineers eventually adapted the idiom of a series of parallel lines as the stylistic language to represent the visions of the products of the future. "Blunt, curved forms, often decorated with
'stream lines' as ridges or painted stripes along their sides - a visual style evidently suggested
by the wind-tunnel photographs with their smoke trails - were all the rage for everything from
vehicles to food mixers." (Self, 1978, p. 18)
It might seem to the contemporary observer that the two very distinctly different
streamline "languages" likely originated from separate sources. The first example,
(stream-lining) typically used in a very two-dimensional format, represented what the second,
(streamlining) solely three-dimensional form, fully expressed. While the use of parallel
'stream-lines' derived in wind-tunnel experiments, depicted one aspect of these tests in the new
design language, the other more obvious example was the ideal shape these studies hoped to 35 predict and utilize as the perfected shape for "streamlined" design. The true-to-form and most basic delineation, the 'teardrop,' embodied the three-dimensional shape created and identified through these experiments.
The rapid development of powered aircraft led to the discovery that the lowest drag in air
was achieved with fish-like forms having a smoothly rounded leading edge and a sharp
trailing edge. In a wind-tunnel, it could be seen that the air flowed around such bodies
almost without turbulence, which could be detected by looking at 'stream lines' made
visible by injecting fine streams of chemical smoke into the moving air. Hence the term
'streamlined' was coined to describe a shape developed by this method to have low
drag. (Self, 1978, p. 18)
For practical purposes, understanding, and simplification in the context of this paper, descriptions will allude to designs exhibiting traits based either on the terms 'stream-line,' the reliance of parallel lines (linear) or 'streamline,' the presence of the three-dimensional
'teardrop' shape (aerodynamic). The validity of the use of 'stream-line' styling was justified through association, back to the experiments from which it was derived. Through this association, the use of linear stream-lining was accepted as a legitimate representation of the
"modern." Figure 3 .17, illustrates the sources of 'streamlining' and 'stream-lining.'
IDEALIZED "STREAM-LINES"
Figure 3.17 Two identified strains (streamlining and stream-lining), both by-products of wind tunnel testing, in an author-rendered illustration 36
The visual use of parallel lines, whether vertical or horizontal, inherently suggested
motion, and so this association was inevitable when considering the affiliation to wind-tunnel
experiments, etc. The word 'stream-line' (oftentimes, 'Stream' and 'Line' were individually
capitalized) placed subtle importance on the 'line' portion of the hyphenated term. In this way,
designs described with the adjective, "stream-lined" often utilized the "speed whiskers" or
"triple-banding" motifs, while the unified idiom of 'streamline,' placed emphasis on the word
as a whole, and therefore spoke of the object being aerodynamically and wholly 'streamlined.'
Figures 3 .18 and 3 .19 illustrate the science behind the teardrop shape identification and its
subsequent use as the embodiment of the streamlining movement.
TOWARDS A NEW ARCHITECTURE
Resistance. ..__,. Section at right ~ogles 1 to dirc_ction. 0.085 0 ~Sphere. 0 .0135 c ~Hemisphere-concave. 0.109 ~ Hcmisphcrc-- coovcx ) (open behind).
--lo Ovoid body: the gre.ucr 0 mass in front. o.cot ·1 he r01:e whirh .e/l'e.r the best penetration is the res11/1 of experi11m1t and ,·11/c11/alirm, mu/ this is confirmed ~J' natural creations s11ch as fishes, birds, etc. J: sptri111t11/1d appliralio11 : lht' din~eib/e, raci1~g car.
Figure 3 .18. Diagram by Le Corbusier, showing "air resistance of various forms, 1927. Towards a New Architecture." (Source: Meikle, 1979, p. 145)
·--~ ..... - · ~ .- /"' : \~_ .: ·:&Ji:J ~~ -;.~_~f~ S\~-~j~{:J~~:·~-~ .;.';. •. ,,a.; ~ .... -~- ... ~
Figure 3 .19 · Fr?m. his book, Horizons, a Norman Bel Geddes "diagram illustrating the prmc1ple of streamlining" (Source: Geddes, 1932, p. 45) 37
Suggesting that the teardrop was used only for streamlining in the three-dimensional sense, and conversely that the other strain, stream-lining, in tum was applied strictly for purposes of the two-dimensional, is short sighted. Just as the linear theme of stream-lining was used as a surface treatment, so too was the shape of the teardrop (also called 'ovoid,' 'cone' and/or 'streamlet'). In this incarnation, the teardrop was used as a representation of the
'modem' by association of the shape itself. The two-dimensional shape is demonstrated in
Figures 3 .20 and 3 .21 . In Figure 3 .20, on either side of the elongated teardrop shape are the parallel bands as smaller structural supports for the rider. Van Doren presented the sled to readers under the guise that "children love streamlining."
Sl o: d, wen: ~lo w in capit•;
l<,:1tlng fo !he on ~ I c: u\1 hr of d esign. The !>r.o- Plon<:' for Ame rica" Nati0tt ol wen the firt 11 th,; hi tfo~t ry . . . . A~ov;i , dm•.., it»:J ;,, bt,1ck <> lld 1·..- XX\lll fur ~<1 :.e hi C H H P R E;N lOVE STREA MLI NING Figure 3 .20. From his book, Industrial Design, a Harold Van Doren explanation of his 1934 "Sno Plane" sled design, utilized as its central platform, the shape of an elongated teardrop (Source: Van Doren, 1940, plate 32) 38 Figure 3 .21. This Borg weighing scale (left), with a patent application date of February 19, 1934, used the teardrop as a centerpiece (right) for the dial display. Note: also used are the stream-lines which run vertically through the teardrop shape (Source: author's collection) Figure 3.21, a Borg weighing scale, utilized the definitive teardrop shape as its main decorative characteristic, and has the linear bands running vertically through it. U.S. Patent No. 2,047,681 (1936) is included on page 137 of Appendix B. As the teardrop was used as a symbol in the two-dimensional sense, so too was the theme of linear stream-lining sometimes applied in the three-dimensional realm. The lines of streamline definition were blurred even further in products that used linear stream-lining on the round. As stated earlier, the styling oflinear stream-lining owed heritage to the ideals of Bauhaus, De Stihl, and Art Deco, among others. The themes of these design styles were adapted or transferred to stream-lining in the items shown in Figures 3.22 and 3.23. Both products used the linear theme on a three-dimensional platform. These products went beyond the minimal presence of stream-lines, for example, being merely painted onto an object, and instead were incorporated fully into the forms themselves. 39 Figure 3 .22. A 1933 Gilbert Rohde designed desk lamp, used paralleled tubular metal as its base and overall structure (Source: Johnson, 2000, p. 137) Figure 3.23. "Zephyr" Electric Clock, 1934, used linear parallel banding as wrap-around decoration (Source: Johnson, 2000, p. 136) This styling boded particularly well for uses pertaining to the bicycle. The parallel lines of stream-lining, in three-dimensional product design applications, were often represented by the use of polished metal or chromium tubing. In the context of the bicycle, this meant the existence of parallel tubing in frame design, or a significant continuity in the lines of the framework or a marked presence in major accessories, i.e., chainguard, luggage carrier, fenders, etc. This subject is discussed further in Chapters 6 and 7. Encompassing the Chicago Century of Progress Exposition, 1933 and 1934 were years when the streamlining movement established, if only infant, mainstream legitimacy. Transportation industry subsets had exchanged influences in efforts to be the first in their respective genre to adapt something new in design styling, seemingly all rooted in science. 40 Design luminaries took their visualizations to the drawing table with hopes that their efforts would lead in new unprecedented directions. Oftentimes, the risk involved in these creative processes was the length to which designers distanced their new products from the products already being offered. The objective in a newly created product was to capture the attention, imagination, and ultimately the buying power of the public without going so far ahead in design that the product seemed alien and stylistically offensive to public expectation. This was especially the case with streamlining, which came to fruition during a time when traditional met contemporary in a depressed marketplace, with little room for risk. Introducing a streamlined product to the American public during the years of 1933 and 1934 meant a careful and calculated balancing act by manufacturers, through marketing research of perceived needs and consumer acceptance, to assure the new product didn't overstep its bounds and be viewed by the buying public as freakishly different, instead of new and improved. 41 CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDIES OF STREAMLINING LANDMARKS To be the innovator, the first in a segment to have introduced a product designed in a new, up-and-coming styling trend, was to be the subject of a high stakes gamble. A product on the leading edge of a style interpretation that was then presented to the public, finally underwent the rigors of the truest of tests. In spite of studies, investigations and pre-determined assumptions provided by marketing focus groups, the final test rested with the intended buyer concerning the acceptance of said product. The following short case studies are presented as significant landmark examples of the introduction of streamlining in their respective product genres. Each case study illustrates a sampling of the beginning of this style influence on designs of the time, whether transportation oriented or stationary, and offers a varied perspective of success or lack thereof. These objects provide a context of the time period from which the Schwinn Aerocycle was conceived. No matter the individual motivation behind each of these examples, the degree to which the public embraced or refused them, illustrates the risk of introducing such a product during this time. Secondly, these products demonstrate the separate worlds of distinction between designs that were "streamlined" in the three-dimensional, aerodynamic sense, rooted in wind tunnel testing, and those that were "stream-lined" in the two-dimensional, linear sense, based on the parallel-line inspired 'triple-banded' or 'speed-whiskered' aspects of the wind-tunnel testing results. The following examples, while relevant and representational, are by no means all-encompassing. Each is presented as part of the movement as a whole and should be considered as such. These examples are widely documented as the pioneering products that ushered in the streamlining style, and whether successful or not in the marketplace, represent the initial phase of the movement in its entirety. 42 Dymaxion Car, 1933 R. Buckminster Fuller's partial fulfillment of his vision for the future rested in the creation of three stylized model automobiles. Three prototypes were developed in his series of Dymaxion Cars, based heavily on the teardrop-shape and built on a three-wheeled chassis with a rear-mounted engine format. Figure 4.1 shows Fuller's concept in U.S. Patent No. 2,101,057 (1937). Accompanying specifications, descriptions and additional drawings are included on page 145 of Appendix B. The teardrop shape had been utilized as a basis in automobile design, and perhaps more comp le tel y, prior to the Dymaxion interpretation (U.S. Patent No. 1,648 ,505 ( 1927), see page 141 of Appendix B). Though the Dymaxion was clearly not the first attempt at overt streamlining in the automotive industry worldwide, it was one of the more blatant and initial attempts in America. Buckminster Fuller developed the Dymaxion concept in the 1920s - a conflation of Dy(namic)-Max(imum)-Ion. Making use of models from natural sciences he continually attempted to achieve maximum results with minimum input of materials and energy. He first applied this approach in the Dymaxion House of 1928, followed later by the Dymaxion Car and the Dymaxion Bathroom. (Van Kester, 2003, p. 96) Promoted and displayed for public viewing at the Chicago World's Fair of 1933, the wildly new design created quite the crowd of amusement not only with auto enthusiasts of the time, but the increasingly wide-eyed public being exposed to the ideas of the future by way of fair exhibits. Undoubtedly, the public was intrigued not only by the unique appearance of the Dymaxion, but also because of the curious of maneuvers it performed (see Figure 4.2) in comparison to a standard automobile of the time. The Dymaxion design was meant to reflect efficiency in sty ling as well as performance. 43 Dec. 7, 1937. a FULLER 2,101.057 tNVENTOR!i (Rx:;.K.1wl'f:Jrt:1? Fu.eLJ:'R: ,., fil"'( I , . ,;;r,1~ .'¥1/,tb~tc.l'Lj· .:/ 7;-, ATTORNEYV--- Figure 4.1. Buckminster Fuller's design for the Dymaxion Car, patent filed on October 18, 1933 (Source: Fuller, 1937) 44 .....v-...... ;...- ___ _ ./ ./ / / I / ,.,, / I I I I , I • l I / ~ .. ·-~Qlll I : _..,,...... ,..,.,.....,~ . I l .. ~ 3 Figure 4.2. The Dymaxion Car turning radius, left, as compared to the average automobile turning radius, right (Source: Engler & Lichtenstein, 1995, p. 194) Though not a production model at that point, the Dymaxion Car No. 3 was a fully functional display that spectators saw live at the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition's "Wings of the Century" attraction of 1934. The car created a sensation wherever it went. A representative of the British auto enthusiasts flew to Chicago to examine the Dymaxion Car. He was injured and his driver killed when the Dymaxion Car collided with another car near the entrance to the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition. Sensational headlines referred to the vehicle as a "freak car" and pointed to its radical three-wheel design. Although an investigation exonerated the Dymaxion's design, the tragedy gave the car an undeserved reputation and the British group cancelled their order for Dymaxion Car Number Two, completed in January of 1934 ... The Dymaxion Cars represented the first reexamination of the 45 automobile since its emergence as a motorized horse carriage. Fuller's use of streamlining for scientific reasons and his teardrop designs justified the similar forms promoted during the 1930s by American industrial designers. In light of the development of aerodynamics as they understood it, they had professed faith in an optimum form; streamlining was for them no passing fancy of the sty list. It represented changes they thought could and should come. (Bush, 1975, p. 105) While leaving an indelible image of itself on the auto industry of the day, the Dymaxion Car was haunted by the shadow of an early mishap from which its reputation could not recover. It exists now in memory as a meaningful departure from the typical auto industry designs of the period and represents the hopeful science-based designs for which Buckminster Fuller was noted. Loewy Pencil Sharpener, 1934 The waters of historical research are often times muddied by the sheer volume of compounded information regarding any single object. Sorting fact from fiction, definitive from estimated date, can prove to be exhausting. The pencil sharpener design by Raymond Loewy is a widely documented one. Upon seeing the object in context of the time it was designed, its influence is obvious and telling. Perhaps no other stationary object better expresses the streamline form at such an early date than does the Loewy sharpener, in Figure 4.3. Figure 4.3. The Loewy pencil sharpener, teardrop-inspired stationary product, an early example of streamlining in smaller applications (Source: Meikle, 1979, p. 167) 46 Through text insinuations and visual citations in most sources identifying the sharpener as a significant streamlining "first" and the product embodiment of the teardrop, it is often assumed that this object had been a consumer product in the early to mid-1930s. Given the frequent implied accolades, it came as a surprise to learn that it was never actually produced or offered for purchase in any form. Email correspondence (L. Loewy, personal communication, October 30, 2003) with Raymond Loewy's son, Laurence, now head of Loewy Design, yielded facts not often published about the infamous trend-setting streamlined pencil sharpener. Laurence Loewy stated: "Dad's pencil sharpener was a one time prototype. It was never manufactured. It was made in a machine/model shop by hand to my father's exact specs. It was operational, mounted on a walnut base, using an existing internal sharpener mechanism of the era. It sat on dad's desk for many years. Some photos show a hole, halfway down the base where shavings could be dumped. I have no records of materials used, although the material accepted chrome plating that lasted for many years." Raymond Loewy filed for a patent of his "certain new, original, and ornamental design for a pencil sharpener" on May 29th, 1933. With a patent date of March 6th, 1934, (U.S. Patent No. D91,675, 1934), the Loewy idea of streamlining a stationary, everyday-use office tool clearly predated many other initial overt uses of streamlining in small-scale stationary applications. However, undoubtedly, not having been produced reduced the impact such an item would have had on product culture of the time. In hindsight, perhaps the Loewy sharpener set an agenda in the minds of industrial design creative circles around America during this time. Loewy's blunt adaptation of the teardrop, ovoid shape, coupled with the chrome-dipped appearance, must have embodied the images of what streamlining, in the eyes of its creator, was to become. Yet the fact remains that its influence fell shorter, knowing it never reached a production stage as a product offered to the buying public. 47 Harley-Davidson Motorcycles, 1933-34 In terms of financial success, Harley-Davidson Motorcycles, like most American companies of the early to mid-l 930s, did not report banner year sales. Profit margins remained low as financial risk soared high and kept innovation and upgrading to a controlled minimum. Such was the state of affairs for the Milwaukee company in the early 1930s. In those days of reduction, the subsequent downfall of competition was about the only upside to the bleak situation presented by the Depression. As cited by author Jerry Hatfield, on page 105 of Inside Harley-Davidson, In 1931,"The Schwinn family had stopped building the Super-X V-twin and Henderson four cylinder, leaving American riders in a two-brand world: Harley-Davidson or Indian." Shrinking competition was surely a contributing factor in helping the remaining companies stay afloat, if not profitable. Hatfield goes on addressing the challenging times in stating on page 113 that: "By August, scheduled 1933 model production was cut to 3 ,700 units. Recommendations were made to combine the racing and testing departments, to combine the sales and advertising departments, and to locate the parts, accessories and service departments together." Hatfield begins discussion of the chapter regarding the years "1933-1935" on page 117, by summarizing: "Few technical changes were incorporated into ongoing models for 1933 due to the serious financial status of the company." Perhaps it was partially through pay and staff reductions, combined with departmental mergers of 1933, that Harley-Davidson allowed for stylistic changes and upgrades in the following model year of 1934. Streamlining was perhaps the prominent element used to interject new energy in the designs of a stagnant industry. As evidenced in varied products of the time, streamlining was viewed as a means of differentiating upcoming product lines from competition; an affirmation that, increasingly more of corporate America acknowledged that new styling did matter. In the model year of 1934, Harley-Davidson incorporated streamlining into designs of their new product offerings. Figure 4.4 illustrates that Harley-Davidson, in a 1925 advertisement that 48 paralleled the motorcycle with airplanes, had hopped aboard the streamlining bandwagon some years prior to actually applying such styling to their cycles. . - ...... •.. • .. ! d:.· .. ) ...:' ••~. ··· ...~ " •.···.··...... •.•~ ..•. •••.. ·,·.. ~,*.. ./... • .' .'·· ··········· Figure 4.4. Promotional advertisement for a 1925 Harley-Davidson motorcycle aligned products to visions of airplanes: note reference of a still hyphenated form of "Stream-line" along with the underlying referral to the teardrop form in the lower left (Source: Unknown, 2004) Undoubtedly, because of the effects of the Great Depression, any formidable alterations involving style would have to wait until the model year of 1934 to come to fruition. In keeping with the trend of product association with the streamlined styling, Harley- Davidson as with most other companies prior to the years of 1933 and 1934, did little in the physical sense of product styling upgrades. Rather, there existed an implication of streamlining through association of two-dimensional aspects such as graphics, i.e. the use of parallel lines or motifs that suggested the "stream-lines" produced in wind tunnel experiments. Again, these derivative lines were also long-standing symbols of the art deco designs of this time, most notably in architecture, furniture and graphics. Side-by-side comparisons (Figure 4.5) of a 49 1932 and 1934 Seventy-four VL model Harley-Davidsons display the differences between implied stream-lining of the linear parallel pinstriping treatment on the fenders and tank of the 1932, versus the applied streamlining present in the 1934 model. Stylistically, little changed from 1932 to 1933. The 1933 models were the first with convex headlight lenses, buddy seats and a bird motif on the tanks. (Hatfield, 1990, p. 119) In 1934, however, recognizable alterations appeared, to satisfy those seeking discemable streamlining design attributes. In keeping with the idea of streamlining for the concealment of moving and/or obtrusive accessories, Harley-Davidson widened, lengthened and rounded the most notable accessories on their cycles. Both 1933 and 1934 models offered chrome-plating extras, another soon-to-be-established constant in the imagery of streamlining and the ideas of movement and flight that it would continue to convey. Along with the chroming options offered during the year prior, the 1934 models showcased streamlined attributes for the first time in model year upgrades: New styling features shared by the 1934 Forty-five and Seventy-four were the airflow taillight, the High-flo muffler, new saddle and streamlined fenders. The new bucket saddle was studded with shiny rivets and mounted to a new gloss black enameled seat bar. White handlebar grips were standard, but black grips were available. As in 1933, an extra-cost chrome-plating package was offered on two-wheelers, covering handlebars, generator end cover, exhaust pipes, saddle bar assembly, muffler, tailpipe, oiler and timer cover, intake pipe clamp nuts, valve spring covers and front brake control clamp. (Hatfield, p. 123) When comparing the 1932 and 1934 model Harley-Davidsons, the most obvious differences existed in the fender designs. Fenders of the 1934 were wider, most notably in the case of the rear fender. Another signature representation of streamlining in the designs of 50 Figure 4.5. 1932 (upper) and 1934 (lower) Seventy-four VL model Harley-Davidsons displaying differences between the implied stream-lining of 1932, and the applied streamlining of the 1934 (Source: Hatfield, 1990, p. 108, 126, respectively) fenders, in both automotive and motorcycle designs were the "flares" along the bottom edges of the fenders. The smooth lines and concealing purposes of streamlining were evident also in what Harley-Davidson called its "airflow" taillight, which converted the appendage-like appearance of the 1932/33 taillight to a stylized part of the rear fender itself, on the 1934 model (Figure 4.6). No doubt the "airflow" label was meant to distinguish the new, incorporated look, from the protuberances of years prior. 51 Figure 4.6. A patrol fleet of 1934 Harley-Davidson motorcycles showing new streamlined attributes in fender, taillight, and chainguard design (Source: Hatfield, 1990, p. 125) Another listed difference in the 1934 model was the extension/stylization of the rear chainguard, which, more than anything else, seemed to mimic the design curvature of the rear fender and enforced the styling thereof (Figure 4.7). When considering the potential for streamlining of any given product, especially during a time of weakened economy, many of the "new upgrades" were likely extensions of existing parts that could be slightly retooled for manufacture. This new chainguard that extended farther over the rear sprocket was one such example where perceived functional benefits were coupled with stylistic changes to improve the form as a whole. Exhaust piping, dubbed "High-flo" mufflers when introduced, were also extended probably so that exhaust emissions were released farther back from riders than in years prior, and particularly since 1933 models were first to offer a "buddy seat," for double occupancy. 52 Figure 4.7. Close up view of the fender-mimicking chainguard and new "airflow" taillight (Source: Hatfield, 1990, p. 126) So as not to interfere with the rear kickstand, the muffler was bent upward (Figure 4.8) to clear the kickstand device. Hence the "High-flo" label. A comparison of paint schemes and graphics shows that in 1934, the appearance of the parallel-lined pinstriping "stream-lines" gave way to single-lined striping that, like the Figure 4.8. A1934 Forty-five model Harley-Davidson equipped with "High-flo" muffler (Source: Hatfield, 1990, p. 124) 53 elongated rear chainguard, accentuated the overall shape of the new flared fender design. Graphics on the tank showed a departure from a script-only logo, to an art deco inspired geometric pattern that showcased the brand identification, on the 1934 model. Not coincidentally, a similar transformation, reflecting streamline styling and art deco influenced color schemes, was applied by the rival Indian brand to its line of motorcycles in1934 as well. "Cleanlining" In each particular product genre, a select number of redesigned models offered the potential to set the tone that other companies subsequently followed by example. This was no exception in the case of the stylistically drab world of consumer household appliances of the early 1930s. Three products surface as primary categories of interest in major appliances: the washing machine, kitchen oven and refrigerator. The restyling of such appliances, devices and tools along with plumbing fixtures such as sinks, bathtubs, and toilets, found a design idiom in the term "cleanlined." In such cases, emphasis was dedicated to sanitary aspects of appliances, fixtures, etc., and smooth-edged tool and machinery design. Three such examples are discussed below. Sears "Toperator" Washing Machine, 1933 The Sears "Toperator" Washing Machine, Standard Gas Equipment Company Stove, and the Sears Coldspot Refrigerator became the products by which others would eventually be judged. The healing powers of industrial designers were increasingly sought after to effectively transform the household appliance product monotony of the current to the must-have accessory of tomorrow. In these cases, designers Henry Dreyfuss, Norman Bel Geddes and Raymond Loewy were the architects, respectively. 54 In 1932, Dreyfuss was contracted by the Sears, Roebuck Company, in its first venture into industrial design, to redesign its wringer-type washing machine. Dreyfuss enclosed the tub and motor of the machine with a metal skirt painted with a textured green enamel and held in place with the then-popular chrome bands, which also served to mask the connecting bolts. In addition, he convinced the manufacturer to move all of the machine's controls to the top in order to make the washer simpler and safer to operate, and named the machine the "Toperator" in order to emphasize that particular advantage. Dreyfuss added his escutcheon to the product for status. The machine was a runaway marketing success for Sears. (Pulos, 1983, p. 358) Promotional campaigns began emphasizing the appearance and ease-of-use features of Dreyfuss's Toperator (Figure 4.9) and other newly redesigned product lines which, until that point, had been viewed strictly in a utilitarian context, as household industrial tools of everyday life by most Americans. Beautification became the new calling card for a modem and efficient home. Sears had reason for associating its product with images of refinement. Still fighting a reputation as a farmers' mail-order house, the company was also engaged in a washing machine price war ... According to Forbes, Sears sold 20,000 Toperators in six months and precipitated a "stampede" for new designs among other manufacturers. Sales Management reported the company unable to keep floor models in stock. Obviously a success, the washer exhibited Dreyfuss's careful blending of functional and psychological considerations ... Most washers had two visible exterior parts, a tub with a motor housing below. The crack between collected moisture, dirt and mold. Addressing the current clinical emphasis on cleanliness, Dreyfuss enclosed tub and motor in a single shell of mottled blue-green enamel. (Meikle, 1979, p. 102) 55 Figure 4.9. Dreyfuss converted the unsightly washing machine of the early 30s to an aesthetically pleasing and intelligently designed appliance (Source: Meikle, 1979, p.103) In the case of appliances, design solutions reflected demands for simplicity, as much as beautification. By combining, enclosing, and masking the unnecessary aspects of these objects, manufacturers were able to meet consumer expectations almost by default. Ease-of-use and cleaning were by-products of the alterations made in styling. Standard Gas Equipment Company Stove, 1933 Though household appliances had little need for the aerodynamics of streamlining, there was much to be desired in terms of design through aspects of ergonomics and user- friendliness. Geddes described his offering (Figure 4.10) as an "ornamental design for a gas stove casing" in U.S. Patent No. D90,108 (1933), filed on June 13, 1933 (see page 154, Appendix B). Increasingly judgmental heads-of-household began seeking out functionally beautiful objects to equip their homes with. 56 A survey of 1,200 housewives and domestics revealed ease of cleaning as their main consideration in judging stoves. Geddes therefore gave his stove a skirt that extended to the floor, panels for covering burners and controls when not in use, and, for psychological appeal, a finish of white, "the most sanitary color." This use of white set a trend in an industry that usually offered either the dingy black of cast iron or marbleized sheet metal. Geddes suggested two innovations for reducing production costs. Few stove manufacturers had switched from cast iron to sheet metal because its enamel finish often cracked in shipment. Geddes solved the problem by replacing ridged bolted joints with a technique borrowed from skyscraper construction-hooking stove panels to a tubular frame flexible enough to absorb transportation stresses. (Meikle, 1979, p. 101) '·~ ''*' ~~' ~ Figure 4.10. The Bel Geddes stove was new in every respect and covered every surface with white enameled metal panels, thereby eliminating the dirt-attracting crevices of previous models (Source: Pulos, 1983, p.358) 57 Geddes' solution for the new stove design readily embraced the ideas of ease in cleaning by eliminating the crevices of old, which were replaced by seamless panels and ideally located dial controls for user-friendliness. The results of the industrial designers and their subsequent design solutions became apparent in aspects of product manufacture, shipment and end-usage. The benefits of re designing were undeniable in every respect. When word spread of the corporate cost-saving measures and profit-increasing potential during a time of business decisions guided by the Great Depression, streamlining effectively promoted itself. Sears "Coldspot" Refrigerator, 1934 Raymond Loewy had imparted his wisdom of design to nearly every conceivable machine of the American 1930s. Though perhaps none had set him on the course for success the way his refrigerator design for Sears did in 1934. Though the Sears "Coldspot" refrigerator (Figure 4.11) was not the first major appliance to undergo a styling makeover, it was notably the first to make an art form out of the practice of product restyling. Though Sears apparently contacted Henry Dreyfuss first because of his "Toperator" success, the contract to redesign the Sears refrigerator inevitably went to Loewy, on a referral from Dreyfuss who had already been under contract with General Electric Company for a 1934 model year refrigerator design of its own. (Pulos, 1983) While Dreyfuss again gained appeal and expertise from his refrigerator design for General Electric, his strategy reflected a single model, designed for long term sales appeal. Advertised as "styled for the years," the new GE refrigerator remained basically unchanged until 1939. Although GE had learned to "cleanline" products, it had not yet learned to promote artificial obsolescence through annual model changes. Sears Roebuck was not so backward. Its series of Coldspot refrigerators, designed by Raymond Loewy, demonstrated acute awareness of the advantages of continual 58 restyling. In 1932 Sears asked Loewy to design a replacement for a boxy old model that stood on flimsy-looking two-sided stamped legs and had moldings interrupting vertical continuity of line. Loewy gave his new design an appearance of stability by widening and lowering its legs. Horizontal lines between the door and its frame remained, but Loewy emphasized vertical continuity with slender hinges and three parallel ribs running from top to bottom. When its door was open, chrome ribbing seen on freezer compartment and storage drawers reinforced exterior verticality. The new Coldspot, introduced in 1935, made Sears a leader in the industry. (Meikle, 1979, p. 104) Loewy' s Coldspot design did much for the justification of redesigning products. It showcased factors of economy in all facets of product creation. The process of breathing new life into the aged refrigerator for Sears led to developments in model making and exploration of improved material considerations for use in aspects of both inner and outer surfaces of the unit. Because of Loewy's extensive design background and penchant for successfully matching material with end-usage, the Coldspot project benefited exponentially. The end result reflected a stylish, attractive appearance, while shaving manufacturing costs and ultimately offering the consumer more for a portion of the cost of similar units on the market. It also perpetuated the idea of planned obsolescence, which would become a marketing mainstay in years following. When outlining the progress the Coldspot design represented in hindsight, Loewy unabashedly details three reasons for its notoriety: The Sears Coldspot, 1934, is generally recognized as the classic case history of industrial design applied to mass production; it marks the beginning of the profession in America for three main reasons: First, the phenomenal success of the new design; yearly sales went from 65,000 to 275,000 after the new model was introduced. Second, Sears' management, sales force, and even the competition, credited the improved appearance as the main reason for the increase. Third, it marked the beginning of a new model-making 59 technique that saved enormous time and cost and has since been universally adopted for all kinds of products. (Loewy, 1979, p. 98) Figure 4.11. Appearance of the Sears Coldspot refrigerator prior to Loewy's restyling efforts (left) for the 1935 model year (right) (Source: Loewy, 1979, p. 100, 101, respectively) Loewy comments on a 1935 advertisement (Figure 4 .12) for the new refrigerator, in his book Industrial Design, and highlights the phrase "study its beauty," used by Sears in the promotion of the new unit. (Loewy, 1979, p. 99) The overall appearance of both exterior and interior of this unit takes styling cues not only from parallel-lined use of stream-lining, but also the shape of architectural skyscrapers of the day. Looking less like the traditional "icebox" and for almost half the usual price, to consumers this new design embodied progress. 60 CVll>SPVIR E.c;.. U.S. F='AT, OFF. d'¥'~d~" lowoly Modern ~Hign . • u Sup.,..p9wered Package Unat Full 6--cubic fo()f $iH About half 1uual pric.ie A. NE\~' COLmf>OT fo.r l?ll-5 ~.nd ~ NEW Suind:arJ ufV.U~ io electric Itefrig· erMo.tS. .. .By Value .• ....-c don't ttw:ln just a to..e-.t phCli!~ You wiU no~er •fpredatetbe Vafo~ ulf'~;red in tbj~ COLDSPO'.l' merely by looking~ in1 . r:rlC(. Hett i.s all we isk: Forget tbe- nice .for. 1.be .rnomeat 11nd co~· ~de>r 0 tbl!',l.Q§POTilfl)' l.n·i·crm. $ . Of Qr I • rs,. n:s bor:a - .• Chc<;k in fra- (l,IR,~. AaaJiE n nr1.c'.1iy m terms of w~ ba1 ii offers yoit,; Then t\Om~r~ it wirh any orlR:r nfrigeraro:r ·of "-mila.r . 11be, ~dlin~ in 1he $l'-O to $,so c:Li=. W~ ny 1ba1 you v.·ill find we COLD$P()T at;t~Htlly a 8d#r re. lrigerat0r, lasttit!e.o/ t/1~F4~tTh41 l10llil011ly .A/Jo,.1 .. II~!/ ~ M_,4:b. U$E YOUll C:ltEQIT. Y Q.u d 'VICrJ.t.all tlthif!NH S'l'O«AGI lA!ilCIU HCltACl u..sxn w.t.tH eoou1t lu~R, -t12'Y-flri.d, ~f<¢c{Curii ~nnl ~ .. lCt9"tll "wlt"'if ·~ boi~"!! , -t~t.C:niutig '....-o ._,...u.. ~ Qtl0'"1 ·winl bel~hH f~1 hnl~;?.~ r:~r1)(\ c~ .rotocl ..,t ~:'d1 · """"""~" .. .:::.~d-t-t ~"' t.ol;J., Fr~!-\+,...., f<..,. ~ .. ...,• ."<:I i"'"""'"· ~..,1~,.,.., 1'il.,_ U""filCt'(ld. !): j ~ di~~ LO l-Mtr> bul ...r. l_.~~l>liM. rrvfl~ . et.'!. 1U- • "linil'laf" b-r""""*· ri-~v.iri l\J"' ~ iti..-.: . t ··folt:H u~.... 1 ,, -~::1 0 ~<-~ .• tH:o: . ... ~ f.. ~~~· .• ,,.;:(f~ ~~ ltl1;n. \l",::-:'!od~ GI" to(1:... (i'¥'f.!f!'i. ~h,'). ,l'}!L']hi.ofhi,it~ tive 'tlnlV O?f.'.\. Figure 4.12. Loewy addressed how the typically "down-to-earth Sears Roebuck went 'artistic,' and millions of eyebrows were raised." In hindsight, he attributed the success of the new model to the common sense his design represented: "Discovering that improved appearance can reduce cost, industry started looking our way." (Source: Loewy, 1979, p. 99) 61 Chrysler Airflow, 1934 Chrysler's Airflow automobile design of 1934 (Figure 4.13) had little to do with convention and everything to do with experimentation and a reliance on scientific testing. With the winds of change that Chrysler ushered in through the conceptualization of the Airflow, came the high risks associated with being the flagship of the risky proposal. Figure 4.13. Clearly attempting to align its automotive offering with another first in streamline driven transportation design, Chrysler promoted the Airflow alongside the Pullman M-10,000 (Source: Wilson, Pilgrim, & Dickran, 1986, p. 133) Though the Airflow design was not a project of Raymond Loewy' s, perhaps it was one of his ground rules that Chrysler would later wish it had more closely adhered. The multifaceted designer Loewy maintained a policy of safe conservatism in the forward-thinking designs he produced. To realistically appeal to the broadest possible audience Loewy designed his products according to his self-coined principle MAY A (Most Advanced Yet Acceptable). By this he meant that in order to satisfy the tastes of the largest public a product should be innovative, but certainly not too revolutionary. (Van Daalen, 2003, p. 136) In retrospect, auto enthusiasts revere the Airflow as a style-setting precursor to the Post- WWII American automotive designs of Detroit. This design unleashed on the public tastes of 62 1934 however, proved too overwhelming in its sweeping changes. The design was a product of Chrysler's confidence in aerodynamic testing and science-based engineering in which, with few exceptions, form strictly followed function. The Chrysler 'Airflow' was considered a turning point in American design history. It established a new formal language for the American motor car: a move away from the 'boxy cars' of the twenties and early thirties and on to rounded sculptural forms that determined the image of the American car until the mid fifties ... Chrysler built their own wind tunnel, in consultation with pioneer aviator Orville Wright. One of the main ideas behind the design was that the passengers should sit in the best-sprung area between the axles, and that the rear passengers should not be above the rear axle. Sprung comfort was one of the main concerns of Breer's team. Pushing engine and interior forwards was completely new for a car on this scale, and went against all the rules of aesthetics that the public had become familiar with. Streamlining was used both to perfect the new feature and to communicate it. There is no doubt that this was all too much for the public; the expensive new model became a financial fiasco for Chrysler. But the car started an extremely important movement. (Engler & Lichtenstein, 1995, p. 204) Chrysler's design incorporated elements of both 'streamlining,' an abridged teardrop shape, and 'stream-lining,' the use of parallel lines (see Figure 4.14). The Airflow spared nothing when aligning itself with all possible illusions of streamlining, in both the three dimensional sense and in the overt motif of parallel 'stream-lines.' The familiar series of parallel lines or 'chrome bands' were presented in the new Airflow bumper design, now a collective series of three chromed tubular steel construction, as opposed to the typical one-piece bumpers of the time. The parallel lines were also used as highlights of the vented louvers on both sides of the hood. The first of its kind in America, the Airflow showcased a belief in complete aerodynamics and was the first production automobile 63 7/fe ~ C-1-1 RYSLf.R /huul&- a /Vew- ~cf 7ram£ * * * * * * * * ..N~N . ' E ma5:tt:r st.rokc nf, t·r.1girwering, the new h•1s bt••m f!reatly slowed down. The motion I A1rilow * Chrysler bmig-$ tQ th<.~ mowr ntr of the c-ar becoml's a lon~ easy .glide •.. like tbt~ s1)aci1,us tomfnrt of rh~~ draw in~ ruom .. . riding- on a cushion <>f .air. a hrillia.nt O<:\\• funethmal beauty ..• a new fo appearance ••• in spec:d ••• in effic i~:rH'j' e,:m1<.~«ptiolJ of strd1gth and safery . . . and ••. in roominess and riding comfort ... dw a. $lknt fl nating trast· of - motio n that sur nt·W Airflow Chrysler opens whole new hnri- passes any ki1bwn form of travel on land or 7..0tlS of motoring. \Vhen Y<1U sec it and ride sea nr ai('. in it,· you · will know for yourself that it There· i;$ ari entir~Jy tH~"" ~- 7.. ur ...~t~lim11~1 · ,· f~t34 ,,,,>ff,~ lC.l# ' (: lfry~et' i1.itfl9\v :Eight • •• ui1>u.~ 1 ,.,,.. ., r:m,i t:i iiirh ... ~.. ,,,. ;i.~."''· , , , . 1 ,·~~-. :;,. ,i.:..,_ t.t:·, •<> r h ..,,, '"'J '.h'm 5~•4\1.11, f..v~·1·~•« C. •~ 11~. ·' ...\tr'. ~y • ty~~ $12:4'5·. Cbrydet i\irfl!)W Imv~rial ••• H it l• Figure 4 .14. This advertisement for the 1934 Airflow demonstrates, in the first paragraph, Chrysler's self-pronounced reliance on "engineering" in the conceptualization of its "brilliant new functional beauty" (Source: Gunnell, 1993, p. 172) 64 to emphasize streamlining in the true sense, rather than the traditional format of adding streamline styling cues, as was the case with the majority of automobiles laying claim to streamlining at this time. However, the very characteristics that made the Airflow the exceptional streamlining example of the day seemed to, at the same time, spell out its commercial demise. Unfortunately for Chrysler, the Airflow was proof that while good engineers can be relied on to crack difficult technical problems, even the best of them sometimes fail to appreciate that styling shouldn't be completely ruled by function. The engineer's view of what looks right is usually determined by what works best, not what appeals to the potential customer. Throughout modem history there have been numerous examples of ideas that were too far ahead of popular taste and had to be abandoned as a result - the Chrysler Airflow is just one such mistake. (Montgomery, 2002, p. 80) Though, for Chrysler, the Airflow was dismal in terms of commercial popularity, its design effectively introduced and spearheaded a shift in future U.S. automobile designs. A year later in 1935, companies such as Lincoln, with its Zephyr (Figure 4.15), taking its namesake from a streamliner train, capitalized on the efforts Chrysler had attempted in introducing the Figure 4 .15. Lincoln's Zephyr, designed in 1935, abridged what Chrysler tried to do with the Airflow and offered a design it considered publicly acceptable and not as distanced from mainstream designs (Source: Pulos, 1983, p. 392) 65 Figure 4.16. The Zephyr logo design, visually linked to the ideal streamlined shape (Source: Pulos, 1983,p.392) public to streamlined automotive shapes. Though perhaps less completely and scientifically streamlined than the Airflow, the Zephyr reaffirmed its connection to the teardrop shape in its logo as shown in Figure 4 .16. No amount of statistically supported planning, calculation or reasoning for a new product can compensate for the final verdict of the consumer. The equation of successful product marketing is variable, unpredictable, and eluded by narrow-minded foresight and forgotten factors in styling, among others. An introductory product in a perceived, untapped market relies on the predictability of what the public wants and the level of acceptance toward the product assuming the role of groundbreaker. The product on the leading edge of an innovation is offered up for initial scrutiny that either gives way to a greater acceptance, and on occasion, blunt rejection of the design. In any case, the previous examples illustrate the lengths to which these companies would go to be first and foremost, "streamlined." 66 CHAPTER 5. THE EXCHANGE OF INFLUENCE BETWEEN BICYCLE AND MOTORCYCLE: THE 'MOTORBIKE' Since their collective inception, the various forms of transportation through air, land and water had increasingly relied on one another, whether purposefully or not, for design direction and styling cues. The bicycle, being at the forefront, perhaps played the most integral role. In the family tree of transportation, the bicycles' closest relative was undoubtedly the motorcycle. Born of the bicycle, the earliest of motorcycles were the direct descendants of early bicycle experimentation. For the fledgling years the machines remained minor league. The first practical machine was devised by motorizing a common diamond-frame bicycle with a one lung gas engine. Established bike manufacturers were among the early producers in the power cycle field and the products were pretty much bicycles with various odd devices attached here and there . . . .As in the pattern of the automobile industry, from which motorcycle engineering was continuously inspired, with each successive model the power used was greater and the speeds attained were higher. Wheelbases grew and the modified bicycle image grew more obscure. After several seasons odd designs became less strange. Sound features common among leading makes were adopted by others. Models with one and two cylinder engines became regular offerings among most makers. An integrated design concept evolved. Practicality for individual transportation was no longer on trial. The motorcycle had proven a basic minimum transportation tool. The compact little two-wheeled vehicle served not only the poor man but his comfortably fixed brother as well. Badges like 67 Indian, Reading-Standard, Sterling, Excelsior, Harley-Davidson and Henderson were ubiquitous. The motorcycle proved an especially effective bridge between the bicycle and the automobile for beginning motorists and became the universal first experience with a motor vehicle among the youth of an increasingly mobile generation. (Page, 1971, p. 7) Because of this implicit relationship, the free-flow of design inspiration was an equal exchange; first from bicycle to motorcycle, then, increasingly and later, vice-versa. In its formative years, the motorcycle was distinguished from the bicycle only by the presence of a crude engine bolted to its frame. Figures 5.1and5.2 picture common early motorcycle designs, looking much like the bicycles of the period. However, as the motorcycle developed into a veritable machine of speed, further stages in development relied increasingly on the influence of automotive engineering improvements and motorized styling, while the bicycle eventually followed suit. Figure 5.1. Example of an early motorcycle frame, circa 1912 (Source: Page, 1971, p. 374) 68 Figure 5.2. A second example of early motorcycle frames, showing the twin bar frame construction for the fitting of gas tanks, rear wheel stand, and long handlebars, all which would later be mimicked in bicycle design (Source: Page, 1971, p. 375) Trails and pathways once used primarily for bicycle travel were later converted to roads for the popular new motorized methods of transportation. The spread of the automobile as the prominent source of transport was swift and unrelenting. In much the same way, the motorized ancestor of the bicycle posed as much of a threat to the livelihood of the bicycle. The effects of new motorized travel also spearheaded a brain drain of the bicycle industry. The attention received and therefore, the potential profitability had many of the early pioneering minds dropping their bicycle plans and developments for new opportunities. There was good reason for despair in the bicycle industry. Just after the tum of the century, the invention had been completely overshadowed by the automobile. Bicycles earned little respect and even fewer sales in the intervening decades, and the majority of bicycle makers either left the trade or moved into cars- Pierces, Ramblers, Wintons, and of course Fords were being made by former bicycle men. (Pridmore, 1999, p. 30) 69 The connectedness between any two objects of relative similarity is demonstrated in their exchanged emulations. As the motorcycle developed in form and popularity, the bicycle industry kept a watchful eye on style treatments and developments in overall design. During times of difficulty and recession in sales, the need for reinvention became increasingly important for survival. Such was the case for the bicycle in the early 20th Century. Not only were interurban electric railways providing cheap, fast public transportation, but they were taking over sidepaths originally built for the bicycle. Bicycles had become old news in a world filled with new miracles: moving pictures, radio and, deadliest competition of all, motorcycles and automobiles. By 1904, bicycle volume was down from the '90s peak of 1,883,000 to 250 ,000 ... and headed lower. It would not again reach even half a million for another 30 years. Yet this bleak era was the cradle of a new concept and a new market that was to give the American bicycle its greatest triumphs: 'The Motorbike.' (Meyers, 1979, p. 249) With the dawn of motorized travel, the bulk of the bicycle consumer base had shifted its attention and buying power in the direction of the gas powered. This would have meant certain demise for many bicycle companies of the day, had they not invested time and effort into identifying and catering to a new, untapped market. In the beginning of the 201h Century, during waning bicycle sales and popularity, a new market was identified. This previously overlooked segment would allow 'motorbike' (also known as ' motobike') popularity to flourish as children were primary benefactors of a new marketing concentration and subsequent styling treatments increasingly geared toward bicycles which resembled their motorized counterparts. Figure 5.3 shows the principal characteristics of an early motorcycle: mudflaps, springed saddle, luggage carrier, spring fork, pedals, and a tool bag. 70 Figure 5 .3. An early motorcycle design exhibiting the accessories to be subsequently featured on motorbikes and later in deluxe model balloon tire bicycles of the 1930s (Source: Page, 1971, p. 72) The tool bag would give the bicycle tank, among other uses, a purpose other than nonsensically occupying space between the twin top frame tubes. The tank appendage of the motorbike became a central storage device as the list of accessories grew by the year. Eventually, the tank would be the most important recipient of streamlining amongst all the stylized characteristics. Functionally, the tank was designed to house everything from tools to a battery case, which eventually supplied power for massive headlights, horns, taillights and turn signals of the balloon tire bicycles through the 1950s. Aftermarket "add-on" accessories increased in popularity as children sought to uniquely customize their bicycles. Figure 5.4 shows one such clamp-on headlight, powered by a frame-attached battery. In its earliest incarnations though, the tank resembled a storage container for everything involved with the maintenance of the cycle itself. Figure 5 .5 and shows one such example and illustrates that even prior to the motorbike twin-bar frame structure, bicycles were fitted with logically placed accessories which straddled the single, upper tube, paving the way for the later appearance of the tank on the motorbike. 71 Figure 5.4. An aftermarket headlight, the Kwik-lite, one example of the simple accessory that would later be concealed in the typical motorbike tank (Source: Meyers, 1979, p. 166) Figure 5.5. Health's combination tool-case pump, 1896: "As a pump, 20 times the capacity of a small hand pump. As a tool case, room for wrench, oiler, tire repair kit, cleaning cloth. Tools need not be removed when using as a pump." (Source: Meyers, 1979, p. 166) The childhood practice of fantasy through emulation is timeless. Who among us has not imagined ourselves as the hero in the comic book or savior of a world in peril? When faced with the daily grind of adolescence, the usual childhood escape route often involved imagining ourselves as adults. Nothing seemed impossible in a world where fantasy became reality and imagination turned into backyard adventure. In such episodes, the bicycle became the getaway car, the zooming stunt motorcycle, or the trusty sidekick stallion of the Old West. It was with these ideas in mind that the motorbike was conceived. 72 The illusion of speed, through borrowed influences of design heritage, is an age-old practice today. Seeking inspiration and sty ling cues from other forms of transportation at the tum of the century however, was far from customary. After all, many forms of transportation were new creations themselves at that point in time. Styling held little importance in the designs of motorized travel. Whether automobile or motorcycle, a fender was a fender and nothing more, beyond the functional duty of a splash guard. The early automobile resembled the horse carriage by evolutionary default, because the carriage came before it, not because it sought to be like the horse carriage. In this way, the bicycle was different, emulating the motorcycle by borrowing many style traits in order to affiliate itself in the minds of youth. As technology, precision and material improved designs, speed capabilities increased and the eventual need for streamlining found a justified application in the motorcycle as a mode of transport. Figure 5 .6 shows an early motorcycle rider's ideal stance in air-resistance testing of known wind velocity. While applied streamlining wasn't to appear in motorcycles this early on, it demonstrates that, as higher speeds were achieved, the motorcycle became a relevant application. Again, the bicycle was different from its motorized counterpart in this respect. Streamlining found its way into bicycle design more so out of style emulation than anything related to science-rooted aerodynamics. When times were tough in the bicycle industry, it looked no further than its closest relative for inspiration. Executives and designers of bicycle companies began to realize the appeal of the motorized look to the youth of the day. While the bicycle began to take on the look of a motorcycle, the spawning of a variety of hybrids inevitably surfaced. Seeking to blur the line of distinction between motorized and otherwise, cycles such as in Figure 5 .7, with its unique motor positioning on what otherwise is a typical motorbike frame, resulted in what Dayton called its 'motor bicycle.' 73 t l l .' Fig. 25.-Showing Position of Rider For Road Work at A and When Minimum Air Resistance--- is Desired· -·-~ at B.. - -J Figure 5 .6. Sleek, stylized motorcycle design would eventually result from air resistance demonstrations such as above (Source: Page 1971, p. 60) The 'safety bike' was given its namesake by comparison to the high wheel bicycles of the 1880s. The high wheel had long been stereotyped by the rider-over-the-handlebar injuries it was often associated with. In contrast, the safety bike was similar to the chain-driven bicycles of today. Prior to the onset of streamlining in bicycle design, general styling merged from the simple designs of the traditional diamond framed safety bicycles, to twin bar frames, structurally designed after the motorcycle. 74 ======t)-- A~NOUNCING THE Dayton Motor Bicycle The World's Lowest Priced Complete Motor Vehicle Getting from one place to another is everyone·., Absolutely direct transmission of power, sim daily problem. The Dayton Motor Bicycle solves plicity of construction, better distribution of the problem. It is not necessary to create a de weight, elimination of motor vibration as far as mand for it. The demand is here. Hundreds of it affects the rider, and perfect cleanliness are thousands of men and women, boys and girls arc features obtained by the location of the motor literally clamoring for just such a low-priced, wholly within the front wheel. simple, safe and dependable means of transpor The driving force is applied to the front wheel, tation. It i_s a motor vehicle of universal use. the braking force to the rear wheel. Friction The Dayton Motor Bicycle is not a light-weight losses are eliminated. The frame is relieved of motorcycle. It is a bicycle o( special design and the usual stresses and strains. There is a very construction driven by a small power plant lo low center of gravity, more perfect balance and cated entirely in the front wheel. It is as easy to easier riding. The flexible fork springs reduce ride as a bicycle. It is as dependable as the high the vibrations. The rider does not come in con est priced motorcycle. It carries one quietly and tact with the motor, and is clean and comfortable. comfortably at any rate of speed from 5 to 25 There is plenty of power and speed for all ordi miles an hour whe•ever and whenever one wants nary conditions and the control is extremely to go. simple and safe. Figure 5.7. This 1915 advertisement for a Dayton Motor Bicycle demonstrates one of a variety of niche markets found between the standard bicycle and motorcycle (Source: Hennings, 1989, p. 1) 75 Between 1900 and 1930, the motorbike captured the juvenile market by way of its motorcycle-like features. For the most part, its accessories and overall form changed very little during its heyday. The motorbike of the late 20s, pictured in Figure 5.8, had few years left in terms of demand, when its payment plans were pinned up against the dire conditions of the approaching Great Depression. The Elgin Company would later, during the mid-1930s set the high water mark of extravagance in streamlined bicycles with its inspiring designs. By the arrival of the Great Depression, the industry had little to look forward to. The novelty and charm of motorbike popularity began to wane. The cost of the "deluxe" equipped motorbikes also made them a less popular option in light of the economic struggles most families were going through. A boy's longing for the most fancy bicycle in the neighborhood was hardly a matter of any importance as the "roaring twenties" came to a screeching halt. The deluxe-equipped bicycle was no longer a necessity and sales would suffer as rationing in every aspect of society became the norm after the stock market crash of 1929. By 1931, the industry as whole was still producing indistinguishable branded bicycles that differed only in terms of their respective head badges and a few different, separately manufactured accessories. The children's market was still the most lucrative, despite the ongoing distress of the economy, and advertising imagery that promoted fantasy continued. In an advertisement from 1931, the Glide-0-Bike Company of Dallas, Texas, offered the ultimate childhood dream. Children could order plans (Figure 5 .9) to build an apparatus that could be attached to any bicycle and made into a veritable flying machine. Juveniles were now being offered opportunities to build credit through payment plans and earn money by doing errands that could help pay for their new purchase of a bicycle. The idea of opportunity and promotion of chromium-plated accessories took top billing in a motorbike advertisement (Figure 5.10) of 1932. 76 ((!he ELGIN Motor-1Jike BUY AN ELGIN MOTOR·BIKE FOR BEAL SATISFACTION Note These Features: Note. These Features: ,...... ~ The Elgin Motor•Blke Leads All Others ...... Ut~ ft) •• ;,t(' nM tm ·- h 1 k~ fr ~ . ~m: o ( ~ p ~ You Woald Pay $40.00 to $45.00 EIHwlierc For a Bicycle 1 3 pr<~ v('d s n~ ~~ t ypr,, ~l~ d ~ (l_f l'· uu.~ h ~e a : ~ ~> ~ Jj~!'I\ !{ ;~o t~~~~ik~al~~f,;,i di,:~h, - ,:~ ''". ~ .ir.d tm~ y c l,> rnb111g, w i th th.,r<1Ui(hl }' of Thi• Quality grad~ lut HJ.}~ incht's; ~ l otor-Bikc one of the fi nest hkycles on the rn ;irket today. f\ltttish~d in t2·iodi $.ia.t: onh. with The r emarkahly line fi ni.sh of this bike is quickly r ec w ...... clir, in top fnme h ou. making lt pr"cu<::\l og11i1cd and miivcrsally ;1ppn·da ted. \ Ve an: 0 1Tcr il1g th i!'I S tC'd r ims, C' tl i\m.,l~d to m a tch t he H• iai '$. ~ m· fowC'.'t t hr.- ~i'!3 t pvsf to Ptt ro..i' wonderful bicycle at a price easily $ 10.00 w $UUHI lower frame:, c, esc:.,nt Figure 5 .8. A 1927 Elgin Motor-bike with all the extra features and accompanying cost that would make these deluxe-modeled bicycles less appealing to the average family by the time the effects of the Great Depression set in (Source: Wood, 1994, p. 23) 77 SEPTEMBER, 1931 Now- T • -:S.UDE~liUI£ Gives Every Boy ERE'S a wonderful chance H for every boy to get into Chance to Learn Flying flying. Here's the chance you've been waiting for. Don't miss it. Read every word of this adve:r tisement--and then get ready to Principles l?Y-Mnal Practice enjoy some real :flying thrills. You want to fly, of course. 25c a .ride. Operate your own airport. The Glide-0-Bikc is so good I can't tell Every red-blooded hoy does. 'With every set of 11lans, we send' you you how much l like it." Now you can! Just send us 25c free instructions -for starting and '<>p Robert Holt, Los Angele11, Calif. erating a Glide-0-Bikc airport like the "Se!1d nie another ~et of plans and nir and get our easy plans for mak one in the picture. terms. 1\'ly pal wunts one for himself after ing a genuine Glide-0-Bike. Any seeing mine co.'• ... boy can build it in a jiffy. And What Other Soys Sar Stnnle.y Carolan. St. Paul, Minn. Here's our special offer to you: every boy can enjoy one. .Read what other b Figure 5 .9. Fly as you ride: A G lide-0-Bike advertisement from 1931 encourages children to tum their 25¢ investment into a money maker by building an airport and charging 10¢ a ride, while enjoying "some real flying thrills" (Source: Wood, 1991, p. 30) 78 ~KPTf M H~;I .~ , 1 9;):?. 1!l Direct to You-30 Days' Trial 'New Low Pf'ices! Write fof' FREE Cataloe-ue and Our Bie- Offe'r Now, boy:i, eon\t'll th e biggt:i;t opf1ortun ily you've t'\lt' I hud to OWU this \ll(llldtt fo!, V,nlltine l~nt1g~r Bicyd(:. Our uew low tnkc:; nnd iipcdnl offor.s make it cm;y fo r you. And wt·'ll kt you ride it on ;l() tlt1y:;' trial! 'J'he biggest thrill of. your ./'•)Ung io choose lift will be the dtty you ~et your Ranger. from What bicyt~ l es tlw~·~ nrd Just take ~ a luok 111 Ua: lWW frnt:urr·s'for J iJ 32. Dazz. EARN li11g d11"omi11n1 frnnt forks ~ind mud- ~ <~i\AS YOU g~m· Rn1wmber ,. thi :~ lwm1tifnl .R a nger o r ;my hik(·in our 1932 f rp,e cniologuc is yours for 30 d:iys' ridinp. test. Ifynu nr•· nor satisfied, rd urn it at. m.irrxpt.·nse. To pn1V t''. that our 1932 p ric:<'ll an: d own tu ruck botto1n, we offer our !l!:W .. S•' Send No Money! Buy from Bicycle Do noL buy until you set· our FREE 1932 ilhrnt . n1t. 1 ~ d n1t11 Spe&ialisis and Save Jogu1 ~. Deserilws n 1an.v styks, We havt.: hr:cn in husim::i:i 40 y~·arn , :;itrs, colors. L::imps, wtwcb. and can offer you l?n-uJf'e~t 1·ar1t•(y 1·quirnwnt n 1· lrn lf usual prin ·~· and lowest p rices for hit~h grade GuarnnHTd tire!, from $1 . SO ur1 . bicydes. MEAD CYCLE CO. Dept. s .. 219, CHICAGO Figure 5.10. Mead Cycle Company soundly promotes its 1932 Ranger motorbike as an investment and stresses savings in its headlines (Source: Wood, 1994, p. 15) 79 The Mead Cycle Company of Chicago suggested in the ad for their deluxe Ranger bicycle, that the buyer could "Ride for pleasure or for profit. You can make money doing errands or delivery work for stores- and make your Ranger pay for itself!" (Wood, 1994, p. 15) Reminders of a weak economy surfaced in Mead's advertisement headlines of "FREE catalogue," "marvelous new low prices," "EARN AS YOU RIDE," and "Buy NOW Direct -Save Money!" Also worth noting is the bold text size of the listed price of $18.85, which is NOT for the featured Ranger bicycle, but instead reflects the price of the basic bicycle pictured very small, to the left of the price. (Wood, 1994, p. 15) The convincing argument to justify an expensive motorbike was a difficult sell in light of the stark contrast of the economy. The opening of the Chicago World's Fair was just one year away, and the bicycle industry had little to boast about. Arnold, Schwinn and Co., another relatively obscure bicycle company from Chicago was soon to be presented circumstances that would lead to a restructuring of its operations, and subsequently a new direction in bicycle design. The Balloon Tire Schwinn decided to go it alone and start from the ground up, building a better bicycle it would market and sell through its already established channels of local retailers and independent bicycle dealers. The first order of business was what Schwinn considered a needless nuisance in the nearly impossible to repair tubeless tires of the era. Inspired by the work it had done in the motorcycle business, Schwinn looked to the recent use of "balloon tires," with a separate inner tube and wider, lower-pressured tire. Again, on this front, Schwinn met resistance from the rubber tire manufacturers who were completely satisfied with selling a new tire every time one of their existing tires was punctured or even slightly damaged. (Pridmore & Hurd, 1995) 80 Thwarted in America, the Schwinn executive and his wife traveled to England and Germany for two months in 1932 for "some cycle research," as well as visits to the family's many relatives in Hardheim ... F.W. purchased a carload of balloon tires and other parts that were unavailable or too expensive in the States. When he returned, his ultimatum to U.S. Rubber was blunt: "Make tires, or I'll import." U.S. Rubber relented, grudgingly, and produced a first shipment of 5 ,000 fatter tires. (Crown & Coleman, 1996, p. 32) Some had subsequently called the introduction of the wider balloon tires to be a regression in bicycle design, since the wider tires meant more rubber contact with the riding surface, and "their relatively low air pressure made them slower and less responsive." (Dodge, 1996, p. 176) But no matter, just as streamlining had justifiable reasons to be applied to nearly everything imaginable, so too did the balloon tire in the bicycle application. Proponents assured parents that these tires were safer and could take the additional punishment the smaller, standard tire couldn't. It helped too that children were seemingly one step closer to a ride that more closely resembled their dad's fat-tired Hudson or his Indian motorcycle. Children were hooked on balloon tires for their bicycles, which did hold up better during rigorous childhood adventures. The industry as a whole, would soon take notice. In 1933, Schwinn introduced what it called the "B-lOE," with balloon tires (see Figure 5.11). Though Schwinn is widely credited for introducing the balloon tire to the industry in 1933, anomalies exist in advertising that would suggest otherwise. In Figure 5.12, an advertisement for a 1932 Hawthorne "Ace," highlights it's offering as "the FIRST BIKE to have the Full BALLOONS! Long wearing SUPER SERVICE Tread." Interestingly enough, this bicycle also lays claim to being "The FIRST Bicycle to have a Streamlined Frame!" Whether or not the Hawthorne ad was from early or late 1932, when compared to the Schwinn advertisement from a February of 1933 issue of American Bicyclist magazine, evidence suggests that Schwinn merely played a role in popularizing the balloon tire. 81 . PRESSURE. 'lO 22 lbS~ The oniy ma1or developmenl · since the coa$ter brake -on J" .::·r-\ ~,. · } H' >Jc ~ 11 d b buili by the oidesJ and most out ·· standing American ma.no& :facturer. ·/ \ r e:' ,:J : f:e - On a ne ...-., · de~p drop center nm -3 tonstruct1<)n embodying .lil · the la~est adv(\oc. emen~s in the tire art 1118 NOHH i< ilDAU AV[ (HlCAGO, llUNOJS . '•~t£f.•Mf.) M !U:\.Mf.)N} ~H 5 Figure 5.11. A 1933 advertisement for Schwinn's B-IOE Motorbike featuring balloon tires for the first time, referred to as "automobile type double tube, straight-side, cord tire" (Source: Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945,p. 56) 82 Figure 5 .12. The 1932 Hawthorne "Ace" promotes new features, including the use of balloon tires and what was referred to as a "speedline frame" (Source: Stromberger, 2004a) Information provided by advertising can sometimes be misleading in the context of historical research. Facts get muddled through the years, and specific dates, sometimes misconstrued. However, the publication dates of advertisements leave no room for further speculation. Additionally, according to the Schwinn-written book, Fifty Years of Schwinn-Built Bicycles, the introductory date of balloon tires by Schwinn had been documented such that "Arnold, Schwinn & Company introduced the Bicycle Balloon Tire in the spring of 1933- two years later it was the standard of the industry." (Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945, p. 59) This statement cemented the release date of the Schwinn version of a balloon tire the year following Hawthorne's advertisement. Schwinn advertising of the period, as previously discussed, supported this idea. Popular belief has typically given Schwinn the credit for balloon 83 tire innovation, a notion that has since been disputed too, by bicycle history enthusiasts. Among the naysayers was Leon Dixon, whom many believe to be the foremost authority on, and indeed the man who coined the term "antique and classic bicycles." Dixon, the curator of the National Bicycle History Archive of America (NBHAA) museum and website, stated that: Elgin and Hawthorne bicycles already had balloon tires ... and bicycles in Europe had them as well. The only thing Schwinn designed was the first SCHWINN balloon tire bicycle. Schwinn popularized and promoted balloon tires for bicycles, but they neither invented them, nor had the first bicycle so equipped. (Source: Dixon, 2003) Advertisements such as the previously discussed Hawthorne Ace (in Figure 5.12), support the notion of Schwinn having pioneered the balloon tire, as a fallacy. Whatever the case, the balloon tire had made its appearance and was an important link in a string of developments primarily concerned with styling upgrades, and features related to the shadowing of motorcycles and automobiles in the juvenile bicycle market. 84 CHAPTER 6. THE SCHWINN AEROCYCLE INTRODUCES STREAMLINING TO THE INDUSTRY: AN ANALYSIS The second year of the Chicago World's Fair would provide an opportunity for the bicycle industry to showcase what it had accomplished and what it had hoped to achieve in approaching years. During this encore year of the fair, Schwinn presented the bicycle that was to be the result of the company's background in motorcycle manufacturing, its triumph over industry and Great Depression adversity, and an influenced byproduct of streamlining in the greater transportation industry. The following are descriptions of two bicycles displayed and promoted in 1934, at the Century of Progress Exposition in Chicago. The first example is the Schwinn "Streamline Aerocycle." The second is the Westfield Manufacturing Company's "Twinbar" model. Each bicycle represented a separate strain of streamline design; the Schwinn model adopted "streamlining," while the Twinbar model used "stream-lining." In both cases the respective strain had been, structurally and stylistically, justified by its creator as streamline design. Though both of these cycles have been noted as representations of preliminary streamline bicycle design, the Schwinn cycle, because of its incorporation of aerodynamic, three dimensional streamlining, via the teardrop shape, introduced the strain to bicycle design, and subsequently to smaller stationary objects. Content analysis and discussion of differences are included below. "Streamline Aerocycle" Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1934 The bicycle industry was in dire need of something new and different in the early 1930s. Due to a series of unforeseen events affecting the Arnold, Schwinn & Co., the conditions needed to provide such a spark were in place. 85 Like many of the early bicycle manufacturers, Ignaz Schwinn along with his partner, Adolph Arnold, also dabbled in both the automobile and motorcycle businesses. Schwinn also kept a sharp eye on motor vehicles. As early as 1896, his company built a prototype horseless carriage; it built at least three others through 1904. It did not continue with the risky business of automobiles, but Arnold and Schwinn could not ignore what other bicycle manufacturers were doing. (Pridmore & Hurd, 1995, p. 104) After Arnold left and sold his shares in the company to Schwinn in 1908, Ignaz and his young son, Frank W ., focused on investing in the more promising market of motorcycles. While instructing his engineers to develop plans for possible production of a Schwinn brand motorcycle, Schwinn bought out the struggling Excelsior Motor Manufacturing & Supply Company in 1911 and subsequently, the Henderson Motorcycle Company of Detroit. Schwinn merged the two notable companies into Excelsior-Henderson, and gained an international reputation that rivaled Harley-Davidson and Indian, as one of the "Big Three" in the industry. (Crown & Coleman, 1996, p. 26) There were seemingly, a couple different events that spelled the demise of the Schwinn owned Excelsior and Henderson motorcycle business. First and foremost, the stock market crash of 1929, which, according to grandson Richard C. Schwinn, Ignaz had "bet heavily on the stock market and lost almost everything." (Crown & Coleman, 1996, p. 28) The other factor worth mentioning involved the Schwinn motorcycle racing team of the late 1920s. A Schwinn racer named Perry, who was also an up-and-coming engineer for whom Ignaz and Frank had plans in the company, had a seemingly innocent bump with another rider during a warm-up before a race in California. The bump became a tangle; Perry went down and was killed instantly. The news hit hard in Chicago, and the Schwinn racing team was shut down shortly thereafter. Some said Perry's death spelled the end of motorcycles for Schwinn. In fact, the abrupt halting of Excelsior and Henderson motorcycles is shrouded in Ignaz 86 Schwinn's autocratic ways. What is certain is that the Depression hit hard and promised to end the motorcycle boom. Schwinn could see this decline shortly after the Crash of '29, and he almost sold Excelsior to William Durant of General Motors, who pulled out of the deal at the last moment in the face of his own considerable financial straits. Then, in 1931, Schwinn traveled to Washington D.C., where he met with government officials to discuss the economic outlook. He returned to Chicago, immediately called his board together and said "Gentlemen, today we stop producing motorcycles at Schwinn." (Pridmore & Hurd, 1995, p. 111) The culmination of these two factors left Schwinn with a focus and determination for the other passion he was schooled in. "With Excelsior closed, Frank W. shifted his attention to the bicycle side of the business, bringing his elite motorcycle engineers with him." (Crown & Coleman, 1996, p. 28) Comparatively however, the bicycle business didn't offer much to be confident about. By now Frank W. had effectively taken over active management for his father, Ignaz, who turned 71 and went into semi-retirement in 1931. Meanwhile the bicycle trade, as with every other manufacturing sector, was feeling the sharp, jagged teeth of the Depression. Total U.S. bicycle sales had dropped to 285 ,000 in 1931 and plunged more than 30 percent a year later to 194 ,000- worse than the nadir of the bicycle bust three decades earlier. Schwinn sold only 17 ,000 units in 1931, most of them heavily discounted. F.W. had to do something, and that something was clear: Schwinn had to slap the American bicycle industry out of its stupor ... Since children were about 95 percent of the market, and most retail sales were through mail-order houses and expanding department store chains that fastened their own nameplates on the product, few manufacturers saw any incentive to produce anything other than a basic model that could last a few years: a chintzy frame with spindly tires and a tinny "fuel tank," to humor a kid into imagining he was riding a motorcycle. "A bicycle was just a bicycle," F.W. sneered in describing the 87 conventional wisdom, "and besides, the buyer wouldn't pay the increased prices needed for changes." The parts makers cemented this thinking by standardizing their products so they could keep their costs low and profit margins high. Improvements in materials, engineering, or design were avoided. "All bicycles were alike in appearance," F.W. wrote, "except perhaps that some were worse than others." (Crown & Coleman, 1996, p. 29) With its collective backs against the wall, Schwinn, now guided by F.W., began investigating directions that would invigorate the industry and usher in a new era in the minds of the buying public. The idea of producing a better quality bicycle was met with deaf ears by the majority of parts suppliers and manufacturers who, especially during tough times, were resolved to keep producing the status quo in order to ensure an at least fixed profitability. The ideas of standardization of parts and large volume buyers had long been established in the industry. The idea of changing the cozy arrangement in favor of quality-built, individualized bicycles at higher end costs did not sit well with the powers-that-be. "Cycle manufacturers were completely at the mercy of these large volume buyers, aided and abetted by the principal parts makers, who were quick to see on which side their bread was buttered," F.W. wrote. He saved his severest scorn, however, for his fellow manufacturers, who "had supinely accepted the standardization of parts so profitable to the parts makers, hadn't even chirped when the parts maker sold more than half his bicycle to his customer direct, depriving him of any profit thereon, and besides, the good little fellow was always too grateful for the bone that was left him." (Crown & Coleman, 1996, p. 31) Following the downfall of the Excelsior-Henderson motorcycle venture, Schwinn shifted efforts toward the development of a bicycle that would invigorate the stagnant market it faced in the industry. The most significant change at Arnold, Schwinn & Company would come in the form of sty ling, and would signify the beginning of a new era in its line of bicycles. 88 From the summer of 1931 on, there had been much activity in the factory of Arnold, Schwinn & Company. The engineering department had been busy on three major problems: production engineering for still better quality at the least possible increase in cost to the consumer; new, practical devices and accessories to increase the comfort and usefulness of the bicycle; and the modernization and improvement of its appearance. (Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945, p. 59) By 1933, Schwinn was touting the adoption of balloon tires, which had garnered much needed attention to its product line. Subsequently, plans were in the works for a bicycle that would be displayed during the Century of Progress Exposition of 1933 and 1934: The Chicago World's Fair. It must have seemed convenient to Schwinn that the eyes of the world would be focused on the city of Chicago, during its second opportunity as host of the World's Fair. The bicycle industry was no different than the majority of exhibitors, when comparing its display of the opening year of 1933, with its improved presence during the extended, second year of 1934. The Depression soon arrived, but by 1933, Chicagoans showed a fitful determination to overcome it. Thus, A Century of Progress represented an opportunity for the industrial world to show how far it had come and where it was going ... Frank Schwinn liked to say that the bicycle industry "got religion" in 1933. Religion, in this case, was the impulse to innovate and promote. The Cycle Trades Association apologized to its members in 1933 when it offered only a paltry exhibit in the exposition's Transportation Building. Then, when fair promoters announced plans to remain open a second year, the industry association was ready with a larger and far more impressive installation. This featured historic bicycles to illustrate the remarkable evolution of the technology. Some of these bicycles were hooked up to dials to measure the amount of horsepower they required, and to indicate maximum speed. The bicycle exhibit also featured examples of the most fully evolved bicycles of 1934. In Schwinn's case, this was the Aerocycle, the company's newest balloon-tire 89 model with sleek lines-curving steel tubes fashioned into something called a "camel back" frame-and a motorcycle-like "tank" over the crossbar. It was neither the fastest nor the most powerful bicycle ever built. But it was 'built like an aeroplane fuselage" and designed to trigger the imaginations of even dull children. (Pridmore & Hurd, 1995, p. 116) Schwinn's concept for an introductory streamlined bicycle was clearly guided by its blatant incorporation of the teardrop shape as the defining characteristic. While Schwinn still manufactured bicycles of the motorbike variety, such as the 1932 model shown in Figure 7.1, and would continue to do so beyond 1934 (Figure 7.2), the bicycle chosen by Schwinn as its headliner at the Chicago World's Fair in 1934, was the new Streamline Aerocycle (see Figure 7.3). Sc!1111rm-/Juilt fullr rq11if>Ped Motmhil;~ mmid of 1.93!! Figure 7 .1. The typical Schwinn Motorbike of 1932, the deluxe-equipped bicycle prior to the Aerocycle release (Source: Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945, p. 74) In U.S. Patent No. 2,011,016 (1935), filed on April 14, 1934, Schwinn documented the Aerocycle tank as follows: "My invention relates to receptacles, as for batteries, tools, or other objects, provided on bicycle frames usually along the upper cross bars thereof." 90 Figure 7.2. A Schwinn-manufactured, Majestic brand Motorbike of 1935, very similar to the B- lOE, continued to be offered beyond the introduction of the Aerocycle (Source: Wood, 1991, p. 59) Patent drawings and the respective descriptions, presented in Figures 7.4-7 .7, illustrate the teardrop, streamlined shape of the Aerocycle tank. Schwinn further described the characteristic intentions concerning concealment and attractiveness in this new incarnation ofa bicycle tank: Certain of my objects are to provide for the mounting of the receptacle in a position to cover the upper cross bar of the frame; to provide for the surrounding of the steering head of the frame by the forward end of the receptacle; to provide for the rigid securing of the receptacle in place on the frame and by simple and economical means; to provide an economical construction of receptacle and one which will present the desired attractive appearance; to provide a light projecting device, such as a spot-light, at the front end of the receptacle and preferably housed therein ... (Schwinn, 1935) Discussions of the streamline tank have credited inspirations ranging from the more stereotypical sources of automotive and motorcycle sty ling, to aeronautics in design and construction techniques. Author Jay Pridmore stated "The Aerocycle's tank-a motorcycle motif-was shaped like the cross section of a wing. Abundant silver and red paint made it a conspicuous item in any bike shop." (Pridmore, 1999, p. 34) 91 THE AEROCYCLE MODEL 34 1934 • THE OUTSTANDING DESIGN IN 1934 • • FRAME- GUARDS-.. l b or 18 inch with tru1 ,~ fott - m-t:>h~ricye: ~e d esiq n - wdd-!!d Widet arid dE!tper. ih-e drHm1foed automobile type with (Inc pioce. ahHRlnum f'iohJ., HRES- RUv1S·- 2b ¥ 2'l'8 tnd. Cord 8-alloon, Doop drop cenhtr. ~htomium fini~h. lANK- COASTER 8RAKE - thri lop tuh1~ covered, Strnomlinud, wHh Figure 7.3. Promotional material for the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle of 1934, citing automobile and motorcycle influences (Source: Brandt, 2003) 92 r. W. SCHW1NN 2,~11,016 ,,.ii I ·',,'I'., ' ·11' . ·1~ .) . Figure 7.4. Patent documentation showing the exterior ofF.W. Schwinn's "RECEPTACLE FOR BICYCLES" which utilized the teardrop shape as the defining characteristic (Source: Schwinn, 1935) 93 Au1~ 13, 1935. F. W. SCHWINN zott,016 RECSf'l'4t'il,,! 1\1R BliClt:L!S 1'1br;t April U ~ 1934 w }I ,,! : \. /~ II~' 0,._ I l ~_ '(: I I j I • j • . l i ~n j I l Figure 7 .5. Patent documentation of interior views, illustrating the concealment of head, upper, and partial lower frame tube, and the incorporation of the headlight in the Aerocycle tank design (Source: Schwinn, 1935) 94 ~Oll,016 UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE :Ull.,014 UCEP'l'ACW ron atOl'C."LU l'rmk 'Ir. ~ CMaio. m., ...... 4-Q.1•• 1...... ,.._ ,...,, 11 cw-. td IN-U) M7 i.b'Vffttkln ~t~ t.o ~-- u for t.t ftom. •~ LN · ~ gprn tons mv tiMI tmes, too1i,, or omtt obJoeta. provided. m bi uaoim. Cl'ele trames u.sullr a.lone l:M· upper ·t:f08$ buC The K(!f~ n wldch. m· the p.t'UtuJiu· tom tbere-04. tbown, ill Mta;p~ ii) m ll-PPltcd to po&lUtJA on UliCt 1 Ce:rta.tll. ct IQJ oo:ltMJf.#.1, uo to prov!de .for th~ f:ra.Dltt fl' Figure 7 .6. Patent specifications/claims for U.S. Patent No. 2,011 ,016 ( 1935), filed on April 14, 1934 (Source: Schwinn, J 935) 95 ~011.0UI ' froni: e:nd of tf~ ~tacle n. Tile a11erun1 H ·is etc t~ be a.pplied to straddling PQSltion relatiw oo ahown $& prov3ded with a ooneavo. oonvex: 111:·:in~ the top bar ot the frame or a b~it ~ in sur tranJm1t.t.h1g m .~f M . u :i:ar eX&DlJ))o of l!tlMti.. ro~ rel&tWnSbl.,, co t.be at.eertnir h.c:lld (If A.id and :rormi11g tbG Jem; 1;1t the !'.SpoL·liftb.t. ~ld in :frame.~ ' :i fl~ bl' • bezel ti secured. to the rtecp4Miie:. tbt· 8. A :rtteptaeJe-stltm:U!N for a biqclt nav~it a r> :rtl:fketor Of t.hJ!, .!IPOt.Uftbt and mprHentcd at 88 taot m. 1ta Wiidtmitle etidomne: a part m the: t-0p bei?JS loc:at.ed 1n tb.0 mtorio.r ~ thee ~ceJ:Jtaicle auct: bar'• B&Jd ¢,op bar being Ul l Figure 7 .7. Patent specifications/claims, (cont.) (Source: Schwinn, 1935) Referring back to Figures 7 .6-7 .7, the patent description in further detail, with numeric citations accompanying the drawings, addresses the material, purpose and style of the form: The receptacle 17, preferably made of sheet metal and having an opening in its side closed by a door 18, is shown of streamline form presenting the rounded, blunt, front end portion 19, from which the receptacle tapers to its rear end as shown ... 96 The electric bulb of the spot-light and shown at 38 is associated with the reflector and connection with electrical contact devices 40 and 41, in the usual manner, the current being supplied to the lamp by any suitable means, as for example by batteries (not shown) which may be carried in the receptacle 17 as well as tools, or other objects as desired. (Schwinn, 1935) In Schwinn's semi-autobiographical 1945 book, Fifty Years of Schwinn-Built Bicycles, a section titled "The Bicycle Has a Change of Appearance," self-proclaimed the Aerocycle's importance and role in the context of what was then, fairly recent bicycle history. The description also addressed the fact that the Aerocycle frame contributed little in terms of being stylistically altered to fully integrate the streamlined look. Instead, as stated below, the Aerocycle' s distinction relied solely on "accessories and related parts." In 1934 Arnold, Schwinn & Company announced a new model- 'The Streamline Aerocycle' , first radical departure from the standardized appearance of bicycles in nearly forty years. Suggested by the streamline influence of the aeroplane and aerodynamics on modem design, which started in the early 30's, it presented a problem in cycle design. The mechanics of the bicycle imposed definite limitations. The simple tube structure of the bicycle left little latitude to shape it for better appearance, and every change involved a number of stress factors. In this first attempt, comparatively little was done with the tube structure of the bicycle, but much was accomplished with accessories and related parts. The result was a bicycle of strikingly new and modem appear~nce which created a sensation in the cycle market, made cycle publicity for the industry-and for Arnold, Schwinn & Company. It did far more than that; it awakened other cycle producers and started all factories thinking in terms of something new in bicycles. By the end of 1934 a number of cycle factories had become 'new model conscious'-more bicycle dealers had something new to sell. The market responded surprisingly. Not so much of a surprise for Arnold, Schwinn & Company-its principals had seen the 97 obvious need. Bicycle business, stimulated by new product, improved rapidly in spite of the backwash of the great depression; and was one of the leaders in the recovery period- 1933-1936. (Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945, p. 59) The tank design, though sometimes attributed to motorcycle styling, was clearly conceptualized to establish a connection to aeronautics. The Aerocycle logo itself was a stylized aeroplane of the era, and contained the words "Streamline Aerocycle," in a font very representational of the art deco era. The headlight bezel, again suggested flight, and was characterized by the chrome wings surrounding the lense. An original condition Aerocycle, owned by Andy McCulla, earned the "Bicycle of the Month" award in October of 2001, on "Dave's Vintage Bicycles," a website created and maintained by collector and restorer, Dave Stromberger. Three photos of this bicycle are shown in Figures 7 .8-7 .10, displaying in detail, the headlight bezel, structure of the tank, and overall appearance of a true original, example of an Aerocycle. Figure 7 .8. Detailed photo of the blunt, rounded front portion of the tank, including the decorated headlight bezel (Source: Stromberger, 2004b) McCulla's featured Aerocycle still sports original paint, chrome and trim. It goes without saying that this particular bike could very well be the finest all-original Aerocycle in existence, making it a particularly fine example in the context of authenticity for this paper. 98 Figure 7 .9. View of the tank, displaying the Aerocycle logo (Source: Stromberger, 2004b) Figure 7 .9. An originally equipped Aerocycle, showing the tank as the defining characteristic (Source: Stromberger, 2004b) Figure 7.11 shows the tone set in advertising by Schwinn in the introduction of the 1934 Aerocycle, describing how the new model came equipped "with the new welded frame -built like an aeroplane fuselage" and "Another basic and radical improvement-in strength, beauty, and modern streamlined appearance." (Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945, p. 58) Differences between the Schwinn Aerocycle and the Westfield Manufacturing Company's aptly named "Twinbar" bicycle are readily apparent. Styling approaches varied greatly. The upcoming section addresses the concept and design of the Twinbar bicycle. 99 .,,o·(::'~:}.;<~·--···· ·--;·~ .·.:·• '"', ,· ~ ,-:.:-> ~ · ;. ;~·, ,::,'··._-.;;,:::~,.:;., ,, :-,_·:_; .. :·- ··'.: --~·_,..- ' · ·~<-;3~(~:, -·-,:-::: : .::',";:·.·~ ·;>': :_:::.::-; ~',~ :~.-;:=: ;,'-~ ~ ::. -:···;:' /· ... :J"'e.w. 4tteo11JJl1t, . , t~~lticte : ~~·~~~mt fJtf ftf WWfll)f D· :.; :f ,R,: :AME-- BDltl LIKf'. .· :· .. . ,,...... ; A.ft. AfROPlAl1E fUSfLAOf AnJ>th~t b•sic •nd radical iM .··. provt'.m~nt-in strt:ngth, buuty_, ·· ·~nci . ·modern strt•ml·itt -t: ·d .· .. · .. •ppe1rattcc. , It~• . • gte•tcr sale1 ltimul•tor tl\~n the revolutionary l>•Hoon tire in"trod·uccd lot ye•r by tlti• le-.·der of the industry. '.WRtTE AT ONCE f OR lHE NAME Of YOUR NEAREST JOBBER 17th STft££T. NfW YOU CJTY Figure 7.11. A 1934 advertisement for Schwinn's Aerocycle, evoking aeronautics and "strength, beauty, and modern streamlined appearance" (Source: Arnold, Schwinn & Company, 1945,p. 58) 100 Elgin "Twin-Bar Falcon" & Columbia "Twinbar Airider-The Stream-lined Bicycle" Sears, Roebuck & Company, by Westfield Manufacturing Company, 1934 The Elgin Twin-Bar Falcon and Columbia Twinbar Airider were essentially, one-in-the same bicycle. Both were manufactured by the Westfield Manufacturing Company, of Westfield, Massachusetts: the Elgin version for Sears, Roebuck & Company, and the Columbia, sold by Westfield as its premium line of bicycles (Dixon, 2003). For simplification here, the "Twinbar" label will be used when alluding to both the Elgin and Columbia brand Twinbar bicycles. In instances where comments pertain specifically, to one brand or the other, the respective label will be used accordingly. The defining stream-lined characteristic of the Westfield manufactured Twinbar revolved around the concept that the frame incorporated gradually diverging upper frame tubes, beginning at the head tube and extending down to the rear axle in continuous, unbroken lines, thus the "Twinbar" label. This is discussed at length in the comparison and analysis section. The fact that the Twinbar cycles relied on the theme of linear stream-lining is supported by the marketing material associated with the Columbia version, and to a lesser extent, the Elgin badge. Interestingly, in Elgin's advertising for its version, the "Twinbar" label is hyphenated as "Twin-Bar," but "stream-line" then became "streamline." Elgin stressed that their new offering had been "DESIGNED AFTER 1933 STREAMLINED MOTORCYCLE" (see Figure 12). Columbia's Twinbar model is labeled in promotional material (see Figure 7.13) as: "AIRIDER The STREAM-LINED BICYCLE." Columbia reinforced this connection throughout its advertising by using the noun, "stream line," when referring to the frame, battery tank and carrier design, which was subsequently described with the adjective, "stream-lined." Columbia maintained separation of the word by using the hyphenated term as an adjective, or keeping the words "stream" and "line," separate altogether in the noun form of the term (see Figure 7.14). 101 ' A revolutionary d ed9n dodlec:1ted to the one-mUHon lli)in owners ••••• ENTIRELY NEiii STREAMLINE DESIGN Al~~~=EL lllGDIM Folcoll mrvw Ill•• dlrtn wrn••-• th~ ftnt tu; "41•~"" thtt•~' on tilt. kt~ -~ .ity1.,..MtlJ:fi4 brlllA. ff-The !ellmn wlH M'llr•! ft kMlb llM • ~ Y. Q-th•- «™ Sr:n..m&lrH> Twtn JJ•r fn:11M, ti1111 ~ mud f.-N4, flt~ m•n·•lr.ed @ ~:~~":r,:::!::~'!:J·~-r.:r;. !~== ··---· i ...... t:-¥f041P:t t. tu~ .•• • • ...... -. ... 1"11 """ .,., • IM> · 1"~.,~ll•r .,.. . ,..." !:':! :;~:.!'.!:'!~:::.=r~!:Z;!x':.m,.':;~!:"a~t<~!'~'!:! 95 :kct..iat -••~J' ~·u ~ u. ~·"Wit •'-"" ~in. built bil.t' .... illil> t. Br cy~. 1"111!'1' ·~~ahinc ilfl11d. liilw'):, ff>a«Hbll W•:rim f'Nl!)ptd !i~c. •~ 10: f'"" lmffl 8 1'.td l>i ,.,Jdi. t~ llla..:11< tb"'·" 1;• ii~l -.w .ilil""M' 1i•m, 1111 ~ln;ui<;: 1~,. witlfi •Jrt r,·f'lL ~='tj~it1 ~""'~1 1~" ~.,,d, -~~: ~·!.;~;:;:J '~!~1::~!~;' ~ 1 ~!r;;::r~ r:x··=t~:i t.":~:,.W'::,;.,:::t.,. ~~~~ ~1 tr:,i:~::.:::yu~·:~r:(Or: ~i:..~':" !\ ~ 1tti 1 j"' f;eh ~'t lt!Ull•< t.JJ• '~' ~ bfult• with 1cl \'V<'11 ma Figure 7.12. The Elgin Falcon/Blackhawk Twin-Bar advertising stressed in a diagram, the linear aspects of its "streamline luggage carrier that is a harmonizing part of the Twin-Bar frame" (Source: Wood, 1991, p. 58) 102 Spedlicat ions F1N1sH: Col11n1hi:1 1·aru1i1u~, H1.•rkshin· Him· 1,1r h!:wk. wlt itn h(':.11.I aJ1d e:x('1111'ke white f!<:•(·oritlio11,, hriirl1t par!~ drrornium 11latNl abo front for!.; . widt• drop:.;ii.!t• :·4ainlc:.;s ~l<'.1•! g11:wl:~ wil.h ou1lim•d p11nel ,'>lrip!'~, F1H\1E; rlesiJ!n, p~d1·ufr•L l!J''. ;..tri'alll Jin•· I" par:iJ , lcl !wm top lmr:>, drop fv 1·;,:••d tl·ar fork (•lid pl;1k,; with loc" rml. rh.ai11 ;.1dj11,;Lint:' :<«r<·•ws. Fo11K ~ ifrop forg-t AIRIDER The STREA~1 .. LINED BICYCLE Figure 7.13. Advertisement for Columbia's Twinbar, reiterating the use of linearity through the use of the divided or hyphenated term, "stream-lined" (Source: Stromberger, 2005a) The carrier design for the Twinbar cycles, also patented by the Westfield Manufacturing Company, was promoted as a distinct characteristic and integral part of the unified bicycle design. The carrier design too, placed emphasis on the stream-lining school of thought. The primary aspect again, was the reliance on the parallel-lined theme, as shown in Figure 7 .15. A preliminary drawing as seen in Figure 7.16, for the Twinbar cycle, designed by Bertil Lindell and dated January 3, 1933, indicated differences between the initial concept and final 103 design of the model. (Polizzi, 200 I , p. 6) The production design was relatively conservative compared to the more aggressive curvature of frame tube design in the concept drawing. F'nAMt·; : desi~n. pntenterl ~ 19('. stream line 1" p:u·ul lel hnn top bars+ drorl forgt" hike. grain Jt:.ather top. A~so has large spe .. dal ~ tream line lmJlt;•.ry tank, Weio;t:fiel_d and it':-; a real h(•auty. no~· s ···., just lnok at it.! ]~\illy equipped. wil.h ele<~trle born and light, and hattcry lank pntt.t~tn<~ d after the ~as hmk used on motort~ ydcs, and the built-in. stream-lined earner. l~ook how closel;r the ft·:-une t•esemhles thnt of.a n1oto1·cyclc. with the gr~tceFul curve of the twin top bars. Y (H1 <·an iust see her skinnning along llu.• rnad on tho!«'~ bnUoon tires. Figure 7.14. Excerpts from the advertisement in Figure 7.4, demonstrating the on-going comparisons between bicycle and motorcycle design, and the reinforcement of Columbia's brand of "st~eam-lining" (Source: Stromberger, 2005a) EQUIPMENT 'l'his new exclusive design patented stre~un:--line c~u·r:ier is n big change·over the old co1n•<·ntionnl style. It has n, strong cl1nnncl fr~une and par:dlel bars :ind the top is perfectly smooth. Nott~ the graceful curve at the rear. Securely fastened to the frame and guard tmd alS<.) supported by braecs from the rNtr lnih. A strong and lmndsomt~ car rier in keeping with Columbia •fovclopm.ent. Sla11· dard equipment on principal modds. Figure 7 .15. Stressing the use of linearity, Columbia described its "exclusive design patented stream-line carrier" as having "a strong channel frame and parallel bars" (Source: Stromberger, 2005a) 104 More reserved too were fender designs. The rear fender was not as long in the production model and the front lacked the widened lower edge presented in the concept drawing. Also absent in the production model were what could be described as art deco inspired, "winged decorative accessories" that concealed the axle bolts on both front and rear wheels. However, the carrier design used on the final model, seemed more successful in harmonizing with the framework, than did the original concept. THE · 5TREAM~INED . ercy~LE ·OF .1933. Figure 7.16. A concept drawing of the Twinbar bicycle design by Bertil Lindell, for Sears, Roebuck and Company, notably more eccentric than the production version (Source: Polizzi, 2001, p. 6) As a relevant side note, though Columbia had offered a bicycle with a "round battery tank" at this time, called the "Superb Motobike," as shown in Figure 7 .17, it accomplished little in terms of notable streamlining in that the tank was rounded, almost tubular, on a single 105 plane, instead of streamlined, or curved on the round. The leading edge surface of the tank was flat with beveled edges, not fluid. Though equipped with a rounded tank, this cycle was not promoted by Columbia as being streamlined, and rightly so. An excerpt of the detailed description is found in Figure 7 .18. Columbia Superb l\.lotobike Model No. M9T Co11lplel:t• with lln> latest nud lwst 1•(tllip1mml. Tlw t>'.ilra har in Hw frame n1.li.ls gre;1l.er .st.rengt.h lid.Ju~ Jmmc. This ffu:>1fol i .~ sfipplied reg•.1· birly with a ~1.wdully dt-sigm-.:1 Columhin rvumi h:tltery t.11nk. 1 ~· hrurni1111 1 f)bte lcdric lwn1 '~ ith speeinl lmwkel and wiring t:"OU<.:takd i.u hmu1ld1:u-. the l1u·ge ·westffof;I dt~lric· lum.p, and lbe JH.'W :stn~am li11e carrier lmilt inln tl1e tlei;ign vi llw r: hit•y Figure 7.17. Columbia's "Superb Motobike," with "round battery tank," a departure from the more flat-sided tanks of the Motorbike era (Source: Stromberger, 2005a) Cmnp~ete \\•ith the lates~ · uml ht:~s.t <'quipmenl. Tlw t·~drH ha.r• in the· frame adds greah~r strength to lhe fouue. 'l'hb rnodd i~'i supplit:-,(i n~gu Jarly witl1 a specialty designNI ('olumhin round huJ h~ry lank, dmmtium plated tru><.s fork with tulmJa.r sh~el rods. .E. A. dc~rtric horn with spt:~cial ln·m.~kel and wiring couecale Figure 7.18. Columbia's product description hinted of taking steps in the direction of streamlining characteristics with "wiring concealed in handlebar," and the highly touted "new stream line carrier built into the design of the bicycle." (Source: Stromberger, 2005a) The Superb Motobike did, along with the majority of Columbia's 1934 fleet, incorporate stream-lining with the inclusion of the new carrier design. Many accessories were 106 the same as the Twinbar model, with the exception of the distinct curvilinear frame and that balloon tires were not standard equipment. Streamline Bicycle Designs, Post-1934 Bicycles continued utilizing and promoting both strains of streamline design. In the years following 1934, streamline design flourished in bicycle applications and inevitably incorporated both strains of into stylish works of pedal art. There were bicycles which, relied on and promoted one strain or the other. Figure 7 .19 shows a Colson brand bicycle that OLSON BICYCLES.for 1935 ere outstan:J,ng!y d1stmcrn.e .. The fiowing dyncn'ic C irnport those qualit ies which ore ossoc101ed on 'y w1tL mocern design ,~.;\or.y rr,~ , icol im p ~oveme n t s, such as the 1rwe,tcd h-'.'.?oring cup dcsion o! the heod end the tur,-,e polished bearing\ contrib11te to 1heir lC>ng Ue ond eosy nding qua11ties Send fer cc:' cataloo ond ofso for our new dnldren·~ veh:clt: cctclcc shcw•nc the strc-oml •ncd F:C': velociPede. -· .. c:5fteamliJzed ..8iqµi¢ = 'l'DE COLSOND.it ~L'l. RIA. 091 Figure 7.19. A 1935 Colson "Aristocrat," incorporated triple lower frame tubes as decorative stream-lining (Source: Kinsey, 2004a) 107 obviously based its streamline claims on the linear strain, evident in the parallel-lined frame tube structure. Having said that, examples of aerodynamic streamlining in bicycle designs were just as numerous and subsequently, it became customary for companies to integrate both strains. Many manufacturers began fully investing resources in renowned industrial designers who conceptualized not only fluidity in tank designs similar to that pioneered by the Aerocycle, but increasingly sought to do the same with respect to frame tube structures. Frames in the mid to late 1930s became curved, fluid, and dazzling-in complexity. Figure 7.20 displays one such frame, which was utilized by multiple bicycles of the day. Two such examples, based off the patent shown in Figure 7 .20, are the 1936 Dayton Super-Streamline (Figure 7 .21) and the 193 7 Huffman Super-Streamline (Figure 7 .22), both by Huffman Manufacturing Company, of Dayton, Ohio. ~ ""' i ~ "' 0 ~ Q r p -... et '"~ !Tlz "".;:. ... ~ IP • • • Figure 7 .20. Drawing of the frame design for U.S. Patent No. D 100 ,202 ( 1936), filed on April 1, 1936 (Source: Clements, 1936) 108 -- the DAYTON Su1)er-Strea111line! Figure 7 .21. Advertisement for a 1936 Dayton "Super-Streamline" displaying increasing fluidity in frame tube structure (Source: Kinsey, 2004b) By this point in time, manufacturers were fully engaged in styling every aspect and accessory on bicycles. The bicycle in Figure 7 .22, for example, now featured a fork equipped with what the manufacturer called "Streamline Truss with Streamline Chrome Rods," an airfoil-inspired stem, labeled "Huffman Streamline Extended," a luggage carrier, branded "McCauley Streamline," and finally, teardrop-shaped, "Torrington Streamlined" pedals. While it is simply not possible to discuss the merits of every influential bicycle of the streamlining era here, the subject of this paper cannot be complete without mentioning what was arguably, the height of stylized streamline design in the context of the bicycle, the Elgin "Bluebird." There is very little argument that, in the conceptualization of the Bluebird, Elgin idealized, invested and embellished until the bicycle was simply the pinnacle in the industry. In every possible respect, the Bluebird was unlike any other. The drawing (Figure 7.23) included 109 MODEL No. N-lT-MEN'S SUPER-STREAMLINE WITH TANK MODEL No. N-lT-·,. Fram(: Men's Tank Equipped ]() '' Super·-Streamline. For!.-: Streamline Truss \Vith Streamline Chrnme Rods. C1)/or: .\H s.landard color combina tions, listed on Page 5. Guards: Gothic Deep Enanwled Extended. Rims: Chromium H ook Type. Tirrs: Standard Balloon Black & White. Handldwr: 16" x 8w Braced. Stm1: Huffman Streamline Extended. Saddl,,: Streamlined ~fes.inger, Grain Leather. Sponge Rubber Padded \vith Side Plates. Pedals: Torrington Streamlined. Chain Guard: Huffman Chromium Plated. E!ft'triral Equipment: Twinlites. Tank: "National Zephyr-Tank. Horn: In ·rank· specify \\her.her you wanr to install four standard Hash ligbt cells or one Eveready 4tY) Baw:ry. R,.jft.dor: G iant Multi-Power ~afetv Signal. Lugga[!r Carrirr: McC;.:iuky Streamline. reprint of original ad 1937 National Bicycles made by the Huffman Manufacturing Company, Dayton. Ohio Figure 7 .22. Another version of the patented frame design in Figure 7.20, a 1937 Huffman "Super-Streamline" with tank and "streamline" label now attached to accessories including: truss rods, saddle, stem and pedals, as displayed above (Source: Kinsey, 2004c) 110 with U.S. Patent No. 2,199,536 (1940), filed on January 11, 1936 (Source: Booty, 1940), illustrates the intricacy, detail and overall form of the Elgin Bluebird. The patent drawing Figure 7 .23. Drawing of the frame design for the elaborate Elgin Bluebird, that had for "it principal object the provision of a bicycle having a novel streamlined construction of great strength but of light weight. .. " (Source: Booty, 1940) displays the lengths to which Elgin would go to ensure a memorable design. Complete patent descriptions and accompanying drawings, for both the bicycle and specially designed tank, U.S. Patent No. Dl07 ,443 (1937), filed on October 8, 1937, are included in Appendix B, pages 157 and 166, respectively. Note the complete integration of tank to frame, incorporating a speedometer, sculptured and flared fenders, curved and fluid frame structure, teardrop pedals, etc. The Elgin "Skylark" received a similar treatment. 111 There are, of course, countless, varied examples of streamline design directions applied to bicycle styling from the 1930s through the 1950s in America. Some designs sought to achieve low and sleek profiles, thereby contributing to a streamlined look. One such example, was a striking hybrid of automotive-like casing, surrounding a recumbent style bicycle. This curiously designed "Two-Wheeled Vehicle," U.S. Patent No. 2,147,732 (1939), filed on June 7, 1935, is pictured in Figures 7 .24-7.25, represented a design that fully concealed the inner mechanisms of the machine itself, along with the rider. Inventor, Earl S. Boynton claimed: An object of my invention is to enhance the safety factor of manually propelled vehicles, particularly for the preservation of human life, applicable not only to the rider of the vehicle but to pedestrians and others' incident to the propulsion of the vehicle. This object is attained by positioning the seat for the rider vertically closer to the ground as compared with a so-termed "safety", i.e., diamond frame bicyc.le. (Boynton, 1939) Figure 7 .24. Frame design for the "Two-Wheeled Vehicle" (Source: Boynton, 1939) 112 r_j_q.2. Figure 7 .25. Outer "shell" design for the "Two-Wheeled Vehicle," note the airfoil shape of the fluted vents and headlights among the concealing nature of the object as a whole (Source: Boynton, 1939) Full patent descriptions and claims for the above invention are found in Appendix B, on page 168. Surely, scarcely recognized examples such as the above were abundant among the many thousands of ideas patented in America during this era. 113 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION The Twinbar model bicycles have been mentioned in the same breath as the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle, when discussing streamline "firsts" in the context of bicycle design. An argument could be made for either bicycle as the stand-out model of the 1934 Chicago World's Fair. Author Jay Pridmore described in his book, Classic American Bicycles, that the Sears sold Twinbar bicycles "remained a step behind Schwinn in the drive to streamline, though the big store's Elgin mark made up for lost time a couple years later when it produced the Bluebird and Skylark" (Pridmore, 1999, p.35). However, bicycle historian, Leon Dixon, confronted the notion that the Aerocycle was the object of attention at the 1934 Fair, by posting a rebuttal to the Pridmore statement on his website: ... on page 35 the implication is given that Elgin was somehow trailing behind Schwinn with the Blackhawk. What is NOT mentioned is that the Century of Progress Exhibition thought so much of the Elgin Blackhawk and similar Elgin Falcon that they 1 selected an Elgin Falcon to be given away to the l ,000,000 h boy under 12 who attended the exhibition. (Dixon, 2003) While this may have been the case, the credentials of the Century of Progress Committee, for selecting the bicycle to be promoted, likely had little to do with which possessed more streamline characteristics. Nevertheless, the controversy was worthy of exploration and justified further discussion in the context of this paper. At first glance, the Aerocycle may have appeared to be a retooled version of the motorbike, different only in respect to the addition of the tank appendage. Although it utilized a single tube "camel back" frame, as opposed to the double, upper tubes that typically framed the standard motorbike tank, it did not introduce anything new or remarkable, to speak of. In retrospect, when being critiqued by antique and classic bicycle collectors and hobbyists, the Aerocycle suffered most in that the streamline theme was not applied to the bicycle, in its entirety. Despite what the authors of The American Bicycle, Pridmore and Hurd, describe on 114 page 116, as "sleek lines-curving steel tubes fashioned into something called a 'camelback' frame," the Aerocycle frame incorporated no curves, but instead, the straight lines and angularity of traditional frame tube construction of the period. The accessories included on the Aerocycle, though more consistently aimed towards the streamlining themes of integrated design and concealment, most notably with the tank, and with the standard inclusion of a chrome chainguard and both front and rear lights, inevitably took some liberty in branding its "luggage carrier" as being streamlined. As seen below, in Figure 7 .26, advertising describes ••••DELUXE ACCESSORIES•••• Standard Equipm•nt ""+he STllFAMLINED A.EROCYCLE and th,. N.,w MODEL 15 SCHWINN CHROME PLATED STEEL CHAIN GUARD Fot us• 011 me••f an.J bo1s' bicvels1. No mor• ;,.,jutad fingers, or •oil...l or lorn clothing. Thh "•"" SCHWINN Ch..,in Guard c:loes ewoy with th• St&ndMd l:quipmenl on tho; lll•~tto1rng STREAMLINED old styla pant' cli!>• .nJ .gru!ly lmpron• tl.o SiRE~MllNl;I,) AEROCYCLE CARRIER. h.,toll&d o~ BIOE ~PPM'-'""" .,f ~"Y bicyde. Quickly •nd easily ill• .t<'llled, the eh~in 9uard is held see11reiy b7 two> SCHWINN SCHWINN damf''· Can be ,,....,J o~ly with !he new SCHWINN Offset Crank .. ELECTRIC LUGGAGE TAILLIGHT CARRIER LOOK FOR THIS SE.Al ON Ooy• •nCCi.,lfy for th~ s1 .... m1i .... d Aero THE BICYCLE YOU BUY Elcdrk Taillight. It's chr""''""' platad and c~el., , onci now sta~d.,rd •q~ip"'~- ~"{n tho i• furnhh•d cemplc+c ... ah bulb •nd ample no• Modof 35, -th;, n•• SCHWINN l11g9•9e .... +re fer eruv indaliction. Thrn•t e .stton9 t:.q.aier ha~ won ~teat populaf"if')' bec•usa of i~ '; &n+lr~ly tu!w dtll~ i ~n- ... All par+., ue sem ;~ red light to the re•• ·~ moke ,,;9ht ridinq +ubu l ~r 1hoper:I, giYing grHlet strength <1nd QUALITY BICYCLES hMury, •nd adding mu<>h to the •pp.. r Figure 7 .26. Schwinn's promotion of "deluxe accessories," standard on the Aerocycle, but available on most other models (Source: Brandt, 2003) the carrier by stating: "this new SCHWINN luggage carrier has won great popularity because of its entirely new design. All parts are semi-tubular shaped, giving greater strength and beauty, 115 and adding much to the appearance of any bicycle." (Brandt, 2003) Here, the rounded, or semi-tubular shaped construction, apparently constituted the label of "streamlined." Given what the teardrop format of the tank accomplished for the Aerocycle design, curvilinear frame tubing would have significantly advanced the design toward accomplishing a successfully cohesive, streamlined unit. The frame of the Twinbar cycle excelled in this respect, and as emphasized in the description (Figure 7.27) of U.S. Patent No. D90,104 (1933), filed on November 15, 1932: The characteristic feature of the design is in the double bars at the top of the frame sweeping from single bar at the head of the frame from which such double bars are streamlined in a diverging manner so as to merge into the lines for the rear fork portions of the frame formed as continuations of the double top bar, leaving the head of the frame as a single post and giving the sense of a double springing arch from the rear wheel hub gradually merging into the single head member without a break in either arch. (Clark, 1933) While the Clark-patented frame design (Figure 7 .28) for Westfield Manufacturing Company, according to documentation, clearly predated the Schwinn incorporation of the teardrop shape in the Aerocycle design, the pertinent factor was the strain of streamline design each company chose to apply. Both offered a distinctively different version in their respective solutions. The Aerocycle form was different in that the tank went beyond the format of the motorbike genre that had, by the early 1930s, saturated the industry for well over a decade. Though it too did not rely on a lower frame tube to stabilize the tank structure from the underside, the tank of the Twinbar was still very representative of the typical motorbike design: simple curves and single-plane bending in fabrication. Whether a product of the stamping process or otherwise, the method used yielded results already seen during this period. Conversely, the Aerocycle incorporated true, applied aerodynamics, whether fully matched by 116 Des. 90,104 • UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE GEORGE W. CLAJUt, OF WESTFIELll MASSACHU$.:&TTS, ASSlCJNOR TO EDWA.llD H . Bao.An'Wlt.l.r., ltECElVE:B QF THE WESTJ'IELD M:.ANUFACi'tt:Rt:Nv ~ll{PAJJr1r, OF WF&Tl'IELD. M.Al1.SACHt!S:£f1'·!'s, A CORPOltA'tlOlii' O'F KASSACJI1Js:m'TS DESIGN FC)R A l!lCYCLE FB.A::M:£ OR 'IHl'l LIKE 9 T'o .rdl · u 1 X~.O"Jr1,. l.~ · :t~Mflj ·~Ynl~);:~rn: 1li . h•Cli.ui ~ (;{ Hw arr~)WS from hne: 4--4 oi Pig. n.~ it knnwn ·d1<1-t L fiti)Hf;l W. Cr.AllK, a ~.with l Ylll'L'I htt)ki:H il W1\y. • f'. il.i~·t•,1 of thP L;:nitcd St:xl!:: • Figure 7 .27 Patent documentation for the Westfield Manufacturing Company's "new, original, and ornamental Design for a Bicycle Frame or the like" (Source: Clark, 1933) 117 June 13, l 933. G. W. CL.ARK Dea. 90,104 • Fil('o >kW. 15. 1932 ~~7Jl!§.:r §§~t±~- · ~ c··· · -~-··· !fJ:I[===· . · · ~.. ~2. • ~3. 8B8 ~#'. lNVEi'rTOll.. tT£aRGt: h!Ct.AllJ< .BY ~ - -.'- ?/-4.l .. / .1!7'0Ff!\'E'IS. Figure 7 .28. The idea patented here placed emphasis on the diverging upper tubes of the frame; note that there is no indication of the curved lower frame tube to be used in the final production design (Source: Clark, 1933) 118 the bicycle's overall design or not. The tank of the Aerocycle demonstrated compound curves and therefore accomplished something new, while introducing the teardrop shape to the industry on a three-dimensional format, and thus the beginning of similar tank treatments in the bicycle designs through Post-War America. Though future bicycle tank designs of the curvilinear, fluid nature would be developed and applied, the inspirational tank design of the Aerocycle was undoubtedly the closest to that of the teardrop shape, of any ever produced. Bicycle enthusiast, Tim Brandt curator of the "Bicycle Chronicles" website, offered a balanced opinion (T. Brandt, personal communication, February 18, 2003) on the Aerocycle's place in bicycle design history by stating: The Aerocycle flopped because of its high cost in a depressed economy. The frame of the bicycle was also weak. It was a camel back frame. They broke near the seat post quite often. They didn't have the double bar construction which offered more support. Despite its downfalls, the Aerocycle put Schwinn on the map. It was a revolutionary design that introduced streamlining to the industry. It is funny that such a genre was created simply because of one part: the Aerocycle tank. Despite the Aerocycle's introduction during the waning years of the Great Depression, much like the previously discussed Chrysler Airflow, it ushered in new thinking in regards to design in its respective industry. The Aerocycle design was also to some extent, in par with what Harley-Davidson did with its fleet of motorcycles in 1934: wider and longer fenders with a flared trailing end on the front fender. The Twin bar cycles also had a flared lower edge on the front fender, though the fenders were not as wide, nor concealed as much of the tires, lengthwise. The Aerocycle design integrated the headlight into the tank structure and included standard, a chrome plated chainguard and electric taillight, both absent in the Twinbar models, which instead came standard equipped with a rear fender reflector. Again, the overwhelmingly advertised feature of the Twinbar cycle was a hybrid of stream-lining, deeply rooted aspects of linearity. The overall design of the framework was of 119 such importance that the Westfield Manufacturing Company went as far as patenting the aesthetics in the combination of luggage carrier-to-frame design. Concentrated efforts were focused on the frame design and, as shown in the description (Figure 7 .29), and accompanying drawing (Figure 7.30) of U.S. Patent No. D92,523 (1934), filed on September 19, 1933: The characteristic feature of the design is in the luggage carrier mounted at the rear of the frame, the lines and proportion of which luggage carrier are coordinated with the lines and proportion of the frame to give a pleasing unity to the combination. (Clark, 1934) The tank of the Twinbar cycles housed the battery, while the Aerocycle' s enclosed not only the battery, but also the top and head tube of the frame, along with the integration of the headlight. This fit with the streamlining ideals of integration, concealment, and combining of superfluous ornamentation into a single, and therefore simplified unit. The Aerocycle incorporated lights that were controlled by a central switch, located on the top, right side of the tank. In comparison, the Twinbar cycle did not enclose or incorporate the headlight or its accompanying hardware, wiring or switch, which was located externally on the handlebars. Exposed wiring on the Aerocycle was held to a minimum with the enclosure of components in the tank structure. The Aereocycle horn though, remained on the handlebars and represented the only significant accessory not incorporated into the tank. It too had exposed wiring on the handlebars, but again, to a lesser extend than did the Twinbar. Figure 7.31 shows the overall appearance of a Twin-Bar Elgin Blackhawk, in original condition, and featured as the "December 2002 Bicycle of the Month" on "Dave's Vintage Bicycles." Again, the more stereotypical motorbike style tank of the Twinbar bicycle, visible in the photos, is in stark contrast to the shape and appearance of the Aerocycle tank. 120 Patented June 19, 1934 Des. 92,523 • UNITED ST A TES PA TENT OFFICE n.su DESIGN FOR A. CQl'lUJl?CED BlCYCtE AND f..UGGAGF. CAkltlEB AT'l'ACHMElll'T OB l"HE: LI.KE ("zeMJT. W. Clark, l\'t$ii'ield, 1"b.M .. Ml!ii~11n, DJ' :w15ne uwlp!.nteftb to The Wfillfield MHu.facp t:uri~ C:1Jm.p.atty, ·Iii· ~IH'Jll!WllUan ot Mlii!af.'llll seUai Appllt"&tin;n Se114.embt!r 19. 1933, Seri;1l No. 49,?93: • T'3"Rl -0-f patent t4 y~..a.r11 To au 'li.tlrnm. tt m.ay cor.icern.• 'rh~ ctelHm 1)! the chatn irctmwci Pilrtly ~ a .run .lko I! };:nown tb:at L GJ::an:m: W . Ct~RK u t..::iU · t.tr;r,s lli tom: t;$ITJcd tb.t'1!JJ;;hm.lJ t:r;e entke <: ha.i:t, 2f·~ r>f the Unlt(!tl StaJi:l! . t'i!sldin~ at W- ~:!t:fkld . The 1~harnc terl:... ti1: fr!'\ture or the dem1m 16 Jn tn tJ10 ccU::J\;.~ of Hn:inJ)!11m and S~ttJ'.'" o! ~Ia.sa.Jj~ W:r. h 1gq,:i.t:;e 1m::-:rii~r m .ol.illtt!d at th 1; rE8¥ or the chl!:W.tli;, b~ ~·e 11. nr:w. (ininua.l, <:i!ld 1:rw inn:\l':t.ed tram'!!. Hu.~ tmes iUlcl m-opi::iruon o! w1~l!:h h~=!gase n~imcmal De:;:!~;i for o. combilmi Bit:-.·1:.b ar:d l!;;1:r.11~T are <:CK1:-d:ruit11<1 'L'ith tl11~ lir.r.~ :li:n cl. Pl'C>JX.>J< L.u;geci.e:e Carri~r littachm~11t ur t~ llke. Whkb r.ir. t,ion o! the fr.amt< to "he ii1 p!ca.Etne; UJ.11~ tQ t.h ~ the I nll:(:•wmg !S a ~p:!r:ifi:i:::ahon. t€1!cr~nce bemg tutn.bination. had t.-:i tht! :m~i::mpan;ing Llmwir.i.::, tormlm~ a l ctaJm; :part thl!J."~1;.:L The o:r:urmenta.t C!!!lf::;n 'f\:,1· a C't:l-;m.b!.n eol bic;;.·ctc -!!. vi>ev of s .Fii.. 1 is Bldt! ~omb.kw.d bl~,·cl~ :H1;:i h11:;;nem i:: an:ier an~c bm<.m.t er thi: like sub imif lUll't,"bge (:urrioer attachttWtil :;bowing my ur:w lliant1ail'!t as ::hm•:n r..nd de:>cr:i:tR.tl desl~tl ;. a:r.d li~g. :a Js a top yj('!w- of ·th£. ~we- wit:h the ae-.:.t. and pat~ of the handle bus and the l~!t pedl).l rtniov-ed tor oonrenience in 11114'1r,~UQn.. • Figure 7 .29. Documentation for the "Design for a Combined Bicycle and Luggage Carrier Attachment or the Like" (Source: Clark, 1934) 121 June 19, 1934. G. W. CLARK De.. 92~23 CC*JUN:El) :BlCICU Alltl Ulo FU~ S.pt. 19 ~ 19:13 ~ ~ l'NVENTOR UEOR.(IE. w. CLA !(I{ e.v ~· . .. ' m __ _, '"'ff,,(H,l(/ "Al'T RNEYS Figure 7 .30. Patent drawing of the "Design for a Combined Bicycle and Luggage Carrier Attachment or the Like" showing the integration of accessory to frame design (Source: Clark, 1934) 122 Figure 7 .31. Photos of an original condition, 1934 Elgin Twin-Bar bicycle, illustrating the Twin-Bar frame design, left, and overall appearance and accessories from the front, right (Source: Stromberger, 2005b) A book by author and designer, Harold Van Doren, titled Industrial Design, and published in 1940, contains a chapter dedicated to what was then, all the rage in product design; streamlining. At that point in time, streamlining and its variable hybrids had spread to uses in every aspect of design in American society. Van Doren hinted of this at the beginning of Chapter XII, in stating on page 137: "Streamlining has taken the modern world by storm. We live in a maelstrom of streamlined trains, refrigerators, and furnaces; streamlined bathing beauties, soda crackers, and facial massages." Then later, continued the discussion on the terminological date of origin in American culture: "In our rapidly shifting language the life of such words, at least in their popular form, is often brief. The vogue for streamlining dates from about 1934." (Yan Doren, 1940, p. 138) Van Doren went on to address what he identified as three distinct subsets of streamlining. "Nonfunctional Streamlining," was viewed as" .. .its minor or nonfunctional sense-the substitution of radii and fillets for sharp angles and corners ... " and had uses in such items as a "casing for a water heater" and "the base for an electric fan or perhaps a domestic food mixer." (Van Doren, 1940, p. 13 7) Also pertinent to the topic was the manufacturing processes required to give such objects rounded edges, 123 smoothed joints and corner treatments. Secondly, was "Functional Streamlining," which Van Doren commented as being legitimately applied when economically beneficial: The real field of true streamlining is transportation, especially the airplane, although it has hydraulic applications as well. In both of these fields it is functional. It has been borrowed in many forms by industry for application to static objects, where its employment is due largely to popular fancy. This is not the place to debate the merits of borrowed streamlining, although if it helps sell merchandise that should go a long way toward justifying its use. (Van Doren, 1940, p. 145) Finally, included was a third category, labeled "Borrowed Applications." Here, interestingly singled out, was the description for a type of streamlining that essentially, combined elements and definitions of the previous two. In the introductory paragraph, Van Doren distinctly singled out a specific group of products: Inasmuch as this book does not deal with transportation design as such, we shall refer only to the borrowed application of true streamlining to industrial products. In well nigh its most advanced and complicated form, it may be seen in the design of children's vehicles or "wheel goods" as they are known in the trade: scooters, play automobiles, velocipedes, etc. Its use in this case is surely legitimate, even though air resistance is not a factor, because children like anything that enables them to imitate their elders. (Van Doren, 1940, p. 148) Later, in that same chapter, Van Doren addressed the definition of the teardrop shape as such: The basic shape from which all of these forms derive is the airfoil section familiar to the aeronautical engineer. It has many variations, long and thin, or blunt and ovoid, like a drop of water falling through the air. By variation of pitch and curvature it may be made to have greater or less lifting power when applied to the wing of the plane; the blunt nose parts the air and the trailing tail allows the slip stream to close behind with the 124 minimum of turbulence and resultant drag. Figure 102 shows one of many possible sections, in this case symmetrical around the long axis. Figure 7 .32 (containing Figures 102-105, from Van Doren' s book), illustrates his explanation of the idealized teardrop shape. Fm. 102. 1•1c. •103. • •• --F1G. 104. •.___ __ e Kt> Fm. 105. Figure 7 .32. Van Doren explained the "aesthetic reason for this shape based on rhythm and movement" through the above diagram (Source: Van Doren, 1940, p. 149) In this context, the airfoil was described, or paralleled through comparisons of shape to rhythmic sound, as communicated in the following: ... we might find an aesthetic reason for this shape based on rhythm and movement. Suppose we arrange dots in a straight line as in Fig. 103 but made them diminish in spacing by arithmetical progression. Even though the dots are small and all the same size, it somehow gives us an impression of speed. Convert this into sound by rapping with your knuckles on the table, each rap coming twice as soon as the last. Now a musician, playing a piece of music which called for this rapid accelerando, would also tend to increase the volume of sound as the beats come faster. 125 A graphic representation of this combination of acceleration and loudness would suggest that we increase the size of each dot progressively, as in Fig. 104. The suggestion of forward motion, of speed, is thus heightened. If we were to throw around this an enclosing line, as in Fig. 105, it would suggest the airfoil section. (Van Doren, 1940, p. 149) In Figure 7 .33, the airfoil section or shape is subsequently illustrated as the three- dimensional "Airfoil Solid" (Figures 106a-106b, by Van Doren) and accompanied by the following explanation: The airfoil section spun around on its long axis, Fig. 106a, produces the solid in Fig. 106b. It will be noticed that it is quite different from the basic geometrical solids ... although it combines elements of both ellipsoid and cone ... If we slice this solid in two at any point at all, providing the line of cut is parallel to the long axis, we shall obtain streamlined shapes varying in outline but analogous to the parent form. (Van Doren, 1940, p. 150) Fte. 106a. Fm. 1061>. Figure 7.33. The "Airfoil Solid" as geometrically illustrated by Van Doren (Source: Van Doren, 1940, p. 150) 126 Considering the context in which Van Doren explained the streamlined shape and solid, subsequent to identifying one of its ideally "borrowed uses" as applications pertaining to the bicycle, there should be little doubt that Schwinn had intuitively considered these factors prior to the conceptualization of the Aerocycle tank. The Aerocycle tank, pictured in Figure 7 .34, was the exact definition of the airfoil solid. Again, not only based on what was then, the up-and- coming design trend in transportation subsequent to becoming a genius marketing ploy, Figure 7 .34. The ideal use of the "Airfoil Solid" as presented in the Aerocycle tank (Source: \Vood, 1994,p. 124) but genuinely rooted in scientific experimentation. The concepts of which are found abundantly in science and bicycling publications to this day. A 1997 publication, titled Bicycle Science, dedicated a chapter to the subject of "\Vind Resistance" and included a diagram and formula, very similar to the Bel Geddes illustration found in Figure 3 .19, for measuring such resistance with respect to different shapes, and as applied to bicycles. Figure 7.35 illustrates the "effects of bluff and streamlined shapes: (a) eddying flow around circular cylinder; (b) noneddying flow around streamlined shape; (c) pressure recovery possible in the absence of eddies." (\Vhitt & \Vilson, 1997, p.86) Perhaps more applicable in the context of the Aerocycle' s adaptation of the airfoil shape is a diagram, in Figure 7.36, from Bicycle Design, a book by author and bicycle engineer, Mike Burrows. 127 C .. Drag force 0 Dynamic pressure of air x Frontal area · Figure 7 .35. Validation of the teardrop shape for current uses in bicycling aerodynamics (Source: Whitt & Wilson, 1997, p.86) Burrows, distinctively addressed the frame designs of current racing bicycles in a section, titled "Streamlining," stated: The classic 'teardrop' or streamlined form has a nominal drag coefficient of 0.05. That's one tenth the drag coefficient of the round form for the same frontal area, which really is a nice thought. .. As with the other types of shape, this CD can vary due to other factors-one of which you do want to know about. This is the length-to-width ratio of the streamline. It needs to be about 4 to 1. Any longer will not help in the cycling arena; any less can cause a sudden breakdown of flow, as with a round tube. Many so- called streamlined cycle parts (and particular aero-frame tubing) have a ratio of 2 to 1 or so, and are therefore totally non-aerodynamic. (Burrows, 2000, p.68) .Not just the right shape but the right proportions. 2:1 is never aero, hardly better than round tube. 4:1 is best in most situations, 6:1 looks better but Is only better in small sizes (less than 25mm long). Figure 7 .36. Diagram showing the ideal proportion, pertaining to bicycle design, of the aerofoil as a 4: 1 ratio (Source: Burrows, 2000, p.68) 128 Admittedly, explanations such as in Figure 7 .36, and similar discussions of ideal forms in the application of streamlining, likely have little bearing in context of the Aerocycle. Though Burrows was quite clearly addressing the topic of current aerodynamics as applied to frames and assorted accessories in professional bicycle racing, it remains an interesting curiosity that the Aerocycle tank is relatively consistent with the shape of the ideal formula for bicycle applications of today. Anomalies certainly exist regarding any subject matter under close scrutiny. The study of streamline design pertaining to the bicycle was no exception. There have been other examples of bicycles involved in the introduction and proliferation of the use of streamlining in the industry at the time the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle was conceived. The use of the term "streamline," though typically associated with the 1930s in America, was used in bicycle advertisements as far back as 1920, and possibly even prior to that. The advertisement pictured in Figures 7.37 and 7.38, (the term 'Streamline' indicated in each), describes a 1920 model Hawthorne as a "DeLuxe Streamline Motobike," and was essentially a promotion for a bicycle very typical of the average motorbike of the era. What traits then, were "streamline?" The model in question, pictured at the top of the advertisement, seems particularly less streamlined than either of the other two models featured. The handlebar structure and shape of the two models, pictured below the DeLuxe model in the advertisement, seem more "flowing" in design than those of the "DeLuxe Streamline" model. In the case of the Deluxe model, it would seem, upon initial inspection, there are no streamline themed traits to speak of whatsoever. No widened, smoothed, or curved features of any kind. No hints of "speed-whiskers," no subtle presence of concealment. Should it then be assumed that, this bicycle was branded "streamline" based solely on the application of a tank to its motorbike frame? The promotional text seems to corroborate the claim: 129 Figure 7 .37. Advertisement for 1920 Hawthorne brand bicycle, the uppermost called the "DeLuxe Streamline Motobike" (Source: Stromberger, 2004c) i.;,vo,,1.x; .l ~ .l~l.11.J. .Luu liUil' ctt::HlY J UU,~\;; \iUt; cent riomhinatlon of ariny :khaklan: wllite. The frame . 1 with .while decoratiptis. '. finishes have a glistenin . . . as each coat ·oLenam , baked on separately, and the colors .are servi<'~ablc ~s ;~ as cuarmlng. · Figure 7.38. Enlarged section (with the term "Streamline" underlined) of the 1920 Hawthorne brand bicycle advertisement (Source: Stromberger, 2004d) 130 A Motobike must have a tank as it gives a touch of refinement that is entirely lacking in ordinary models with the open space between the top bars. The De Luxe Streamline has an exceedingly neat motorcycle style tank of superior design-and large enough to carry all the tools. (Stromberger, 2004d) If nothing else, the above exception to the generalized rule of "streamline" terminology (and styling), surfacing in the vernacular of popular product design in America, attests that some assumptions in a historical context are effortlessly dashed. A certain amount of uncertainty rests quietly behind many theories and related hypotheses, based in product evolution. After all intriguing parallels are drawn, and inviting discussions had, the fact remains that when the Aerocycle was introduced, during the final years of the Great Depression, concurrent with the 1934 Chicago World's Fair, the deliberate use of the idealized teardrop shape in the tank structure contributed significantly in the introduction of aerodynamic streamlining to static objects. The Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle incorporation of the aerofoil shape in a bicycle format occurred in between the functional beginnings in transportation design, and the borrowed applications of stationary objects, which then embraced it as a styling trend. The Aerocycle presented the most primary and sensible application, as in the aforementioned discussion by Van Doren. In this respect the utilization thereof, aided in the exposure and subsequent spreading of streamlined styling. The bicycle proved to be the ideal format to promote, what up until that point, had been useful design strictly in terms of vehicular transportation. Having been both a method of transport and a smaller object simultaneously, the bicycle, specifically the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle, embodied the niche. The convergence of factors including, but not limited to, design in culture, technological advancements in fabrication, i.e., sheet metal stamping, combined with the marketing efforts consequential of the desire to overcome the Great Depression, resulted in a new visual language in America in the mid-l 930s. Likely, every category of design during the period, had a select group of products that introduced streamlining to the respective genre. 131 Whether in architecture, transportation, furniture, household appliance, or otherwise, aesthetics played an increasingly important role in machine-driven culture. From a broader perspective, specific products were inherently better positioned, by context of purpose, to introduce and legitimize streamlining as both a proponent of efficiency, as witnessed in transportation design, as well as the main ingredient of a newly justified styling treatment, strictly as decoration representing modernity, when applied to smaller items. In the case of the bicycle, the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle played an important role as streamline design instigator in its product category and subsequently, beyond. Although exceptions may exist with respect to other stationary objects having borrowed the teardrop shape from its origin of vehicular transportation, the case made for the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle being the object that initially, most influentially, sensibly, and categorically applied the teardrop shape, is a solid claim. From a historical perspective, there will always be an open and ongoing debate as to how streamline styling was introduced to the realm of stationary products. This investigation speaks of the role the Aerocycle played in what was inevitably a far reaching and involved styling movement. In that context, if the Aerocycle was not the first object to strategically introduce streamlining to static objects, surely it was among the contenders. When considering the fact that the overall design of Schwinn's Aerocycle tank resembled and embodied the "aerofoil solid" so closely, and embraced the streamlining ideals of combined accessories through integrated design, concealment and fluidity, in spite of rectilinear, uninspired roots of Great Depression era bicycle design, the Schwinn Streamline Aerocycle has earned considerable and justified notoriety. 132 APPENDIX A. PATENT LISTINGS 133 (Records Chronological According to Filing Date) Object Patent Number Filing Date Issue Date Streamline Power Vehicle 1,648,505 Oct. 30, 1923 Nov. 8, 1927 Bicycle Frame (Clark) D90,104 Nov.15,1932 June 13, 1933 Gas Stove Casing D90,108 April 6, 1933 June 13, 1933 Pencil Sharpener D91,675 May 29, 1933 March 6, 1934 Bicycle and Luggage Carrier D92 ,523 Sept.19, 1933 June 19, 1934 Motor Vehicle (Fuller) 2,101 ,057 Oct. 18, 1933 Dec. 7, 1937 Weighing Scale 2,047,681 Feb.19,1934 July 14, 1936 Receptacle for Bicycles 2,011,016 April 14, 1934 Aug.13, 1935 Articulated Rail Car Dl00,000 May 9, 1935 June 16, 1936 Two- Wheeled Vehicle 2,147,732 June 7, 1935 Feb.21,1939 Bicycle (Booty) 2,199,536 Jan.11, 1936 May 7, 1940 Bicycle (Clements) Dl00,202 April 1, 1936 June 30, 1936 Bicycle Tank (Morgan) Dl07,443 Oct. 8, 1937 Dec.14, 1937 134 APPENDIX B. ADDITIONAL PATENT DOCUMENTATION 135 June 16, 1936.. E. £, ADAMS ET At. Des. 1ootooo ,. FU.ad Nay 9, 1935 I t::J ,' o ~ 0 l 0 ' j [I ij • 0 , 0 \, ouli w (j ,, a0 J o 136 Patented June 16~ 1936 Dea. 100,000 • UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE lOl.001) .DESIGN Jii()K JL'i Aft.'l'lCVLATED RAIL CML on. SlmL..l\R. Al\'I'lCLI· U\•t.reH. Eu11ene Aifams, MQ"lin P, Bkttn~. a:otJ 'W'illi11;m H. M~Y, . Utdc-.qe, Ht, imd Vi'.rtUam ll. St11ul, lJetrot'·· IWeh.~ lltittttMS a.o Ptillmait~ lUa:wulatd Car Manu.fad11rin; (~m~y, tJbt• ea;lt, Ill.,, a eOl'])Oration al ~w.ate ApplkAtiun 11111.y 9. 1935. :Serilll No .. 543.7.54: • Te:r:m of 11a&.e11t 14 ;.r·eam T.:} a.l'l ~~,91n it wui:i.• &Ut~~ P.if!. 2 i-, iJ. side, >O llJl'.Rt,ioo&f ¥1E'G.' a-!' the Sill~; Be lt l(:h<:}u·a that; we, Everett Ettgen-0 .Ada.ll'..s, Fle:. 3 is a., t)el'Spet:Ht•rz l'tCW, the JXJint of \'ii!-W M~rt!n P • .BJOl)tl-.ec1t. Wj)liJl.m IL );fUi:.sc:y. arul 'Wll .. brdt1$: adili.u~t to the frmr.t end a! th:~ ca:t ~ lli:.It1 n. St-vn:t .. citizens {)[ tJte United Star..ss ot F'lg_ -I! ls a, ftOnt. elevat.fo:nai vie'l"; Amcnca, Everet~ l1>:11;;enc A.dams. :Ma.rti11 P. Bh:Ml,. F it;. 5 fa; a, rear. eJevationaJ 'O'ieW: Atld bet'\1" nnd William H. M~y ooin~ restdents. o! Fti~- ti bi {L perspec;lh'c l'.it-w, the polllt ot vle•.v Chl.caca, tntinty o1 cook, and St ale of DUnniJ;, bn~nf; r..d).fl«lnt to t ht! tt'a!r ead o.f the 1:1u, u.ad WDli'"lm .B. Stoot being ii. l·nsid~mt of Det.t'OU-~ F i£ a_ 1 and 2 are drl:Ji.wn to a 511gnttr sin&ller c01.mly ti1: wa~vm: , .fu1d Staliie. O·! Mlchli:;;i;n. h u\•t: ~'; • 137 July 14, t 936. 2,047.681 Piled Feb. 19. 1934 i ~~==~===::::.,___ 4 138 W. H. GREENLEAF 2,047,681 QIGHING SGALB FUed Feb. l 9. l9..'t4 139 2,047,681 UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE Ut'l.1Al WE!GmNG SCALE WlUltUQ B. ~. 11*ttfonl, C'crJm. ADllut.i• ~'1'UtJ' 19', IHI. Serial NQ. iiu.o_,: t C:tlaim.1, mt Us-GIJ My ihYentloo .relates to ~llNDf scales. and. liPWIWilY from tide bars to be heftlnllf±in- ... an <.1bjccr.. ot my i:t;v;etitkln. among other.a. ls ro .!$f):t'tbed, and. as aboq ~larl)t lu 11g,, 01 the dra:w p:rort 3 1letq mcwabJe ill • hmtmntaJ p11.:!ut 118Nllel to Cha rodller ~ a harilonk'l ~ ..., uae ;JUe Of movement of' the IQdJ'ca.~ :me«!hti· pended tram the depmdlq letn ot udd lnttlo m.m to ·[.lJll!flite mid indk:at4oa mechaujam uPOD and mdJ~ meoi.,,,_, ·-14 ~ t.eJna d~Cl:li or •..W ~Uortit!. movable In a hortaookl plane to opctate -.14 in • 't In & ·~ acalct, llpaced ]J8l'&llel bell· d~ m.ecbnbln UPl>D ~of •Ed plat- .(I. enak. levers. each 1l:Jch1di.D;1 an 'U1Jl>e?' mbatan... tonn. ti.:llJ . ~o~l tOGker ~ -.iJd. ~re i. In a ~ acah?, . ~ . panllel :Ptroted lees. the opposite mda. at tia.ch :rocUr i!Oftjon btll..(!ntt'J.t leftn M'\l'tle :b.oftzcmtal. and vut:lcal :bAYins :adJ.aoent v~aha.Ped notchN :reapec:ttvety portklns at rtght ugle$ to e.cb ~r. o :Pl&t! Nov. 8, 1927~ 1,648,SOS A. PERSU 142 Patented Nov. 8, um. l,648,505 UNITED STATES PA TENT OFFICE . .&:vam. n.mnr,.01' BVCUAJliBlll!!~ SO'Jl.&JrU., ft'JlMlQiQIB !'O'WD V'JlmCL'& This i:mrenti01l 1"elate.$ lt> !d:te•ttdir~ powu surfat."t! for flu• _\ 't.'l1ide+ wltkh • · ~ f1-.~e ·fJf ex wbiQ)P,!1 md has .for its objec:t to reduee w:inrl l!l"fSCf.:lftcles, whic!lt nl!k) lf:Dclme~ the wheeh resiftanoo t,o a minimum. th~in a~d wl1n!i• <~~ronn$, as d~:r .aq In _th_e_US\ . ull power ''·ehie_les__ o_f streamline poo.mble with (he tr!1e strt"1ml1Jl!! shatlie g1v,, en 1 s;b.ape oonsiderable ah· currents and P ~ e_ ~r_ . :a_ bly_fre(! fro:m . ~()tllCinl ex_. i'.l'i?SCf!_,nd_es, u.nd the 11 ir:hesf. RpP.tt, thi! seats a~ poovi,dtd ab- mft.',f lUJ. VC the SjJaet, for the pal'R!r~f~el'S at the ~ol utety 11t. th€'! front ~ the ciltJ.tme plaJ1t"' ho~· front and U.-e engme ftb1nt "t. bm 11!~1· ot ~~·cr, at the r1-.1r-. ~rh is 001:respouds with the , tmdor11eatb ..t~ie &.p&t!n for t.he P*-"$."9i!D~c..\l'K. rt~1ptirt.;J]1!.!'ntdml too whcilc \re.bide load mmt The new vehicle 1s pre.J~tubly ni1ir dunm lm .dhidal ~mh;..tant.,inlly unif-orroJy o-n both 'i'.:; ill witJ1out dHf et~ntial g...~ring. Spare wh-cets, u.d~ tn:r whkb 1mrt>0se th~ front ~ciotts niny bu arrnng;e_d 'l'ertic:ally _behind th~ ttar eo1l uf the \.'e.hi.cle oo.i:ly must have a s.mnUP?.r wheels bet1''t:eJ1 the fong1todmn l beams ui the l!'pl'<;i.fic: weight and fh<; re.n .. niu•rowor end 4)f lm:igiti.Jdinal di.roc'ti~n. of the '!'@hide. Hte i;•ody a,. greilt:e-r ispec.ifi.e weight. By •c• The drlr~\.ing el1ows di.n.grammadcn.ily tmu oon11no1lahng the: I.Jassen~l'S ut the f:rcmt Uti!' :&1l 25 ttJCl-.mple of .001tStruction. !-1.ptt.~l't~ which tn stniaml:ii1c \-ehlcJa~ is avail Figure 1 is all elel'rlltkm, able in front oi the fror1t wb~ls •i.thin dHt Figure 2 js ct. Jllcu1. vehfot~ bodyt is t•tHiz:erl in the tnost tldv~m Thf.~ front wheel.a~ se1·ving as !titt-'Cring t. ttttbed dri~, which ia particolanv dfs:irabl' Altbooeh oomptetely encloaed th~ whole at 'IWrb ~eeds. . When ;negotiatfng etlffl$ e~ pfant in the new . 'ffhlc1t1 is euily tb6 r[pping of tho t~ hi oonseque~ of aeOMSi bte trorn. all !idea u it is di&pcieed in the narrow&r" rear wheel track, .may " •· the l!!DiaUeJ" half of the vehicl~. · II tirely ~lected u in ~enc. of the A gp•ce fQ>r the niceptfon of' spare wheels 10 eontmual Blight shoeb of too ''cehiele the i>S proVidtd behind the reJ;r wheels veltie!ally minute t'Liflcrenoos -.hlch occur on the right bet.ween the longit-udin.al beams in. tlw lon .and left band rear wheels are h...laneied auto gituc:Un.al dircctfon of the vehicle. In this matfoalty so that the wear of ihe tyres ~ manner the nd'besion of tho rear 'Whools ia 10 mams normal. ri.tiU further in~reesed r. alsD the ~ wheels n The equilibrium of the vehicle when De .. an here eorrveniently ~Siible and. 3re pro-. p~ CUl"Ve$ is thus only &tfect~d to s t~ from the hea~ of. the ~eginc. 4eg.ree 'which may be cntinly ~ected a.s The adv'intage of this stre!llnllne vehid~ the m{fJn! p}et is con~ni!d in ~- re&I' i~ that., with th~ best utilir.atioo of the SJMlOC 15 t1~wer half of the veh1-0!e, and t:he ecn'ltro !tnd simplifu:ation. of tmns1nission, lt om 10 of ~rttv. ity thereof is :i~\ttttl~ble laterally in present tht !la?l!lllest Po£Sible air J'1!1BiBt&nebY, the highest. speed. an.· d the ~At~ gengem in the front, but by reason of the Sll't'l!lg in fuel can be ~tfoot~d. Tbis aleo "lll'idu front wheel base any displac.cmmt oi pr()d~- cea ·. the . veq imp.ortau~ tctrul~~ ip ·WJ tb• weight of the. f&EE~~rs Is pro~ed ptlWttCC:i tbst ui VJew of the mvention it 11!: ilG for. Furllt~r whtn negob atin~ cur\•es-~ wrtb p.ossible in.tmwer vehicle oon'Stnrotion to ~ front ~l Stoor.Eng, the m:ttside wheel de" smaller motlve power u the prasmrt.mators m scribea ;fl. ch-cle of lar-ger t&d.' iu.~, wh1cb fa ordinary j()tlrne..w are not-utilized to the full pmiculltrly fsvourabfo for the absorption odent n.nd are to be regartled a>; ovcrsi•dt II of centrif:U~&1 .:forDB as the r.arrow~r ri!1r as the;.~ only J~iY ISO :roads1 so th-.t also a twe> tf'J'!.<:k l'olride will an1i to f>el'IJH t -0.f better adhesmn. 1 rn rartitlv leal•e 011b' two tracks behind-. More· WJ1 nt I ~~ taim us mv invention i..;:i ~ over -the automobile is :a. r"pid mans of l. .A. unjtary four:wheele • 145 Dec. 7, 1937. El FULLER 146 a FULL.Elf »WJ()R 'lt.IU\:L[; fHeli C'{)t . 10,. 19~ 147 Dee. 7~ 1937. El. FULLER ZlOl.057 uoro.R 'VEH.l CtiB filed Oi::t. 18.. l9a3 % ~ ,! I l'NVENTOft~ ' . ~M#'i.~~..,, Fw.iER -' x-. /~A'.ail:! (/'f/tlf ATTOANi_~ 148 Z,101,057 UNITED STATES .PATENT. OFFICE uun .OftNI. '1DlCUJll ~ Odabl:r ... WI, ltrW ,,...... · :r..on.illdWa ...... l.Hll . 16 a.fin. (CL ..._.,. ~ mveot.Wn rdates to tbe-~ t1r ~ road nhJcle:s 'Wbeftlbf tb9J lift ~ to t11e t1C01K1minl ~= J"Bl\ilUac tram: tun ~ lonn~ amt~ otW And Jn.. 0: d~~~-e~uwillbe&P'" panot to ·~ HWcd Iii wa art f.nlm. lhl& dk· dot1Ure:. 1'he ~,_ o1 the mwottoD are •· midtfted. ..,,. ... fthkle mwtr&ted !D the~~ pl.DMI d%aWiaSI. 1IU ~ l'lmll&tlGll b> ~ 10 ~Ul&rl«m. Pis. 1 • • .JMe *"' ot the fthlcle.. PJg. %, • iktP Jllln. P!1. 3. a IOD*1tUdlml wdiOl1 tee:Uon. 15 ~· .•.,. ~~~ onv. un.e iv-iv...... , • crou Ml'>~OD llJle -V. flt:, a. a Cl1* ~on Uae VI-VI. 1'g, i. a. uoa~on Moe VD-W. F1g. S. an eocl 'ftc:T at line vm-vm With bm"1e :teinmed. 20 Jlll- !O, a detaU Jeetloa. on lb!!' IX-IX. '1bit ~ne bad7 cov... or ~ &U ac the ~ ll1dwUns ... Ute ~ 'Pm' but econDllQ" H a?ltlld4 'be> ao ~ that eftf.'r Ul!ll JlleCUoD. bu ~ flill:ab'UlliUlllll= ~tonr. Wb1cb h t.. 25 Iii)' ~ tbe·. bodJ llboUld 'be COii~ CQ1"ffd ftom • ~ - blu:a& trcm1 ~ & tapeml \d Uld tha& all lt.1; tnDIM1lne madmWb..dlameters llbOUld ·QCC111' a& & PCliftt. &boat mw-thml Of the llllJUt fiDm tbe fnmt ll:Qd "Wftb DO ~U*J. !Dtm'rup- !11) UOD Ito~~ azi.d wUb H mont ~· · cliea - ~ lo &bit rela&i-..i .md thlm lllil.lC:llP.fJ' tor C(IJCl'atkift. "!be bobt Wbffk 1 ·Ve the ~ m- tdd.ion whee4 &ttd are located at the w11U1at IW!d ot tJM!. atra~ bod;J, tbaS ... at. palDi I& aliou.t r;me-third of IC. let!Cth from the hunt ~ -r:b.ey 8J:l:' ~ -at · tl•dM'is o1 an uae i;t.tue.. ltire Or" houab:ag J -.nd drfND tb:i'OQfl!l -~ IMrinf Jldcatcd at• l!.Y a ~llft' ~l- I or 1n *tt.r etWUln.'lal ~e:n:nu.a1 :mamaer-. 'l'be lllde '4t ~~ · bl!! lM &NHU b r.?" Die &tnJc,.. tun! of ~Un:I · ~-. ' Tbl!J tonr:ard ....-.. CIUI. be orPafMd. .. tJi.e. steerl!1I w.faoel.e- ~ the bmader upec1: ot ·$1Jb. tn"Fentlon. ~ lt.f& prefem!t\ tba.I; t'ba· ~ lf 4& d(lfl(!' lJJr a. .fftr wl14!1.tt Ol' ~ 111ch u 1Ddlc&ted , a1 1 wtUcb • C!eDi.nll. or c. W'io.· r~d. -.. · ~ Jomnalled Olll a stll.b. lbaft 1 ristdl1 . ~ 10 tm ena ot r. dqte-une111 steenns fork t, ·sm bead • of 1'bkh hli 5'lriVelled to ·tQm Oil - up- .SI) riPt aib. "l'biS wheel ts Pter~lY or ihei suu • lj;fee· a& ·tb8 fl!itftrd •beak amt l~'bl.e thM'ewlt.h u bi~ - aut.omoblles,. bebls react fl:v remowd lroPl tt.a llUb ~ on the s:lnglit.. tfncd fork. It may hOWMer be w.J-Ured ll desl'red.. °" Ji5 lii9" ~ - GI twm wbetds hlrmlll totel?ler as a 149 2 1.101,oeT OJ'OIS brMIU. not lboWa. ia&J' be Jlf'Ottdod tit n. eooUns alf _... Um ·....W aiwa anr lrlff tt ~ •urrura. n. forward . pOlni at lbe eq1ne u.d Ollit ~ tbt rn:r whed. INJIPl>rl It 1W Ii mu ~ H m.nd a ~ While Ult! bod7 I ·~ M ~ . ~ llP?'1llc n which 1& al.1-«Jcd at 14 _. to ap~ and. •:b.olb' or m.et.1 • .tt clalll!d., tt. 11 illbmwD u ii ~ ~on the Ule at~.u.; aee ffl, ~ft: or WOOd frualaJ 111.tb & . ~ :meW oovw- 11, •· At .u. nm- eia~ l$ ta ild:lbl7 ~ted to the :bq". Ba ~ au. a are CMded or:i braekm 11 Ql>-fr&mf:. ~ wch lll&llDl!I' -8 to acqnmnctlll~ wbtcb. JnJM Jatu&llJ tram. ·the .main ~.. tbe ~uo:n al the torurd lltrklf and »nfenh\J IOlll& al' ..eDmdiDa over Md Mll1il bDder the 't;bo c~ ;lndWle& • if>tllll" mcll 6$ erou- lea 0( UH: aa.b-traJDe< •bid .0 lb&p!d or ~ lo l.Pr.lnl 11 'irlllCh 11.1 ceo.ttalJY :fastened to the:~ to .d.l!R'd ttw Mctall1lll"I Glc4r.:ra'D.c:it far 1.hf! ~- m bolaa. JI ot the :mall) frame and~ 11.l Ua m~t at the: ~ 11111>-tr.Mat IUld ·lbe it.adl IV a Pfllr·oJ baDIW ...11Dk.S H dBpimdJ!IC from BPrUnS malQ frame. 'l'bese &il1I ateod. dt cJC the ~ Pl'rt at tM q~frame.. ~ lbia trJ... t.he ~ In.me, a.a ~n ki· nJ>J)Ort. &111'1 WI dlade tmu~bucklel. u ind1CLted,. W'hlcb can be l*ri ol the body_ Doors mu1 W1114o1i& Vt pnt- li MUaat.d. to u.t.rc. or lower t.tM: m.am trame. BY ridld and u.o a mmille.r of ~blc PllD8ll- 1:;; reuon Of fihldl' .aubir.ant.tal ~ Uiq per- tbOll& )U.t.:tec\ n be1llC fOlt ~ accua to Lb&!: Ill.It .. Cirt.a.iD AmCl!llOi o1 a.idf!il'WQ to tbe ~ fOn'a.td wbeeia a:a4 \bQlll marked .. ti) do.rd BC• ~ telatl.Ycl:F to tbe $1WrtiDB but ~hi at ct!U to Qllt ~ wb:lle "-be rear ad or bullle: tbe tUA• time U> ~~ eareelilllC" ol the boclr~ 41 ..._ nmimlMe to d«r4 ~ not GQ ta \be M Tbe c:huab Of tbll illmtrded vehicle ui.. ID· 1CV wheal iMll ~ llo Um ~ of the .... ~i) dia4al uu~ dMrame ~ u .Uted ta ~Pl'llJIS. )..._ far MQCI·~ it. ~ fonr&Td wm :and U. mlllo tnme •hldl :Ill Jl.PNDC both fra.t. ·'dowa 11 aH id.tbcr· C1Uftd. to ~ ~oo coo.. aD4 ~. It LI ~ tb&t tile- nonDal unpb.. .tclu1 or ~d. or amdle.l' fiat. ..aactlom ~ ~c at !lb& rea:r· apdmg acucm be rclattmy ltA llftbr ~ 118Ch C'OD.tour, U than · ~ ot. tbe trout si:irhite:. nw tWi ti. d.Ol141 "l."b& bottolla of tht bod7 .b ~ doeod • ~ bf ~ it wtl11 a nd.atance Of ilCNn9 amt, a "beUY -..II in one or ~ ~ wtJ.l.cl:. are .&li1d1 aa Jll'OW!ed. b1" CODIH!.Ctil!C or:rdiDUJ' hY· Jonttt.vlllul.'7 and ~ cmwd t.o ~ ·dr&ullc .dWiek abaoltlera i I bmreen the ~ t.m t.o· ·Uie lllt-rea.mliae con$our• TO tbla i:tld the framM ·-.1; this point. Jf !llJliR11uB ue al$QI aaac>- metal bo"8 ~ below tile ID'1s a b bthrdl1 ao. cl&ted ~ tbe l.rOO~ 5Pdn1, u ~ at ti~ cumt4 a& tbe -*'· u 1ndica&ed .-& n atid the .::.ti &be ~ ()( ~be ft'&? ablott>lrs ta made lo ml a a.rd ·fi:rdd 1ause tb1* pmvld1!s a -.t. aom.l!J • tea potnt of • w:be&l bue aa4 t.hat tbb .poaltlon "'*• kiGC ~to~ Na llimkfot ....f di!> sulJAal'lttali:r «ibid.des Wi.l.b. What. ~ be pilrl)OleB. . ctDed the atnamtme ceoter Of c.he body Wbleh .'Ibl! :rorwanl av~ at the ilMln traia'Jc. •• mar 'be &&ken u It.~ or 'W'OlWlllC (:It tbe cumu Iii llttdJes upw.um from • fonrud 1'beek and oi IU'M 0: JM uial ~ ·This cmfier 1.s 'JWll~ I) ~rmJnatu -' a'b6Ut the ~ Jne1 al ccm.fttl· catelt roiJSbl1 sn BJ. a lb7 ~ amall ctr~lc 81.: U.(l«l&] can or lllPfll h1sb8r. &bfJ l)1ll'Pi* or t,tll! 'll'&Vltl' ccid.er Ja IDWlll' dowu and .ttie Uactt9'1l '1.'hlcb among otber ~ii to tab...,.~ center of course coincides w:tth tl:M ar11 or !';be 5m~cto .tn ~ w~ (If~ at a. pa!.1llt ~ 1Mdt 'Wbffla. '1'he ~as of the grwptn.1 1(1 irt eadVam:e of the !rllnt ICM and to rtcetve it oa o1 these ~ ceirtet;S in the ll8D)iO .-ene~ JC the tnaln fmmc. 1113 that tba ~GI the ~ f~ard klcatkin are 1'fdlacted In ·Pie: $tructural fixed an lbe rsr al that .tr.ame 1dll. be •vailab1t ecol'IOIU' qt the W?l:Lt~ md become otwtou;s OD to abrm'b we .bnpadi, u 11 the C&H nt C)Cllmm cmnpa.n.on Wilb. I.be ·r.U:km a! ccm.YenUonaL o;i.rs uima1 ca.ra h11tV1!1& the en~ 1tt 1ron.t. aad HPICi.aUJ' ~ wldclt ha•~ 'Ullelr traction IG Stem~ k &JDe b1 a lmld·•beel •• ~ cen~r :reanrud ot, t.be; mJd~pomt, o« tbe wheel u1 at a ron~11t ansla Jn ltant or ·one Of tbe "f«• base. ~ .a.eats and accordi11C to ·aws: ilmmtta_. 1ta A Ytew to We ~I' II atfln'ded ~ the driver eoanecttom t-0 the .i.eer1n1r NM I Pl'0\'1de for -. tluoteh a wa~~UPt. .roiar Wlndow 19 •nci an m&xlmu.m varl&ttoti ol ~rtng •>t Qr at 1*11A ent:l:toT lqi;JillA!d mJrror et -.ount.e4 on UJc JrJd leO •b!Mlt ieo· Md .1n •&Df" tr.trcm ipftt 100". wtu. tbe 111.l iu ~- pain& Ui:!I wttbln a ta.Rard open IO tt.acfAon whee]i; Joeat.ed at mi.c lblrd the bOdr · hood or tdrin.e: II to av~ Wind :resista.ttce #;rid l~h ati&f't ttHi front end. such n.11t~ (It atHrtnc aJao aheiter fibe tulrror fran ~ ••tber. T'J::ir:; ~le arto.t. 4 e.101,.057 TelOJ,llnl all t.be ~ and cont~ a ttou- CCl9erlDI an .ad ~ ifU\11 llPJiq~ aeat eit~octinl' the full Width of sald bod.v ·mer then!Grt. ~ a &prlne-.qppcirt.od ~ «i~ tht>- hoJU,ontal :taf':Enbcis Of Wd Bl)b-fr,p.me, Dl!Cted $0 Uid forward ~. 2. ln & motet- road vebJcle. an axle tumaina: stlP<- 10. 1'1, a mc>tor ~. fthi.c.'k!, a. aQll..hli.mt:t ~ 6i porte.d on f.wo fo:rwat'd ~ls . s. aub-.trlLQ'ie bav- ported Iii .Ollfl .end_ on the ule illlr\'lcture of two I ICl:ff a ..,~ rupportlne 'bu~ tbl!!'tllm a:cd a 'P!>1nt o1;· •hcels and at. ths other ~a upon and aboVe A SllPllOt't on. n r5r •hool. a main frame ai.m:nr- 5'Wivelled •hlld, aDd & boib'-can'7111! fume- hM'· wspmded fnICtl u.1d aub ~lram~ adjacent Gald IBlf ~ aid ~deid bJr aWl&iantla!l1 .,....:Jlel rear wtwel imd J;Pr1DB~UllPDf'Wd on said h0"5bu; baD&et ttntm· fmlr\ the· P&l't Of Bai« SU'o--frame u ~ependentb' Gf said nb-fnme. a.t:Ua,emt the swt\\fl'lLIJd wheeil ·•nod baviq its to 3. In a motor \1mlcl4l, a autrtramt mount«! at other- end ~-liAi~ oiJ tbe ax1e atrt.ao- on@ w d oo tht: a.ltl.Cl bmiallls: of i--.o tarwa.rd. wr~ · . drb'i!n wti.eels am1 a.t thle· o$bitt QJl a Bi lltle w~. 11:. In • m.CJtcw road 'n.lh.1c1•, an ~ •W>• a ma.in flllme &upJJIOtted at its rear on .-Id wb- t~e. a maau ftMDD h•Tfna Q.c end located us f-"'me and at a forwvcl )JO.Int ~ llQd. hoUSID&. ~ or not. Mo1'4! tile Wb-fnltt,c, maaru; m- 15 and bav.lnrt o.. ka-up ove:r ~d blJWrln1 ~d ~ ClUdtnt!: • $l>dni" tor ~Jl&' the main fmmll,I! overhal)g f;QTWard. ~!~ from ~ 5\tb-frame. Miid 1t:idepeodeQt. ~ to:r .fL In . ~ motor wbick, a bame Cimrtec&ed. b7 a lfml .~ lbc dovnw!Ui:l morement GI UW .inJlln oorimntal J61nt. w the- axle .atructun.i Of two ~ relath'el.7 lo Ule RJb..tr&lne. a forwam wheel$ and. suppo~...ed -.t its other eJ1d 12... An. automo'blle ~ bocly, 'Wbllla • upon a. stagle .s.-t\•~lled '&'bed, im4 an enrin.e and e.~M 111 U:ie IQllilMAI to.rm and relldioo m .. .supported ~ Diel ~e btt.~ng a Pl' s Jt;teamllne btJC4t with aa.bllf;&ntJally m~ a ftmrani. .a< Ui.e wbed·b... cakr. '84 with1tt tem3J cur'lt.ture ftClll mt! 1lo flftd, in pt&u •nd to'!(. of the Wbeel·bUe dj~ back of the ~ tlevauon, ~ lta nwdmuni · emu llCCt;larl. occm'· ot tbe fotWa.:tt1 wtwdll. Md. a cab ~ampartment rla.- at about Qll.1!41ill'd of ~ diltance tr.om tile I'- Aaid Dodt baYiDI .pea:tlt l'ElllllCtlYC!IY !anratd G bow end; ~ engin' beln1 1n tQ :reamwst ~ and. back o1 ~ Wbeel Nb- b Of au.ch bod)'; the road y.;beeb bdng aD lnelUded H. Ali &utomtllbUe oomprhsmt bl comtiiJ1ui..tltJn within .11~C12 bod;J Ud inctudtnc • silOlle ~ t !Jody baYitti U,e lonn or a miltuJ ae.mnaui~ ~ wbee-J. the forward w~ betng· dmm _,ea:mllne bodY. a w'b·tnun&.. a sprUJa . Jsw~ :by (he titl#lne and rt#wa.rdlJo 8l*Ged .trom ~ llicm b@t,~ wd boQ· Ul4 BW>-fr.._. road 11) bow end tq -pro'ltde a ~al 1~3 ove.r wheels JoumaJJcd to ~ su'b•ftdte. all of said 10 hatu; at the bod')t c~~ tbt eoctne &Ub-ftl\~. 8USPl!rWotl me&UB ..U4 ro:Ml 'W~la ,1Ntgbt t4 such eztent IS to ·citdll&b the ~tel' bela..- mcluded wlthln ·tne .at.namlhil! cointour <>r the badf. and tbe torwvd road whctl$ be1Qg ofward .cr_:a. of.'11i7 ·tae of wthe~ ·.· bue-. center~d ..ehicle the at• ~ PBtnt.i.-ar- er· lM.l'WB;JdlJ' :11;JJ11Ced from Lbe bow end to provtdt • 16 aoad-~ ,ap . OCC1Jl11inl!: the forward part aub&'ta·a~ forward OY~I or the boib'. pro· ts ~f aa1d bod1. \ • Plibiaa means tar. the 't'dlJde lociucled w1.t1Un !G, In. a .motor rQl1 nblctl!<. the ~tkm tbs bodY. &aid bodY Ol'el'haq Ql,I .BB.Id Jil'OpQlf;kln · of the :forllal'd and Mr ~. a tJod7-c:ArQ'!Da meam,s: bdn.g mutuall)r Ol1l&DDd t,,. ·i!iil&blt!d1 the f:rfl.Dltl ;aprm•...co~at 1U NM" •t'MI wttll & reaT ~1· at gnvi.b' !or 'the ~ at a PQ111t t~... ID wb!e},.wd. frame elieodiulJ ~udJ1 f;n:IJQ. such •Ud or the wheel .base c:mt.cf. e.nc a. Jo8d com~ *1 mu' .lflrine oon~ and forwardly 0111t~- JMu·~'IJleliC. m aaid bod1 fUbatantiv.l:lJ eentered orer 1DB' said forward wlioeb, ~ ~ mJl!ii.M aatd fonnud Wlleds. • betwen ae.td ftuie and tbe forwa/d Wheel&, aa1d 22. An a~ co.mprJ~ a bodf h&TlDI rnca-l\S having a wider ·nom.w ftHJgO Of IDr!Dg lhe for.m or a uni'"11r.F Ul'ODA1.tt.ic ~'" hodJ' 15 M:t!on Lhan the 7..-nte 11enrdtt«l IJSt mid :rear with ~tiaU}' ®broken a~ ronbaUT to Nll')ng CODne4lklo. tM b 8 a,101,on e. ,;iuhnum &QJt, u. C!Jlllb'nat.aa Of wm llD 1'heds 2Je1lll ~ sJJUe4 from the bow· Pant ·~ ltfzm~ 1llbm dd._, ..- m.il to prolJ$dt a AJMl:an*•l forward ~' or autmrwJbil9 muand ~ ·which ~ • the l)odr., .11114 :fanrud ~ COIQtltutklg- • , t:aud ctmnent: moved b.f a'4 ~•car ea&- ~~of~~ spaw·wi!Jl .1 .a~ • ~ ftnd ~ dlmeat. • ft5 Amr u. ~uans tbe hillW •loel aa lbe ilii Ki coaet "1th mid IJ1lll.rd ~ d thaS PU110\l• ,,-ttaor ta tbe saldpui ,of the: biod)r, a ~ •· l&r ~ angle. 1MS ~ . lilld ma'U'Qua, in ,sine .lDcQed. in b nan'O'W RU pm Df •d bocb'. ' wnteh mid nar uei!I ~b trMb.; ·wttb Aid boCfJ' ba'f.f.Da an..~ · for eqiM codnil " t«W&Td --&Ud mea.na tar~ tbl!I 14: :m nsr at .ad. nerbanl. tbe nl&Uwi ~ 10 ,dfm or the c~t4a qt -1d elcmenta $o t:be of Mid.:rev acme and bo4J Cl'J8daaQ' bdH ~,_. HI drllferia atteo~on. -· NlW!.d '-> IGCate Die traYit.7 amtet forward. ot 21i. M automoblle oom-1ainl a 1*tJ' ba..U. a $b.e ~ .._ and wttN.a 4"- o:t f.M. ~ atr'e8ll1UQe .CO:rm wiu. H• ma11mum Wbeel.;llue ~ back o.t ttil uea. ot the for· r.roll8"'~ OCClUliq 9*- •bend o-..P.WM the ward ...... Ui di&ta.nce fnrm the\bo'W' Clld:, nad. 11'~ fOr lllld. ~ .l'fJl.LJl:'R.. lit bodr ~ 1IW1UI. .ad cantor. &be fonra1'4 154 June 13, 1933. N. B. GEDDES Filed ..Lp:ril EL 19.$3 tNVf.l'•f:)!:, ~ f.ic/,_4{~. BY ~~~-tr~ p6U .it.TIQR,\' EYJ'~ 155 June 13, 1933. N, B. GEDDES Dea. 90,.108 • 2 St.ee.ts-Sbeet 2 ., ··""' ... ::-: .~ - ,.,.,~ ...~- 156 Patented June l~ 1933 Dea. 98,108 • UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE NORlitA.!t; 1!¥1. GIIDJJiltS, OJ' NEW YORK, Ii. Y.~ .ASSIGNOEI. TO STANDARD GAS EQVlPllEJJ'T COBPOltATION, A CORP.ORA 'rlQN OT llCAR YLA.ND Ai>l>Ut:a.tjon illtd .A~ri ~ 6, lll:il. :Sr".1".ial llfu. 47,713. 1'.ti.-in (If pat~11:t, l! )'Pars.. • .... .,, l "" .! t:' f!.',~ W .•Utl.'i· f i.; m (lt•' N"1lCl~l'tl . : Ji'ig. :i i;;.; tt top pbm vi(•W~ s h <~ Witig the t~11s- ffo i·t kmrn:n th ;tJ [. ~-on.MAN B1;r~ Gt:Llnt:!i., 1nl!, ~n ( ; 11~1,•1 l r~l ~ • 157 J(. H. SOOTY z.°199,53& BICTOLB filed Jan. 11. 1936 158 K. H ~ BOOTY ltCl'CLI rtled Ju. l ,l, 1938 ___ ... .. __ """""-: - - · - ': - · - ~ . ~- - -· 1Nv~NT01'<._ x.e.l~1bz H.Boolf/ . ~. "-~ · ,:Z:, ..4~ ~~--,. J.t:~~ cj'.Jn O~'< E"f..t"; 159 K. H. aeon 11Cf·CLll FUitd J~. U. 19!6 l'i __ ;\~~~:~~:\,),~ ~ . , ; ,.--•"'" l rt"'!'; I / 18 \ I 71 / ··"' ''lt";-;:~ 7G'- .. ;:.-"' ,{ -~~-. 76 rS ;4 .23Y' a~=--: 160 Mar .,_ _1940. K. H. BOOTY · Z.199.136 SI CTCUI tuad Jaa. 11~ l93f 161 Patented May 7, 1940 2,199,536 UNITED STATES -P:ATENT OFFlC.E U.9U;$8 BICYCl;B Kttvm .u~ BM~. ~o. m... •••in- tv s~ - Buenck :and 'Cl'I.. C~iean. llL• a cer:peration ftfNewYark - - . Altl)lic.atioQ Ja.tU>aq· -11. 1936, Stritd No. A.f40 11 (~.tajms.. t.¢V>' 3 fotk H, the ·e:t:d. th•Hof abuttlb1 · ~ ~l4er1 ot the tu~ ~ f:l'Ame '8J bas tli tf'iLna~ m tb" l"UP to provide • lmooth em:rli>r. '!'be v.i·nie Wa1l H (11¥! 1\1;:. 3> at its ·elld~ Which .ts Cl'Ut1ng 11 OlQ\p~ a body poruon liiJ.\•ttn; an ~ to otmtotm' w SDd uut tM ~ .&Urt.a.ce ov&J ~Met.ton. with 1£iii lot'iJ;"~ dtli.meter ho:r- Of tfu! web H beiween t~ two lugs ti !Qr U:m ~ t~tai. a.ntl ext~di.n* forwardly to i;.roYicle the UllP!f rear tort~ and is· iigjdty c.mmec;teo; ·;herdo iS IDS nwu~ into the 01"&1 end 1lf the top n:i.emoor bY a bOlt SB. n .. 1'he- bot:b· o! the ~ng extenda rea.n·.:t'1:U.r 'l'he tea.r 19lc1 of tm tunage carl':)'f:tl~ fn.mo H Jn bUUrtet. 4 !!;19&,686 lG and lG> wti.1-cb @nf ~ ta Lhe attta.Wirlee tfon 9$ ·t;Q limi~ the dil¢a.~ 'lllhfoh the· grtp msy M Ute btcyde and 15 .so coo:st:ru:ctod as t.o .have bee te-ies'~ed Ovim" the handle tm:r. Th~ S 5 for1fl•atdb' with a. fiAt. tnDS\·~e •\all $'1'...atoo on eonnecfulg the lU-=$t ~id w.eb tu1·1~ '~"l u.PPl?i' wd web. and means r~PdlY ' ht>.h:Ung ~ web 1md :f&ce. a ltll!llt!J:S'>l:l car:rie:r loe~d. oi.·e~ ~'-te teat Wt1 ·wall tosetlle:r. wheel llitld hann:e: a ~rUon ©i.-'ienliliug ranwardlY 4• .In a bi.i!Yc3e, the c:mriJlillati~ o-f a pair of wttb a traniwtmre ~n scate&:J .over $1dli web, and ~ ::tiecet'l m~bem oonstatut.ing the twfl arms .o:f inean.-i rb]ddly hold1ng mid web ancJ sald rmll ,_ a re{lt whee! !Mk• .P. dUSA!r- badf ha:•liag a piu .. togeU;er. mln.y of h~1p; rig1.4ly attaebcd oo tb.e .r~cc~ve metnbers. a reenfotcing web located between a!td 166 Dec. 14, 1937. J. ~.MORGAN De$. 107.443 f.I OYCL'E ~Amt r11~d oet. e . 1~.v·~7 167 Patented Dec.. 14, 1937 • UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE 19',W l>ESIGN FOIC. A BlCYCU TANK Jolin ft,. MDrr.a."h. Oak Pa.rk. IU.j rumcb.CT t• Bean,. It.eh.ck MM1 {!Q•• Cb:k:Bll' • 168 Patented Feb. 21, 1939 2,147,732 UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE :S.i4't~738 nvo-lmEELED VEHICLE Eittl $. fluynkl:p,, tJut, f>.rJa.tut~. N. J. AJ)pUtatiou June '3, ltl:f.5, Serial Nc. .U,312 ReDi!wfli J11,niln.l'T '?. U39 4 (1bJqtJI, UJt ~~ .. Th.i..i:: Ln\'l!ntJpon r'!liati:- 2 2,147,78!a Whf!!:t:b}' t,he «lnl.:t'f of grnViW of tbe ''ltw:•· and the &eat 24, h; a ateet'iJli post column 39. Columa "dciuf" l~i1da 1a at m.tnJmu..'11 spa-etas &bD\•c a H a~ prc11'rabl.;y br.l!ced •t:1::tl'l8t frame member ta pHme l1.a3i;f1:1c t 3 30 b:Y :men.tu$ QI Ult $).WQ¢Kct ~!\In 31, tb~ ~let h.m: of truss f.orma\io.n. l'1.:lrther, by reuon of H being attathod to the crank s.h•Jt n im.wtded the E.e&t o1 tbe :r1d.er bel:lltr coimect!d to the upper. with the S*laJ& 28. Ip 01" 4 'by pcer;jt:ive m.eC:hilnicnJ tinftal!':ll to ~~d tte=;ini; c.tci.scly to the frrmt; w'bl;C!l t.ha.n. Ult' rea; whe~l. 1x1~f, !~tr rot11Uon Hm:rehy, U·A:i on;1u1jr.at;k.1n of ~ ~lll· liUJl'}Xlrt.i.?dl> i::a1;.:rrt BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, E. E., ET AL (1936). U.S. Patent No. Dl00,000. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Alderson, F. (1972). Bicycling: A History. New York, NY: Praeger Publishers. Arceneaux, M. (1975). Streamline: Art and Design of the Forties. San Francisco, CA: Troubadour Press. Arnold, Schwinn & Company. (1945). Fifty Years of Schwinn-Built Bicycles: The Story of the Bicycle and Its Contributions to Our Way of Life. Chicago, IL: Arnold, Schwinn & Company. Booty, K. H. (1940). U.S. Patent No. 2,199,536. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Boynton, E. S. (1939). U.S. Patent No. 2,147,732. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Brandt, T, (2003), The Aerocycle, (1934 Promotional Advertisement, Arnold, Schwinn & Co.). Received Feb 2003, Brandt personal collection Burrows, M. (2000). Bicycle Design. Mukilteo, WA: AlpenBooks Press. 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Gas City, IN: L-W Book Sales. 180 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My thanks and gratitude go to my family, friends and co-workers who have, in one form or another contributed to the completion of my thesis and graduate education at Iowa State University. Through various forms of support, these people have helped me pursue and complete when the going got tough. Fred Malven, my Major Professor and Thesis Committee Chairperson, has been a patient and guiding source during this process, while sharing his experience and knowledge of design as related to my topic. From conversations about dramatic off-road bicycle antics, involving picnic tables and the steep gullies of his college riding days, to the technical support provided by a half dozen of his second-hand laptop Macs, Fred has helped me put this whole experience in perspective. Many thanks also go to the other members of my thesis committee, Associate Professor of Marketing, Michael J. Barone and Assistant Professor of Industrial Technology and Education, Dennis W. Field for the valuable feedback, positive classroom instruction and research input they have provided. I would be remiss to not to thank immensely all those interested in the antique and classic bicycle trade. A rescue mission on Memorial Day in 1987, of my dad's childhood bicycle, a Western Flyer "Super," from my uncle's machine shed sparked my interest in antique and classic bicycles. Due in part to my ongoing adventures in the restoration of dad's Western Flyer, I have crossed paths with some 9f the most dedicated and knowledgeable collectors and restorers in the hobby. These people have not only guided me in my restoration process, but have subsequently contributed much to this paper. All have been a generous source of advice and knowledge. Special thanks goes to Dave Stromberger, Tim Brandt, Leon Dixon, Greg Armstrong, Joel Robertson, and Alan Kinsey. Without discipline, character and talent in teachers, there would be a lack of passion in the educational and career goals of students. I'd like to thank the teachers who helped me progress and explore through the years. Thanks to all my teachers from Immaculate Conception Elementary in Charles City: studious habits begin early! To my junior high and 181 high school art and design instructors, Dennis Petersen and Art Strong for their encouragement, and confidence in my abilities. Thanks also to the art and design faculty at North Iowa Area Community College and the University of Northern Iowa for contributing to my knowledge of design. Specifically, I would like to thank my parents, Dennis and Joyce, for their ongoing encouragement and love. Through their example and persistent caring, they have co-authored the most important chapters of my life. I'll always cherish the life they have given me, and the place they'll forever occupy in my heart. To my siblings, Brett, Nicole, Natalie, Brodie and Brian: my utmost appreciation for always being there for me in the unique ways that you always are. We're too close to measure. To the friends who have been sources of inspiration and support during this endeavor, thanks for providing the diversions I needed to get through. To the friends who I have met while in Ames and at ISU: Meredith, Michelle, Kim, Ben, Matt, Derrick and to the entire group at ISU Printing: my experiences at Iowa State wouldn't have been the same without you. To my girlfriend, Kim, whose words and weekend visits have kept me smiling and sustained me during the tail end of this journey! Of course there are the lifelong friends who have always been there for me since way back when: you know who you are. Thanks especially to Shannon, Ray, Chris and James. Life is nothing without loyal friendship. Ts.I;)• to tbc rtcies oi tiltoa l'Chlcte b'U.t kl ubJ~i::Uve u·htch 12 imt: :rittruno.b"te !n pl:'ese:nt e:tf tei'.l~t.tians and .a.::;heri 1m:ldent to the pt11Jt\U!5i;Qt; acccptoad "'sati:?t.y~ blcyelea, 10 nf tllO YCJl.iCle, Thi.ii r.\bjer.t ii; :n.ttrtlnt!d, lJy :POOl Ftlrtbc,t fliiahtR'.:; >lnd ol:de~t~ or :tbll ~nventlon 10 ttonih; ¢&~ :;cRt for th-!! :rtder vm'tieally ¢11X:it a".; a luc~tk1n more el0&ely to t.he :rroot .ir, 1:.p:;!::-11.t.'!1'0