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Adaptive Responses to Heat Stress, Quality of Hide and Meat from Indigenous i Adaptive responses to heat stress, quality of hide and meat from indigenous Nguni and non-descript crossbred cattle By CHIKWANDA DENICE A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AGRICULTURE (ANIMAL SCIENCE) Department of Livestock and Pasture Science Faculty of Science and Agriculture University of Fort Hare P. Bag X1314 Alice South Africa Promoter: Prof. V. Muchenje Co-promoters: Prof. L.C. Hoffman Prof. A. Hugo ii Declaration I, Denice Chikwanda, declare that this dissertation has not been submitted to any University and that it is my original work conducted under the supervision of Prof. V. Muchenje. The research was approved by the University of Fort Hare Research Ethics Committee (Certificate No.: MUC131SCHI01). All assistance towards the production of this work and all the references contained herein have been fully accredited. 29 January 2016 Mrs. Denice Chikwanda Date (Signature) Approved as to style and content by: ……………………… Prof. V. Muchenje (Promoter) January 2016 iii Notes: This dissertation is presented in the format prescribed by the Department of Livestock and Pasture Science at the University of Fort Hare. The structure comprises of several chapters in the form of papers to be published in various journals. The dissertation was compiled starting with an introduction chapter, which includes study objectives. The literature review follows the introduction chapter, after which experimental chapters are presented. The last chapter presents the general discussion and recommendations. The language, style and referencing used in this dissertation are in accordance with the requirements of the Livestock and Pasture Science Department. Results from this study have been presented at the following conferences: 1. D. Chikwanda & V. Muchenje. Cortisol, rectal and skin temperatures as affected by body condition, hair-coat and skin traits in Nguni and non-descript cattle. A poster presented at the 48th SASAS conference in Durban, Kwazulu-Natal, 6-9 September, 2015. 2. D. Chikwanda & V. Muchenje. Blood metabolite concentrations, skin thickness and hide weights of Nguni and non-descript cattle reared on a sweetveld. A poster presented at the 48th SASAS conference in Durban, Kwazulu-Natal, 6-9 September, 2015. Manuscript prepared from this dissertation D. Chikwanda, A. T. Chikwanda, V. Maphosa & V. Muchenje. The Contribution of Nguni cattle hides from the smallholder farming sector to the leather value chain in South Africa: Challenges and opportunities. A review paper under peer review in South African Journal of Animal Science. iv Abstract Adaptive responses to heat stress, quality of hide and meat from indigenous Nguni and non-descript crossbred cattle By Chikwanda Denice The main objective of this study was to determine the adaptive responses of Nguni and non- descript crossbred cattle (NDCC) to heat stress, nutritionally-related blood metabolite profiles, fatty acid profiles, carcass and meat characteristics, physico-mechanical properties of automotive upholstery crust leather and the associated collagen fibre architecture of hides and crust leather. Forty steers (20 Nguni and 20 NDCC) which were approximately 14 months of age with live weights ranging between 153 kg and 203 kg at the beginning of the study were used. Environmental variables (ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind parameters, solar radiation) were collected from a weather station at the research farm. Temperature-humidity index (THI) values were computed. Rectal and skin temperature, skin traits and blood metabolites were determined at two-week intervals over 16 weeks. Hair coat scores ranged from extremely short (score 1) to very woolly (score 7). At slaughter, blood samples were collected after exsanguination. Meat samples were collected from the right muscularis longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and Triceps brachii (TB) muscles after 24 hours of chilling of carcasses for physico-chemical quality tests. Fatty acid profiles and physico-chemical quality of meat were determined on the LTL and TB. An additional fifty- four hides (27 Nguni and 27 NDCC) were obtained from a commercial abattoir at slaughter. The hides were tanned into automotive crust leather and tested for physico-mechanical quality. Results showed that week and environmental variables affected skin temperature; also, the rectal and skin temperatures were negatively correlated to body condition, skin pigment, coat score and skin thickness. Non-descript crossbred cattle had higher coat scores v (2.1 ± 0.36 to 4.1 ± 4.20) than Nguni cattle (1.6 ± 0.36 to 4.1 ± 0.36). Body condition scores, blood creatinine, urea, total protein, albumin and globulin were affected by genotype and week of sampling. At the end of the trial, NDCC had higher slaughter and hide weights (285.9 ± 6.52 kg and 18.4 ± 0.54 kg, respectively) than Nguni cattle (232.6 ± 6.5 kg and 14.7 ± 0.54 kg, respectively). The majority of NDCC carcasses (73.7 %) had a fatness level of 1 compared to Nguni carcasses (50 %). Intramuscular fat was higher in Nguni (1.8 ± 0.09 %) compared to NDCC (1.5 ± 0.09 %) steers. Nguni steers had darker muscle colour (L*=33.6 ± 0.01) than NDCC (L*= 35.7 ± 0.54). Nguni and NDCC had similar thawing loss, cooking loss, WBSF tenderness, fat-free dry matter, moisture content, fatty acid profiles and health- related lipid indices. Ultimate muscle pH, meat colour and chroma were similar in the LTL and TB. Concerning the skin, Nguni and NDCC had similar physico-mechanical properties. However, breaking load and tensile strength were higher (1257.1 ± 70.72 N and 28.3 ± 1.23 MPa) in samples taken parallel to the backbone compared to that taken perpendicular to the backbone (979.5 ±70.72 N and 23.6 ±1.23MPa) across the two genotypes. Non-descript crossbred crust leather varied in physico-mechanical tests by direction of sampling. Collagen fibre orientation in hides and crust samples also varied between longitudinal and cross- sections. Collagen fibre diameters in the Nguni were similar in longitudinal and cross- sections (3.4 ± 0.12 µm and 3.2 ± 0.11 µm, respectively). From this study, it is concluded that THI, hair coat, skin traits and body condition affect skin temperature, but not rectal temperature, cortisol and CK activity in Nguni and NDCC reared extensively. The two genotypes differ in nutritionally-related blood metabolites, growth performance, hide weights and carcass traits. Beef from Nguni and NDCC differs in the IMF and meat lightness but is similar in the meat fatty acid composition and some physico-chemical quality parameters. Automotive crust leathers from the two genotypes were similar in some physico-mechanical properties. Collagen architecture varied among different regions of hides and crust leathers. vi Dedication To my family. vii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank God Almighty for the wonderful opportunity to study my doctorate degree at the University of Fort Hare. Secondly, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisors Professor Voster Muchenje, Professor Louwrens C. Hoffman and Professor Arno Hugo whose constructive criticism made this work possible. May God bless you abundantly. I would like to acknowledge the funding I received from the National Research Foundation (NRF RTF- UID No. 92100) and Adam Flemming (Nguni Cattle Project P329) for funding this research and the support from Govan Mbeki Research and Development Centre. Without this financial support, this work would not have been possible. Through the funding, I was also able to attend the South African Society for Animal Science Conferences and present my findings orally and through posters. I would like to thank Honeydale Research Farm Manager, Mr Dirk Potgieter and the two research assistants, Mr. Zamxolo “Zem” Liwani and Mr. Thembekile “Terra” Njokweni who looked after the research cattle and for their assistance during data collection. I would also like to express my sincere gratitude to fellow colleagues who assisted in data collection. It was such an onerous task dealing with the “Ngunis”. Special mention goes to Mr. Lizwell “Bra Liz” Mapfumo, Mr. Emrobowansan M. Idamokoro, Dr Ishamel Jaja, Mr. Dumisani Pepe, Mr. Andrew B. Falowo, Ms. Yonela Z. Njisane, “Grandmother” Ms. Faith Nyamakwere, Ms. Melody Dzviti, Mr. Siphelo Velele, Mr Prince Chisoro, Mr Zuko Mpisana, Mr. Bulelani Mazizi, Mr. Wongalethu Nketo and Mr. Kululeko Dube. You made data viii collection at Honeydale Farm and at the abattoir enjoyable. The administration team, comprising of Ms. Noluvuyo Moko a.k.a “Sisi Vovo”, Ms. Sanda Sokhanyile, Ms. Yonela Z. Njisane and Ms. Adia en- Michele Dokora, made everything possible by organising the procurement and services logistics. The drivers, Sonwabile “Soso” and Abongile “Roger” were always on time for data collection. Mr. William Maguraushe, Mr. Kululeko Dube, “Bra Dumza” Mr Dumisani Pepe and Mr Morris Magombiro, you availed your “shuttle services” for data collection during critical moments when departmental vehicles were not available. May God shower you all with his blessings. At the abattoir, special mention goes to Mr. Glen Page, Mr. Bruce McMillan and Pierre who allowed us access to the facility for slaughtering the research steers, collecting research data and samples, especially the meat and hides and the weaners. God bless you abundantly. At the International School of Tanning Technology, I would like to thank Dr Clive Jackson- Moss for agreeing to work with us in tanning of the hides into automotive crust leather despite the busy schedule with his own students. Through your expertise, I not only learned about hides and skins, but also became a holder of professional tanning certificates for tanning, dye-house and leather finishing courses. The lectures with other students from various tanneries widened my knowledge of the leather industry. Roy Bouwert was instrumental in tanning of the hides. Special thanks goes to Debbie Archer, the administrator at ISTT, for all the logistics and welfare during the practical weeks on tanning, dye-house and finishing courses and logistics for examinations and the collection of research leathers.
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