1

The Need to Belong and Mental Health: The Impact of Sense of Belonging on Primary

School Children’s Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms

Izumi Kershaw 12748056

Department of Child Development and Education, University of Amsterdam

Youth at Risk

7014D477HY: Master Thesis

First assessor: Minne Fekkes

Second assessor: Geertjan Overbeek

June 25, 2021

2

Abstract

Little is known about the relationship between sense of belonging and mental health for primary school children. Using questionnaire data from 1,389 students, aged 7-12, from 77 classrooms collected at the beginning and end of the school year, this study examined how classroom sense of belonging was associated with self-esteem and depressive symptoms. We also investigated the moderating role of class conflict. Using multiple regression, we found that having a high sense of belonging was related to higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms. Moreover, a positive change in sense of belonging during the school year increased self-esteem and decreased depressive symptoms at the end of the year. Class conflict moderated the relationship for depressive symptoms but not self-esteem; the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms was stronger in high conflict classes than in low conflict classes. Given the findings, schools, teachers, and parents should work collaboratively to ensure relationships in school provide children with a sense of inclusion, security, and value. For students with low self- esteem and depressive symptoms, health care professionals would benefit from assessing their sense of belonging in classrooms to help diagnose the problem and as a preventive measure before further mental health concerns arise.

Keywords: sense of belonging, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, class conflict, primary school

3

The Need to Belong and Mental Health: The Impact of Sense of Belonging on Primary

School Children’s Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms

Mental health problems impact almost one in every five children and adolescents globally

(WHO, 2020), and have been recognised as one of the most important public health priorities

(Kieling et al., 2011; Bradshaw et al., 2014). Despite being a critical health concern, mental health problems are typically left untreated until a few years after initial symptoms are presented

(Kessler et al., 2007). This raises concern as acute disorders tend to follow less severe problems that are not given adequate attention as a consequence of insufficient resources and difficulty in accessing appropriate or immediate mental health support (Kessler et al., 2007; Kieling et al.,

2011). Left neglected, mental health difficulties persist into adulthood and negatively impact quality of life, threatening significant health burdens on society (Bradshaw et al., 2014).

Two important indicators of mental health are self-esteem and depressive symptoms.

Self-esteem is the way an individual evaluates their own worth (Brummelman et al., 2016;

MacDonald & Leary, 2012) and refers to the subjective appraisal regardless of their objective abilities (Orth & Robins, 2014). Depressive symptoms measure depressed moods and how an individual is experiencing feelings of sadness and hopelessness (de Wit, 1987). Given that from a young age, children spend a significant portion of their day in schools (Eccles & Roeser, 2011), schools may serve as an important context to recognise and intervene when initial signs of poor self-esteem and depressive symptoms emerge. For this reason, this study aims to investigate the relationship between primary school students’ sense of belonging in the classroom, and two mental health outcomes, self-esteem and depressive symptoms.

While schools function as institutions for educating young people, they also provide children with opportunities to cultivate social skills (Greenberg et al., 2003; Juvonen, 2006). For 4 many children, schools are one of the first socialisation settings outside of their home and are an important context to nurture their social and emotional well-being (Minuchin & Shapiro, 1983;

Roeser et al., 2000). Although individual differences are likely to contribute to motivation and success, their social experiences within the school context may play a particularly critical role in influencing outcomes (Goodenow, 1993a). During these formative years, children learn how to interact with their peers and teachers to practice behaviours of positive group participation and collaboration (Greenberg et al., 2003). These interactions shape their experiences as they begin to explore their identity in preparation for the subsequent school stage and for life beyond school

(Allen, Vella-Brodrick, Waters, 2016; Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Roeser et al., 2000).

Establishing a sense of belonging may strengthen the socialisation processes that occur in schools (Osterman, 2000). When children feel secure and valued as a member of their classroom, this nurtures a sense of belonging (Goodenow, 1993). The notion of belonging has long been debated and identified by many theorists as a fundamental desire and need (Leary, 2006). As social beings, this need for social bonds is driven by intrinsic motivation that begins early from infancy and continues to be valuable throughout later stages of life (Baumeister & Leary, 1995;

Bowlby, 1979; Maslow, 1968; Ryan & Deci, 2000). As infants, children find enjoyment and seek to engage in positive interactions conveyed by smiling (Anisfeld, 1982), imitating (Over &

Carpenter, 2012), and working cooperatively (Rekers et al., 2012). In later development, as children approach adolescence, they begin to pursue stronger connections in relationships outside of their immediate family (Zimmer-Gembeck et al., 2006). Through these interactions, children may be developing their sense of belonging by establishing dependence and security in their relationships.

According to Baumeister and Leary’s (1995) belongingness hypothesis, in order to satisfy 5 this need to belong, two principles must be met. Firstly, individuals have the need to engage in enjoyable recurring interactions with a few individuals. Secondly, these interactions should be stable and maintain long-term concern for each other’s welfare (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

Ryan and Deci (2000) discuss relatedness as a core component of intrinsic motivation, and expressed that throughout life this motivation thrives in environments that promote security and relatedness. Both works suggest that the formation of relationships with a sense of belonging requires stability and time.

As children spend a significant portion of their time in school, establishing and maintaining a social network in schools can help children achieve a sense of belonging (Allen,

Vella-Brodrick, Waters, 2016). A sense of belonging may be fulfilled by the reciprocity of relationships, defined as the extent to which a child feels “personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school social environment” (Goodenow, 1993a, p.80).

School belonging has also been referred to as school connectedness, and explained as the belief students have that their peers and teachers care about their learning, and also for them as individuals (CDC, 2009). This is echoed by Libbey (2007) who describes belonging in schools as when children “feel close to, a part of, and happy at school; feel that teachers care about students and treat them fairly; get along with teachers and other students, and feel safe at school” (p. 52).

Finn (1989) described this process as identification to explain how students internalise the notion of belonging, feeling they are part of the school and that school is a significant part of their personal experience. As a result, children may begin to value school goals and feel more committed to school life (Finn, 1989).

In an effort to have students feel more committed to school life and foster a sense of belonging, the school environment itself may play an important role (Allen, Kern, et al., 2016; 6

Allen, Vella-Brodrick, Waters, 2016). Having established guidelines and fair policies help create a positive school climate, as well as the provision of opportunities that encourage participation in school activities (CDC, 2009). Moreover, definitions of school belonging have also highlighted the importance of a students’ relationship with their teachers (e.g., Goodenow, 1993a; Libbey,

2007). This is in line with a recent meta-analysis that identified teacher support as the strongest influence on adolescents’ school belonging (Allen, Kern, et al., 2016). This finding underscores the importance of children to not only build a social network with their peers, but the significance of developing positive relationships with their teachers.

In summary, while there are various ways of describing a sense of belonging in schools, positive peer networks, commitment to school, adult support, and the school environment have been identified as components that contribute to school belonging (Allen, Kern, et al., 2016;

CDC, 2009; Goodenow, 1993a; Libbey, 2007). With these elements combined, children may be able to meet their personal and developmental needs to belong. Therefore, a sense of belonging could be outlined as the degree to which students feel included, secure, and valued in the relationships with their peers and teachers, in a safe environment that encourages participation.

The benefits of a sense of belonging in schools have been seen in both academic and psychosocial outcomes (Allen, Vella-Brodrick, Waters, 2016). Firstly, a sense of belonging may be a critical source of a childs’ academic attainment and engagement. Experiences of belonging may serve as motivation to learn (Gillen-O’Neel & Fuligni, 2013; Osterman, 2000) and promote resilience for children at risk of school failure (Wang et al., 1998). Students who feel a stronger sense of belonging are more likely to attend school (Sánchez et al., 2005), and perform better academically (Anderman, 2003; Goodenow, 1993b).

Secondly, research has also shown how a sense of belonging is related to social and 7 psychological functioning. Adolescents that felt a greater sense of belonging in school, have reported lower levels of depressive symptoms (Anderman, 2002; Bond et al., 2007; Loukas et al.,

2008; Shochet et al., 2006), fewer internalising and externalising behaviour problems (Newman et al., 2007), less social rejection (Anderman, 2002), and higher satisfaction and positive feelings toward school (Tian et al., 2016). One study in New Zealand investigated the relationship between sense of belonging in schools and well-being (i.e., life satisfaction and confidence) for adolescents over the course of three years (Jose et al., 2012). Students that experienced a high sense of belonging were more likely to subsequently report higher well-being, and this relationship was found to be reciprocal (Jose et al., 2012). The finding that a sense of belonging relates to better psychosocial functioning has also been found in an experimental study among university students (Begen & Turner-Cobb, 2014). Students allocated to the condition that created a sense of inclusion experienced a decrease in negative moods and an increase in self- esteem (Begen & Turner-Cobb, 2014). Lastly, one study conducted research on university students using diverse methodologies (correlational, longitudinal, and experimental) to investigate the relationship between sense of belonging and meaning in life (Lambert et al.,

2013). Results revealed that having a high sense of belonging is not only strongly related to but can also predict and even cause finding life meaningful (Lambert et al., 2013).

Not all children are able to satisfy their need to belong. Some students may struggle to interact with their peers and teachers and fail to establish social bonds in the school environment.

When these needs are not met, children are at greater risk of developing social and emotional problems (Allen & Bowles, 2012; Baumeister & Leary, 1995), are more likely to get involved in delinquent activity (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2011), and drop out from school (Hascher &

Hagenauer, 2010). One study also found that when a significant portion of children at school feel 8 a high sense of belonging, those who do not belong may feel more social rejection and experience more problems at school (Anderman, 2002). Moreover, a study in Belgium assessed school belonging on 11,872 students and found that adolescents who perceived a lower sense of belonging were more likely to engage in deviant acts of school misconduct, such as being late for school, or smoking on school premises (Demanet & Van Houtte, 2011). This suggests that a sense of social exclusion and alienation from peers may be contributing factors of antisocial behaviour that “reflect either desperate attempts to establish or maintain relationships with other people or sheer frustration and purposelessness when one's need to belong goes unmet.”

(Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p.521).

Not only does a lack of sense of belonging impact adolescents during their school years, but social isolation may also have long-term consequences. From 1972, a New Zealand study followed a cohort of children from birth to adulthood (Caspi et al., 2006). As children, those who experienced more social isolation were likely to have greater cardiovascular risks at age 26. Such data suggests that experiences in childhood have cumulative effects on health in later life and also underscores the need for early preventive measures.

Given the importance of a sense of belonging and its impact on mental health and academic functioning, schools have an opportunity to address these concerns and take preventive action. Too often, schools focus on endorsing competition and as a result impede children's ability to establish links with other students (Osterman, 2000). Schools may need to interrogate these social aspects of the school environment, such as class climate. Class climate is characterised by the relationships in a classroom and how students perceive the ongoing interactions (Boor-Klip et al., 2015). Positive climates promote norms, expectations and values that encourage favourable social and emotional development in an environment where children 9 feel socially and physically secure (Zullig et al., 2010). Students who perceive positive climates are likely to report higher life satisfaction (Rathmann et al., 2018) and better emotional well- being (Oberle, 2018). On the other hand, poor classroom climate has been linked with an increase in emotional and behavioural problems (Somersalo et al., 2002). More insight into the relationship between a sense of belonging in schools and mental health outcomes and the moderating role of class climate, for example the level of conflict in a classroom, may provide evidence for the importance of prioritising it on a school’s agenda to improve school culture and teaching practices.

Overall, research on belonging has demonstrated that students who feel a greater sense of belonging in their school community are likely to develop better academic, mental health, and well-being outcomes than their counterparts who feel unsupported and deprived of social connectivity (Juvonen, 2006). Despite the growing evidence to support this, there is still a lack of research that investigates this question on younger, primary school children. To date, research has mainly focused on adolescence and emerging adults. In addition, little is known on how a sense of belonging is related to self-esteem in school settings. Theoretical and empirical evidence suggest that self-esteem plays a protective role in building resilience (Dumont & Provost, 1999;

Masten & Coatsworth, 1998), improving overall health, and social behaviour (Mann et al.,

2004). Furthermore, while the benefits of a positive class climate are known, the influence of class conflict on the relationship between sense of belonging and mental health outcomes are yet to be investigated. Therefore, understanding how a sense of belonging is related to self-esteem and depressive symptoms in primary school children, and the possible moderating role of class conflict, may contribute to current discourse on mental health and provide a better understanding for how these experiences ensue as children approach adolescence. Moreover, the findings from 10 such a study may help strengthen intervention practices and highlight the specific areas that schools and health care workers should be targeting.

The Present Study

The current study will investigate the relationship between classroom sense of belonging and two concepts of mental health, self-esteem and depressive symptoms. The first question of this research will be to examine to what extent are sense of belonging and self-esteem, and sense of belonging and depressive symptoms related. It is expected that a high sense of belonging will relate to higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms. The second research question will study the moderating role of class climate, as measured by level of conflict, on the relationship between sense of belonging and these mental health outcomes. The hypothesis is that the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem, and sense of belonging and depressive symptoms will vary at different levels of perceived conflict in the classroom. It is expected that in low conflict classrooms, a sense of belonging will have a stronger relationship with self- esteem and depressive symptoms. Finally, this study will also investigate how a change in sense of belonging influences self-esteem and depressive symptoms over time. It is expected that a positive change in sense of belonging will increase self-esteem and decrease depressive symptoms.

Method

The current study used data from a longitudinal study conducted in primary schools in the

Netherlands. The original study was a randomised controlled trial where schools were allocated to one of three conditions (two experimental conditions and one control condition) with pre-test and post-test measurements to assess the effects of PRIMA, an anti-bullying programme. This present study only used the control group data from the pre-test and post-test measurements. 11

The study was accepted by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Social and

Behavioural Sciences of the University of Amsterdam (file number 2017-CDE-8008), and the trial is in the ISRCTN register (file number 15425978). It was given support by the Dutch

National Scientific Foundation (Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek), with grant number 2014-01-110PRO.

Sample

Participating Schools

A total of 354 primary schools were initially selected for consideration from a database of

Dutch primary schools. In order to be eligible, schools had to meet several inclusion criterias: (1) have a student population of over 50 students, (2) had not yet implemented an anti-bullying programme, (3) would not be partaking in another similar study, and (4) would be prepared to stay informed and maintain contact regarding the study. From January to July 2017, letter invitations to participate in the study were sent out to the 60 schools that were allocated to the control condition. A final count of 12 schools were included in the analysis. Others did not participate for several reasons such as refusal or loss of contact.

Participants

Participants from the 12 schools were children of grades 4-6, from 77 classrooms. Active consent was acquired from parents in order for the children to partake in the study. A total of

1,389 students participated in the study. Attrition rate was 7% and these students did not significantly differ in any pre-test measures compared to those who also partook in the post-test.

Procedure

Researchers visited the participating schools at the beginning of the academic year in

September 2017 to describe the course of action of how the data collection would take place. 12

Pre-tests were conducted during October and November, with post-tests subsequently conducted toward the end of the school year during March and April of 2018. Tests were administered during school hours under the supervision of two researchers who instructed the children on how to complete the questionnaires. Confidentiality of their answers were guaranteed - neither their teachers nor peers would have access to their answers, only the researchers. Once the reports were coded for, the data was anonymised. The analyses for this present study are based on the anonymised data.

Measures

The self-reported questionnaires included topics of background characteristics, sense of belonging, class climate, classroom behaviour, bullying, teacher competencies, self-esteem, social acceptance, depressive symptoms, and friendship. For the analyses of the current study, background characteristics, sense of belonging, class climate, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms were used. Identical questionnaires were used in both pre-test and post-test, thus allowing evaluation of changes based on self-reported measures at the beginning of the school year and the end.

Background Characteristics

Students provided information on their initials, grade level, gender, and birth date.

Ethnicity was also collected, and children could select multiple choices from a selection of Dutch

Moroccan, Turkish, Surinamese, Antillean, or other.

Sense of Belonging

Sense of belonging was measured using the Connectedness subscale from the Classroom

Peer Context Questionnaire (CPCQ), developed by Boor-Klip et al., (2015). This subscale included four items such as “I feel comfortable in this class” and “I belong in this class”. 13

Students selected their responses on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = definitely not true, 2 = not true, 3

= a bit true / a bit not true, 4 = true, 5 = definitely true). A higher score indicates a greater sense of belonging. The reliability of the scale was good, with Cronbach’s alpha .83 at pre-test and .82 at post-test.

Depressive Symptoms

Students’ depressive symptoms were measured using the Dutch Depression

Questionnaire for Children (KDVK) (de Wit, 1987). The questionnaire has nine items and respondents stated whether they agreed or not to statements such as “I’ve been feeling pretty down lately”. The total scores of the scale were linearly transferred so that higher scores indicate more depressive symptoms. The reliability of the scale was good, with Cronbach’s alpha .81 at both pre-test and post-test.

Self-Esteem

Self-esteem was measured using six items of an edited version of the Competentie

Belevingsschaal voor Kinderen (CBSK) (Veerman et al., 1997), that was adapted from the Self-

Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985). Items included statements such as “I am dissatisfied with myself” with response options based on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = definitely not true, 2 = not true, 3 = a bit true / a bit not true, 4 = true, 5 = definitely true). Three items were reversed whereby a higher score indicates higher self-esteem and a lower score indicates lower self-esteem. The reliability of the scale was good, with Cronbach’s alpha .86 at pre-test, and .85 at post-test.

Class Conflict

Class conflict was measured using the Conflict subscale from the Classroom Peer

Context Questionnaire (CPCQ), developed by Boor-Klip et al., (2015). The four items indicated 14 the perceived level of negative interaction between the children in the class. Items included statements such as “In this class, children argue with each other”, and “In this class, children are mean to each other” with response options based on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = definitely not true, 2 = not true, 3 = a bit true / a bit not true, 4 = true, 5 = definitely true). A higher score indicates a higher perceived class conflict whereas a lower score indicates a perceived low class conflict. The reliability of the scale was good, with Cronbach’s alpha .88.

Analyses

The statistical analyses for this study were conducted on Jamovi, Version 1.8.1.0.

Significance criterion α = .05 was used for all analyses. The frequency, mean and standard deviation for participant characteristics and study variables were first calculated (see Table 2).

Assumptions for normality and multicollinearity were checked. For all three research questions, the regression analyses controlled for background characteristics: participants’ age, gender, and ethnicity.

To answer the first research question, multiple linear regression was used to test the association between sense of belonging and self-esteem, and between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms. Next, to investigate the moderating effect of classroom climate, multiple linear regression was used to test the interaction effect of sense of belonging and class conflict on self-esteem and depressive symptoms. In order to interpret the interaction effect, class conflict was split into low and high class conflict. Students who scored a six or lower (55.19%) were classified as the low conflict group, and students who scored greater than six (44.81%) were classified as the high conflict group. Lastly, multiple linear regression was used to examine whether a change in sense of belonging influenced self-esteem and depressive symptoms over time. Change in sense of belonging was calculated by computing the difference between pre-test 15 and pos-test scores. In addition to controlling for age, gender, and ethnicity, pre-test self-esteem and depressive symptoms scores were added to the model as predictors. This way, it was controlled for initial levels of the outcome measure and consequently the model would indicate the level of change in self-esteem and depressive symptoms.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Sense of belonging, self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and class conflict did not meet the assumption check for normality. This heightens the likelihood of a type 1 error. However, given the large sample size, we will be able to detect small differences therefore current analyses are considered sufficient to detect relevant differences. None of the correlation coefficients exceeded

0.70, thus, there was no multicollinearity (shown in Table 1).

Table 1

Correlation Matrix of Study Variables

Sense of Self-esteem Depressive Class conflict belonging symptoms Sense of - belonging

Self-esteem .58 -

Depressive -.51 -.65 - symptoms

Class conflict -.44 -.28 .35 -

Descriptive Statistics

Table 2 provides an overview of the frequency, mean and standard deviations of participant characteristics and the study variables. The mean age of the participants was 9.98 16 years (SD = 1.21). Of the participants, 52.57% were girls and 47.43% were boys, 81.79% were

Western, and 18.21% were non-Western. The mean score for sense of belonging was 13.09 (SD

= 3.02), 19.33 (SD = 4.57) for self-esteem, 1.97 (SD = 2.34) for depressive symptoms, and 6.25

(SD = 3.17) for class conflict.

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics of the Study Sample (N = 1,389) and the Study Variables

Background Characteristic n % M SD and Study Variables Gendera

Girls 727 52.57 - -

Boys 656 47.43 - -

Ethnicityb

Western 1114 81.79 - -

Non-Western 248 18.21 - -

Age - - 9.98 1.21

Sense of Belonging - - 13.09 3.02 (range 0-16)

Self-esteem - - 19.33 4.57 (range 0-24)

Depressive Symptoms - - 1.97 2.34 (range 0-9)

Class Conflict - - 6.25 3.17 (range 0-16) Note. a Missing n = 6. b Missing n = 27.

17

Effect of Sense of Belonging on Self-esteem and Depressive Symptoms

To answer the research question whether sense of belonging is related to self-esteem, a multiple regression analysis was performed. Results are presented in Table 3. Sense of belonging and background characteristics together explained R2 = 34.4% of students’ differences in self- esteem which is a significant and large proportion, F(4,1134) = 149, p < .001. Results indicated that given the background characteristics, the relation between sense of belonging and self- esteem was significant with β = 0.59, 95% CI [0.54, 0.63] p < .001. The observed relation was positive and indicated that children with a high sense of belonging also have higher self-esteem.

To answer the research question whether sense of belonging is related to depressive symptoms, a multiple regression analysis was performed. Results are presented in Table 4. Sense of belonging and background characteristics together explained R2 = 26.9% of students’ differences in depressive symptoms which is a significant and large proportion, F(4, 1147) =

106, p < .001. Results indicated that given background characteristics, the relation between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms was significant with β = -0.50, 95% CI [-0.55, -0.45], p

< .001. The observed relation was negative indicating that children with a high sense of belonging also have lower depressive symptoms. In summary, results from the regression analyses indicated that sense of belonging is strongly related to self-esteem and depressive symptoms. A high sense of belonging is related to higher self-esteem and to lower depressive symptoms.

18

Table 3

Regression Analysis: Self-Esteem

Predictor β 95% CI p LL UL Sense of Belonging 0.59 0.54 0.63 < .001*** Age -0.02 -0.07 0.03 .378 Gendera 0.03 -0.01 0.08 .165 Ethnicityb 0.03 -0.02 0.08 .242 Note. R = 0.59. R2 = 0.34. a 0 = girl, 1 = boy. b 0 = Western, 1 = non-Western. ***p < .001

Table 4

Regression Analysis: Depressive Symptoms

Predictor β 95% CI p LL UL Sense of Belonging -0.50 -0.55 -0.45 < .001*** Age -0.08 -0.13 -0.03 .002** Gendera -0.04 -0.09 0.01 .087 Ethnicityb 0.02 -0.03 0.07 .471 Note. R = 0.52. R2 = 0.27. a 0 = girl, 1 = boy. b 0 = Western, 1 = non-Western. *p < .05. **p

< .01. ***p < .001.

Moderation of Class Conflict

To answer the research question whether class conflict moderates the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem, a multiple regression analysis was performed. The moderation effect was tested by observing the interaction effect of sense of belonging and class conflict. Results are presented in Table 5. The interaction, class conflict, sense of belonging, and 19 background characteristics together explained R2 = 34.5% of students’ differences in self-esteem which is a significant and large proportion, F(6, 1132) = 99.4, p < .001. Results indicated that there was no moderating effect of class conflict as the interaction effect was not significantly associated with self-esteem with β = -0.02, 95% CI [-0.06, 0.02], p = .36.

To answer the research question whether class conflict moderates the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms, a multiple regression analysis was performed. The moderation effect was tested by observing the interaction effect of sense of belonging and class conflict. Results are presented in Table 6. The interaction, class conflict, sense of belonging, and background characteristics together explained R2 = 28.9% of students’ differences in depressive symptoms which is a significant and large proportion, F(6, 1145) =

77.6, p < .001. Results indicated that there was a moderating effect of class conflict as the interaction effect was significantly associated with depressive symptoms with β = -0.04, 95% CI

[-0.08, 0.00], p = .046. In order to interpret the effect, class climate was split into low and high conflict. Among students that indicated to be in a low conflict class (a score of six or lower), β =

-0.36. 95% CI [-0.43, -0.28], p < .001, and amongst those students that indicated to be in a high conflict class (a score greater than six), β = -0.52, 95% CI [-0.59, -0.44], p <.001. This showed that the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms was stronger in high conflict classrooms. In summary, there was no interaction effect of class conflict for self-esteem but there was a significant effect for depressive symptoms. The relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms was stronger in high conflict classes.

20

Table 5

Interaction Effect for Self-Esteem

Predictor β 95% CI p LL UL Sense of Belonging -0.02 -0.06 0.02 .36 * Class Conflict

Sense of Belonging 0.59 0.53 0.65 < .001*** Class Conflict -0.03 -0.08 0.03 .543 Age -0.02 -0.07 0.02 .335 Gendera 0.03 -0.01 0.08 .151 Ethnicityb 0.03 -0.02 0.08 .208 Note. R2 = 0.35. a 0 = girl, 1 = boy. b 0 = Western, 1 = non-Western. ***p < .001.

Table 6

Interaction Effect for Depressive Symptoms

Predictor β 95% CI p LL UL Sense of Belonging -0.04 -0.08 -0.00 .046* * Class Conflict

Sense of Belonging -0.41 -0.47 -0.35 < .001***

Class Conflict 0.15 0.09 0.20 < .001***

Age -0.07 -0.12 -0.02 .007**

Gendera -0.05 -0.10 -0.00 .04*

Ethnicityb 0.00 -0.05 0.05 .884 Note. R2 = 0.29. a 0 = girl, 1 = boy. b 0 = Western, 1 = non-Western. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p

< .001. R2 = 0.29.

21

Change in Sense of Belonging on Self-esteem and Depressive Symptoms at the End of the

School Year

To answer the research question whether a change in sense of belonging influences self- esteem at the end of the year, a multiple regression analysis was performed. Results are presented in Table 7. Change in sense of belonging, self-esteem T1, and background characteristics together explained R2 = 42% of students’ differences in self-esteem, which is a significant and large proportion F(5, 937) = 136, p < .001. Given self-esteem at T1 and background characteristics, change in sense of belonging was significantly associated with self- esteem at the end of the year with β = 0.33, 95% CI [0.28, 0.38], p < .001. This result showed a positive association indicating that students who experienced positive change in sense of belonging have an increase in self-esteem at the end of the year.

For depressive symptoms, a similar analysis was performed. Results are presented in

Table 8. Change in sense of belonging, depressive symptoms T1, and background characteristics together explained R2 = 44.5% of students’ differences in depressive symptoms, which is a significant and large proportion F(5, 953) = 153, p < .001. Given depressive symptoms at T1 and background characteristics, change in sense of belonging was significantly associated with depressive symptoms with β = -0.24, 95% CI [-0.29, -0.19], p < .001.This result showed a negative association indicating that students who experienced positive change in sense of belonging tended to have lower depressive symptoms at the end of the year. In summary, a positive change in sense of belonging was associated with an increase of self-esteem and a decrease of depressive symptoms at the end of the year.

22

Table 7

Change in Sense of Belonging on Self-Esteem at the End of the School Year (T2)

Predictor β 95% CI p LL UL Change in Sense of 0.33 0.28 0.38 < .001*** Belonging (T1-T2)

Self-esteem T1 0.60 0.55 0.65 < .001*** Age 0.02 -0.03 0.07 .499 Gendera 0.06 0.01 0.11 .024* Ethnicityb -0.01 -0.06 0.04 .585 Note. R2 = 0.42. a 0 = girl, 1 = boy. b 0 = Western, 1 = non-Western. *p < .05. ***p < .001.

Table 8

Change in Sense of Belonging on Depressive Symptoms at the End of the School Year (T2)

Predictor β 95% CI p LL UL Change in Sense of -0.24 -0.29 -0.19 < .001*** Belonging (T1-T2)

Depressive 0.62 0.58 0.67 < .001*** Symptoms T1

Age -.08 -0.13 -0.03 .001** Gendera -0.05 -0.10 -0.00 .042* Ethnicityb 0.04 -0.01 0.08 .138 Note. R2 = 0.45. a 0 = girl, 1 = boy. b 0 = Western, 1 = non-Western. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p

< .001.

23

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between classroom sense of belonging and two mental health outcomes, self-esteem and depressive symptoms. We also examined the possible moderating effect of class conflict on the associations between sense of belonging, and self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, we investigated how a change in sense of belonging from the beginning of the school year to the end would influence a students’ self-esteem and depressive symptoms over time.

Firstly, consistent with the hypothesis, results showed that sense of belonging was related in a strong way to both self-esteem and depressive symptoms. Students that felt a high sense of belonging in the classroom were on average likely to have higher self-esteem and lower depressive symptoms compared to their counterparts that felt a low sense of belonging.

Furthermore, we investigated the moderating effect of class conflict on the association between sense of belonging and self-esteem, and sense of belonging and depressive symptoms. Contrary to expectations, results showed that class conflict did not influence the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem. Regarding the analysis on depressive symptoms, as expected, class conflict did significantly influence the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms. This result indicates that the effect of sense of belonging on depressive symptoms depends on the different perceived levels of conflict in the classroom.

Further analysis showed that the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms was stronger for students who perceived their class to have high conflict. Lastly, we investigated whether a change in sense of belonging will influence self-esteem and depressive symptoms over time. We found that students who had a positive change in sense of belonging 24 during the school year experienced an increase in self-esteem, and a decrease in depressive symptoms towards the end of the year.

Theoretical and empirical evidence suggests that sense of belonging is an important psychological need, and as social beings, a crucial component that drives motivation and development (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Juvonen, 2006; Leary, 2006; Maslow, 1968; Ryan

& Deci, 2000). The findings from the present study broaden theoretical understanding of belonging and showed that classroom sense of belonging was a robust predictor of self-esteem and depressive symptoms. While there may be other components that contribute to a students’ evaluation of their own worth and their feelings and mood, a sense of belonging is beneficial and likely plays an important role in shaping these outcomes. In other words, when this innate need is met, we tend to also feel more hopeful and better about ourselves. These results are in line with previous work that also examined the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem

(Begen & Turner-Cobb, 2014), and sense of belonging in schools and depressive symptoms

(Anderman, 2002; Bond et al., 2007; Loukas et al., 2008; Shochet et al., 2006). These earlier studies also found that students who felt a greater sense of inclusion and connection were likely to feel greater self-worth and report lower depressive symptoms. This strengthens the notion that the positive experiences at school, such as a sense of belonging, may transfer to the development of a students’ mental health. When students feel included, secure, and valued in their relationships in the classroom, they are likely to have better self-evaluation and show less indication of experiencing depressed moods.

On the other hand, if a student feels alienated and disconnected from their peers and teachers in the classroom, their need to belong is unmet. Our findings show that this has negative consequences on their mental health. This fact may be an area of caution for schools in which 25 many students feel they belong; Anderman (2002) found that high aggregated school belonging was related to greater social rejection and school problems. This proposes that when a significant number of children at a school feel a high sense of belonging, the students who do not belong feel more socially rejected and experience more problems in school. Thus, this brings forth the idea that a student’s mental health may be more threatened when they feel as if they do not belong yet many of their peers do belong.

Following this, in contrast to predictions, when class climate was included in the model as a moderator for self-esteem, results showed that the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem did not depend on the different perceived levels of class conflict. This suggests that for primary school children, whether they consider themselves to be in a high or low conflict environment does not impact the effect of sense of belonging on their self-esteem. While this was the case for self-esteem, when a similar analysis was conducted for depressive symptoms, results indicated that perceived class conflict did matter. The finding showed that the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms does indeed vary at different levels of class conflict. When further analysis was conducted to compare low and high conflict, the relationship between sense of belonging and depressive symptoms was, contrary to our expectations, stronger for students who perceived their class to have high conflict. This could be interpreted as that students’ sense of belonging has a greater impact on their depressed moods when a child perceives a higher level of negative interaction in their class. In other words, when a student encounters high conflict in their classroom, sense of belonging explains a students’ depressive symptoms to a greater extent than a student who perceived less conflict in their classroom. These findings suggest that a sense of belonging could act as a protective factor whereby despite being in a high conflict classroom, a student experiencing high belonging in the 26 classroom will typically have lower depressive symptoms. On the other hand, this implies that a low sense of belonging may be a risk factor for a student on account of our finding that low sense of belonging in a high conflict classroom is related to more depressive symptoms. This finding lends strength to previous research that examined the link between class climate and psychosocial functioning such as emotional well-being (Oberle, 2018) and emotional and behavioural problems (Somersalo et al., 2002). Together, these findings demonstrate the benefits of having supportive and cooperative classroom climates and adds scientific insight that if a child were to perceive a high level of negative interaction in their class, their sense of belonging is likely to play an important role in shaping their depressive symptoms.

A possible explanation for the non-significant interaction of class conflict on self-esteem may be that compared to depressive symptoms, self-esteem is somewhat more of a trait characteristic and is arguably less subject to change (Kuster & Orth, 2013; Orth & Robins,

2014). Depressive symptoms may be more malleable and influenced by different factors, such as class conflict, whereas self-esteem has fewer confounding factors. Self-esteem has been defined as a subjective evaluation of an individuals’ own worth (Brummelman et al., 2016; McDonald &

Leary, 2012), whereas depressive symptoms measure an individual’s depressed moods and feelings of hopelessness (de Wit, 1987). Therefore, depending on the amount of conflict a student is confronted with, this may have an impact on one's mood and feelings, and less so on their evaluation of self-worth.

Finally, the results from our longitudinal analysis showed that a primary school student that experienced a higher sense of belonging at the end of the school year compared to the beginning, was also likely to have better mental health outcomes. This was demonstrated by the increase in self-esteem and decrease in depressive symptoms. Conversely, this finding implies 27 that students who decreased in their feelings of belonging, had worse outcomes. These results align with earlier findings that investigated the longitudinal impact of sense of belonging on psychosocial outcomes such as well-being (Jose et al., 2012), depressive symptoms (Bond et al.,

2007), and students’ satisfaction and feelings toward school (Tian et al., 2016). However, the difference between these studies and the present one is that while their research used a sense of belonging to predict subsequent outcomes, we considered how the change in sense of belonging during the school year would influence subsequent outcomes. Therefore, the findings from our present study highlight how sense of belonging may be dynamic and changes in feelings of belonging may occur. Moreover, these changes, whether they are positive or negative, induce changes in self-esteem and depressive symptoms. By the same virtue, if children show changes in their self-esteem and depressive symptoms, these changes may be explained by a shift in their sense of belonging. These findings reinforce the notion that experiences of belonging over time are instrumental to a child’s mental health development.

Overall, this study highlights how classroom sense of belonging is an important component of a child’s mental health, specifically, their self-esteem and depressive symptoms.

Previous studies have focused on how sense of belonging plays a role during the adolescent period. Our findings extend current understanding to a younger age group, namely primary school students. The results from this study demonstrate that even with a younger age group, sense of belonging matters and has an influence on mental health. Furthermore, this study shed light on the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem, and also how negative interactions in a class may influence the effect of sense of belonging on depressive symptoms.

These findings emphasise the need to address concerns around the quality of relationships and mental health from an early age at school. 28

Strengths and Limitations

The present study has several strengths. Firstly, the large sample size of the study with

1,389 students across 77 different classrooms increases the chance of reliable results with greater precision and power. Secondly, the longitudinal data enabled analyses that provided further insight into the direction of the association between sense of belonging and the two mental health outcomes, self-esteem and depressive symptoms. This helped to establish the sequence of events which allowed analysis of how a change in sense of belonging during the school year influences mental health. Furthermore, this study is one of the first to consider sense of belonging in school contexts and mental health outcomes among a young age group, i.e., primary school children. A significant portion of research on belonging has focused on adolescents and little is known about how these experiences ensue at an earlier stage. A fourth strength is that this present study focused on two aspects of mental health (i.e., self-esteem and depressive symptoms) and highlighted that they are strongly associated with a sense of belonging. Moreover, the relationship between sense of belonging and self-esteem has not been extensively studied thus this research lends strength to current understanding of how it impacts self-esteem in primary school children. The final strength is that we investigated the moderating role of class conflict.

This enabled us to see if the relation between sense of belonging and mental health differs according to the level of perceived class conflict.

While the present study contributes to previous findings and extends the existing research to a younger age group, there are several limitations to be considered. First, assumptions on normality were not met in the preliminary analysis. The results of this study may therefore be susceptible to a type 1 error. However, given the large sample size, it is expected that the most important relations are detectable within our sample. A second limitation is that we measured 29 class climate by means of class conflict. Class conflict is only one component of class climate, which comprises more aspects. For instance, levels of cooperation or cohesion may be other dimensions that impact a students’ perception of the classroom environment. Therefore, using measures that take into account other aspects of classroom climate may provide a better understanding of the impact it has on the relationship between sense of belonging and mental health. Another limitation is that the measure for sense of belonging was one subscale of the

CPCQ and not specifically designed for the construct. The items approach a sense of belonging however may need more extensive measures that ask specific questions targeting the properties of the construct. Future studies could include a more extensive measure of sense of belonging with subdimensions. This may bring more insight into the relationships we have found.

Moreover, it is important to note that in this study, sense of belonging measured students’ perception of belonging in their classroom. Their sense of belonging in the classroom may differ from their sense of belonging in school. For instance, some children may have stronger relationships with students in other classes and have a high sense of belonging in school, however do not feel as if they belong in their own classroom.

Implications for Practice

To belong is to feel included, secure, and valued (Goodenow, 1993a), and overall, the findings indicate that it plays an important role in primary school children’s self-esteem and depressive symptoms. The results suggest that a student’s experience in the classroom has an impact on their psychosocial development beyond the classroom setting. Given that children in primary school are in their formative years and it is crucial to build good foundations for subsequent development, this study yields implications in addressing a sense of belonging from an early stage. Schools and teachers should be aware that a sense of belonging is not the same as 30 having a social network. Sense of belonging is rather the quality of these social networks and whether they bring about feelings of inclusion, security, and value. Teachers should focus their efforts on encouraging these experiences by creating inclusive and supportive environments, where students are respected as individuals and feel safe to express themselves. Alongside this, schools could also implement policies that promote inclusive and fair guidelines that highlight the importance in teachers and students creating and maintaining positive environments.

Furthermore, given our finding that sense of belonging matters more in high conflict classes, teachers with high conflict classes should put extra effort into ensuring all children feel that they belong. These are classes where children are more at risk of experiencing depressed moods when they lack feelings of belonging.

In addition to teacher and peer support, Allen, Kern, et al., (2016) meta-analysis found that parent support had a strong relationship with a sense of belonging. These findings were of adolescents’ experiences of belonging thus parent support may have greater implications for younger, primary school children. Maintaining open dialogue between schools and parents will be crucial and could be done by using informal and formal channels of communication such as during drop-off or pick-up, or at teacher-parent evenings.

Lastly, another implication for practice is that these findings can help inform mental health intervention practices by assessing the child’s experience at school. For instance, if a child’s self-esteem is low, and depressive symptoms are high, schools or health care workers may consider a sense of belonging as a way of identifying the issue. Sense of belonging may be useful for diagnosing mental health concerns, therefore part of the solution may be to probe whether they are feeling included, secure, and valued in their classroom and school environment.

31

Implications for Future Research

The present study is among initial efforts that investigated sense of belonging and mental health in school contexts for primary school children. Further research is needed to verify the findings and to elucidate how school experiences for younger students play a role in their mental health development. We measured mental health using self-esteem and depressive symptoms.

Future studies might consider other indicators such as positive affect or well-being. Another implication for research is to include other factors of classroom climate to determine the influence it has on sense of belonging and mental health. Multiple factors create a classroom climate and subsequent studies should include these other measures. Moreover, future research should consider whether sense of belonging in school contexts differ if they measure classroom belonging or school belonging. This can provide insight into whether sense of belonging should be addressed in more immediate settings or in the wider context of school. Finally, this study was conducted in the Netherlands and this should be taken into account when generalising the results for children in other cultural contexts. Future studies should conduct research with different populations to further explore the relationship between sense of belonging and mental health.

Conclusion

In conclusion, building upon existing research, our study highlights the importance of primary school students’ experiences of belonging to their mental health. We found that sense of belonging is strongly related to self-esteem and depressive symptoms, and when children experience a positive change in their sense of belonging during the school year, this increases their self-esteem and decreases depressive symptoms. In addition, we found that students’ sense of belonging seems to matter more for depressive symptoms in high conflict classes than it does in low conflict classes. These findings show that from a young age, experiences at school matter 32 and stress the importance for schools, teachers, and parents to work collaboratively to ensure relationships at school provide students with a sense of inclusion, security, and value. When health care professionals are diagnosing children with low self-esteem and depressive symptoms, they should investigate the child’s sense of belonging at school as a possible source of their poor mental health. Children have the need to belong and assessing whether these needs are met may function as a preventive measure before further acute mental health concerns arise.

33

References

Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2016). What Schools Need

to know about fostering school belonging: a meta-analysis. Educational

Psychology Review, 30(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8

Allen, K.-A., Vella-Brodrick, D., & Waters, L. (2016). Fostering school belonging in secondary

schools using a socio-ecological framework. The Educational and Developmental

Psychologist, 33(1), 97–121. https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.201 6.5

Anderman, E. M. (2002). School effects on psychological outcomes during adolescence.

Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(4), 795-809. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-

0663.94.4.795

Anderman, L. H. (2003). Academic and social perceptions as predictors of change in middle

school students' sense of school belonging. The Journal of Experimental Education,

72(1), 5-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220970309600877

Anisfeld, E. (1982). The onset of social smiling in preterm and full-term infants from

two ethnic backgrounds. Infant Behavior and Development, 5(2-4), 387-395.

https://doi.org/10.1016/s0163-6383(82)80048-9

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal

attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Interpersonal Development, 57-

89. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351153683-3

Begen, F. M., & Turner-Cobb, J. M. (2014). Benefits of belonging: Experimental manipulation

of social inclusion to enhance psychological and physiological health parameters.

Psychology & Health, 30(5), 568-582. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.991734

Bond, L., Butler, H., Thomas, L., Carlin, J., Glover, S., Bowes, G., & Patton, G. (2007). Social 34

and school connectedness in early secondary school as predictors of late teenage

substance use, mental health, and academic outcomes. Journal of Adolescent

Health, 40(4), 357.e9-357.e18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.013

Boor-Klip, H. J., Segers, E., Hendrickx, M. M., & Cillessen, A. H. (2015). Development and

psychometric properties of the classroom peer context questionnaire. Social

Development, 25(2), 370-389. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12137

Bowlby, J. (1979). The making & breaking of affectional bonds. Tavistock.

Bradshaw, C., Nguyen, A., Kane, J. C., & Bass, J. (2014). Mental health matters: social

inclusion of youth with mental health conditions. United Nations.

https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/documents/youth/youth-mental-health.pdf

Brummelman, E., Thomaes, S., & Sedikides, C. (2016). Separating narcissism from self

-esteem. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(1), 8-13.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721415619737

Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Moffitt, T. E., Milne, B. J., & Poulton, R. (2006). Socially isolated

children 20 years later. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160(8), 805.

https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.8.805

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2009). School connectedness: strategies for

increasing protective factors among youth. Department of Health and

Human Services.

Demanet, J., & Van Houtte, M. (2011). School belonging and school misconduct: The differing

role of teacher and peer attachment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(4), 499–514.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9674-2 de Wit, C. A. M. (1987). Depressievragenlijst voor Kinderen (dvk en kdvk): Handleiding 35

[Depression Questionnaire for Children—Short Version: Manual]. Acco.

Dumont, M., & Provost, M. A. (1999). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social

support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and

depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28(3), 343-363.

https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1021637011732

Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (2011). Schools as developmental contexts during adolescence.

Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21(1), 225-241. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-

7795.2010.00725.x

Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59(2), 117-142.

https://doi.org/10.2307/1170412

Gillen-O’Neel, C., & Fuligni, A. (2013). A longitudinal study of school belonging and academic

motivation across high school. Child Development, 84(2), 678–692.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01862

Goodenow, C. (1993a). The psychological sense of school membership among adolescents:

Scale development and educational correlates. Psychology in the Schools, 30(1), 79-90.

https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(199301)30:1<79::aid-pits2310300113>3.0.co;2-x

Goodenow, C. (1993b). Classroom belonging among early adolescent students. The Journal of

Early Adolescence, 13(1), 21-43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431693013001002

Greenberg, M. T., Weissberg, R. P., O’Brien, M. U., Zins, J. E., Fredericks, L., Resnik, H., &

Elias, M. J. (2003). Enhancing school-based prevention and youth development through

coordinated social, emotional, and academic learning. American Psychologist, 58(6/7),

466-474. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.6-7.466

Hascher, T., & Hagenauer, G. (2010). Alienation from school. International Journal of 36

Educational Research, 49(6), 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.03.002

Jose, P. E., Ryan, N., & Pryor, J. (2012). Does social connectedness promote a greater sense of

well-being in adolescence over time? Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(2),

235-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00783.x

Juvonen, J. (2006). Sense of Belonging, Social Bonds, and School Functioning. In P. A.

Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (p. 655–674).

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Üstün, T. B. (2007).

Age of onset of mental disorders: A review of recent literature. Current Opinion in

Psychiatry, 20(4), 359-364. https://doi.org/10.1097/yco.0b013e32816ebc8c

Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham,, H., Belfer, M., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O., Rohde, L.

A., Srinath, S., Ulkuer, N., & Rahman, A. (2011). Child and adolescent mental health

worldwide: evidence for action. The Lancet, 378(9801), 1515-1525.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60827-1

Kuster, F., & Orth, U. (2013). The Long-Term Stability of Self-Esteem: Its Time-Dependent

Decay and Nonzero Asymptote. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(5), 677-

690. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213480189

Lambert, N. M., Stillman, T. F., Hicks, J. A., Kamble, S., Baumeister, R. F., & Fincham, F. D.

(2013). To belong is to matter. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(11), 1418-

1427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213499186

Leary, M. R. (2006). Interpersonal rejection. Oxford University Press.

Libbey, H. P. (2007). School connectedness: Influence above and beyond family connectedness.

UMI. 37

Loukas, A., Ripperger-Suhler, K. G., & Horton, K. D. (2008). Examining temporal associations

between school connectedness and early adolescent adjustment. Journal of Youth and

Adolescence, 38(6), 804-812. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9312-9

MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2012). Individual differences in self-esteem. In M. R. Leary &

J. P. Tangney (Eds.), Handbook of self and identity (pp. 354 –377).

Guilford Press.

Mann, M., Hosman, Clemens. M. H., Schaalma, H. P., & De Vries, N. K. (2004). Self-esteem in

a broad-spectrum approach for mental health promotion. Health Education Research,

19(4), 357-372. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg041

Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Van Nostrand.

Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and

unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American

Psychologist, 53(2), 205-220. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.53.2.205

Minuchin, P.P., & Shapiro, E.K. (1983). The school as a context for social development. In

E.M. Hetherington & P.H. Mussen (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Socialization,

personality and social development 4, pp. 197–274. Wiley.

Newman, B. M., Lohman, B. J., & Newman, P. R. (2007). Peer group membership and a sense

of belonging: their relationship to adolescent behavior problems. Adolescence, 42(166).

Oberle, E. (2018). Early adolescents' emotional well-being in the classroom: The role of personal

and contextual assets. Journal of School Health, 88(2), 101-111.

https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12585

Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2014). The Development of Self-Esteem. Current Directions in

Psychological Science, 23(5), 381-387. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414547414 38

Osterman, K. F. (2000). Students' need for belonging in the school community. Review of

Educational Research, 70(3), 323-367. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543070003323

Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2012). Putting the social into social learning: Explaining

both selectivity and fidelity in children's copying behavior. Journal of Comparative

Psychology, 126(2), 182-192. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024555

Rathmann, K., Herke, M. G., Hurrelmann, K., & Richter, M. (2018). Perceived class climate

and school-aged children's life satisfaction: The role of the learning environment in

classrooms. PLOS ONE, 13(2), e0189335. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189335

Rekers, Y., Haun, D., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Children, but not chimpanzees, prefer to

collaborate. Current Biology, 21(20), 1756-1758.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.08.066

Roeser, R. W., Eccles, J. S., & Sameroff, A. J. (2000). School as a context of early adolescents'

academic and social-emotional development: A summary of research findings. The

Elementary School Journal, 100(5), 443-471. https://doi.org/10.1086/499650

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic

motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78

https://doi.org/10.1037110003-066X.55.1.6

Sánchez, B., Colón, Y., & Esparza, P. (2005). The role of sense of school belonging and gender

in the academic adjustment of Latino adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence,

34(6), 619-628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-8950-4

Shochet, I. M., Dadds, M. R., Ham, D., & Montague, R. (2006). School connectedness is an

Underemphasized parameter in adolescent mental health: Results of a community 39

prediction study. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 35(2), 170-

179. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3502_1

Somersalo, H., Solantaus, T., & Almqvist, F. (2002). Classroom climate and the mental health of

primary school children. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 56(4), 285-290.

https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480260242787

Tian, L., Zhang, L., Huebner, E. S., Zheng, X., & Liu, W. (2016). The longitudinal relationship

between school belonging and subjective well-being in school among elementary school

students. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 11(4), 1269-

1285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-015-9436-5

Veerman, J. W., Straathof, M. A. E., Treffers, P. D. A., Van den Bergh, B. R. H., & Ten Brink,

L. T. (1997). Competentiebelevingsschaal voor Kinderen (CBSK): Handleiding [Self-

Perception Profile for Children: Manual]. Swets & Zeitlinger.

Wang, M. C.. Haertel, G. D., & Walberg, H. J. (1998). Building educational resilience. Fastback

430

WHO. (2020, September 28). Adolescent mental health. World Health Organization.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health

Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Chipuer, H. M., Hanisch, M., Creed, P. A., & McGregor, L. (2006).

Relationships at school and stage-environment fit as resources for adolescent engagement

and achievement. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 911-933.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.04.008

Zullig, K. J., Koopman, T. M., Patton, J. M., & Ubbes, V. A. (2010). School Climate: Historical

Review, Instrument Development, and School Assessment. Journal of Psychoeducational

Assessment, 28(2), 139–152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282909344205