MF-$065 Hc-$3.29

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ED 056 485 FM 009 340 AUTHOR Kott nstette, James .; And Others TITLE A Guide to Instructional Uses of Microform. Final Report. INSTITUTION Denver Univ., Colo. Research Inst. SPONS AGENCY Air Force Human Resources Lab.,Lowry AFB, Colo. REPORT NO AFHRL-RT-7-44 PUB DATE May 71 NOTE 9Ip. EDRS PRICE MF-$065 Hc-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS Audiovisual Aids; instructional Aids;*Instructional Materials; Instructional Technology;Microfiche; *Microforms; *Teachinq Methods; *Training; *Train;ng Techniques ABSTRACT This guide describes the use of microforms(including microfilm and microfiche) ina training environment, provides basic background on microforms asa distinct communications medium, and illustrates the steps required to operationalizethe use of microforms in a trainingsequence. The guide is based on information developed through studies of educationalmicroform uses, together with data accumulated from specialistsin the areas of filmed materials' development and equipment designThe guide describes: 1) general information on microforms, includingdefinitions and explanations of terms, materials, andconcepts; applications and acceptance; new techniques and processes; costs,and information sources; 2) the use of microforms in a direct instructionalmode and the relationship of microform capabilitiesto training applications; 3) considerations to be made inany specific instructional application, including plans for instructi.3nalmaterials, delivery, and use. (Author/3K)

us. DErA5ri-4..]:4 rI rHEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENTHAS BEEN REPRO- DUCED EXACTLY ASRECEIVED FROM seammageati===.227,1agmalEala THE PERSON ORORGANIZATION ORIG- INATING IT. POINTS OFVIEW OR OPIN- IONS STATED DONOT NECESSARILY AFH111_-TR-71-44 REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICEOF EDU- CATION POSITION ORPOLICY

A GUIDE TO INST UCTIONAL USES OF MICROFORM

MT By James P. Kottenstette Alta Bradley Morrison Anita S. West Robert R. Grausnick Denver Research Institute Univerzity of Denver

TECHNICAL TRAINING DiVISION Lowry Air Force Base, Colorado

May 1971

Approved for public re ribudon unlimited.

S LABORATORY

AIR FORCESYSTEMS COMMAND

BROOKS AIR FORCEBASF, TEXAS NOTICE

When US Government drawings, specifications,or other data are used for any purpose othor thanadefinitelyrelated Government procurement operation, the Government therebyincurs no responsibility nor any obligation whatsoever, and the fact thatthe Government may have formulated, furnished,or in any way supplied the said drawings, specifications,or other data is not to be regarded by imp!ication or otherwise, as in anymanner licensing the holder or 2.ny other: person or corporation, or conveyingany rights or permission to manufactuye, use, or sell any patented invention thatmay in any way be relatc.d thereto. ARM L-TR-7/14 May 1971

A GUIDE TO INSTRUCTIONAL USES OF MICROFORM

By James P. Kottenstette Alta Bradley Morrison Anita S. West Robert R. Grausnick Denver Research Institute University of Denver

roved for public release; distribution unlimited.

TECHNICAL TRAINING DIVIt:/ON AIR FORCE HUMAN RESOURCES LABORATORY AIR FORCE SYSTEMS COMMAND Lowry.Air Force Base, Colorado FOREWORD

This Guide to the instructionaluse of microform has been prepared to provide the background necessary for further refinement of the concept. Microform, used as an 1nstruction,-1 tool, isa very new application in eduk,ational. technology; this Guide, while written at the introductory level, prov. des the essential information forcon- tinued development of instructional applications. The irf ormation presented is based,in pal t, or the experience gained through an experimental study in which the considerations involved in preparing and implementing a course of instruction using microform were identified empiricall (AFHRL-TR-71-44). The preparation of the Guidewas performed und, r Contract No. F41609-70-C-0040 by the Denver Research Instituteof the Universi of Denver, under the direction of the Technical Monitor, Dr. Edgar A. Smith of the Air Force HumanResources Laboratory, Lowry Air Force Base, Denver, Colorado.The project was supervised by Mr. Jameb P. Kottensttt. Research AssocSatescontributing to the program were Mr. Robert R Grausnick, Mrs. Alta Bradley Morrison and Dr. Anita S. West.This study representsa portion of the research program of Project 1121, Technical_ Training Development; Task 112101, Advanced Technology fo:- Air Force TechnicalTraining. Dr. Marty R. Rockwaywas the_ Project Scientist and Mr. Toseph Y. Yasutake was the Task Scientist. Other reports prepared under this contract include: AFFIRL-TR-71-42, "A Performance Evaluation: Microfice versus Hardcopy" AFHRL-TR-71-4 "Microform Use in a Technical Training Environ- ment -- An Experiment" This Guide has been reviewed and is approved. GEORGE K. PATTERSON Colonel* USAF Commander

ii ABSTRACT

The objective of this Guide isco present information on the use of microforms in a traiing environment; to provide basic background on microforrns as a distinct com iunications medium; andto illu trate the steps required in oprationalizing theuse of mi,croforms in a training sequencec formation deve Ted through studies of educationalmicroform uses, together with data accumulated from specialistsin the areas of filmed materials' development and equipn-nt design, have provided the basis for creation of this Guideto microform uses in a training environment. review of the material to be presented resultedin the pre- paraion of three chapters for theinstruction of individuals requiring an understanding of the subject:(1) general informationon microforms to include definiticns and explanationsof terms, materials, and conce applications and acceptance;new techniques and processes; costs and information sources; 7)the use of microforms In.a direct instructional mode and the relationships ofmicroform capabilities to training applications; and (3) the considerationsto be taken into account in any specific instruatonal application,which include a plan for instructional materials,a plan for delivery, and a plan for use; as well as an outline for design andimplementation of such an operation, SUMMARv

Denver Research Institute,University of Denver, A Guideto Inst uctional Uses of Microform,AFHRL-TR-71-44, LowryAFB, Colorado: TechnicalTraining Division, Air ForceHuman Resources Laboratory, May1971. Objective

The objective of this Guideis to present informationon the use of microforms ina training environment; to providebasic background on microfo:cms as a distinct communicationsmedium; and to illustrate the steps required in operationalizingthe use of microforms5n a tx a ining se quence,

Lapz_22.21

Information developedthrough studies of educationalmicroform uses, together with data accumulatedfrom specialists in theareas of filmed materials' developmentand equipment design,have provided the basis for creation ofthis Guide to microformuses in a training eiwironment. Findings

A r(!view ofthe material to be prel'entedresulted in thepre- paration of three chaptersfor the instruction ofindividuals requiring an undei standing of the subject:(1) generalinformation on microforms to include definitionsand explanations ofterms, materials, and conceptE; applications andacceptance; new techniques andprocesses; costs; ar.d informationsources; (2) the use of rnicroformsin a direct instructional mode and therelationships of microformcapabilities to training applications; and (3)the considerationsto be taken into account in any specific instructionalapplication, which includea plan for instructional materials,a plan for delivery, anda plan for use; as well as an outline fordesign and implementationof such an operation. Thissummary was prepared by Dr. Edgar ASmith, Techni al Training Division, AirForce Human ResourcesLaboratory. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page FOREWORD

CHAPTER I.MICROFORMS: GENERAL INFORMATION. 1 Background 1 Defin -ions! Explanations 1. Microforms

a. Opaques 2

b. Transparencies 3 Microform devices 4

Material development 7

Production of microfo-s 8

Film formats. 10 Documentation of content 14

h. Standards foricroforms. 14

Infor-tion stores 15

Projection Equipment for Individu 1 Users. 15

.a. Vie-ers or readers 15

b. Copyng machines 17 C. Integrated carrels 18 d. Maintenance 18

History of Microfilm 19 D. Applications and Acceptance 20 1. Conceptions of Use 20

2. Selection of Form 21. 3. Unique Benefits of Microfo _s 21

4. ProbleAreas. 21

5. Acceptance . 23

vii TABLE OF CONTENTS(Cont

New Techniques andF -ocessms Relatedto Microforms F. Costs G. Suggested B eadings Z 5 CHAPTER II.MICROFORMS INTRAINING APPLICATIONS 40 A. Military Training- 40 1. Introduion 40 2. Microform Medium and MilitaryTraining 41 Training Sof_ware 43 L(!arning Theory 43 2. Microfiche M terials 44 a_ Formatting a 46 Colored Microfiche 56 c. Media Mix andinstructional Micro ;7 d, Fiche-Audio Systems 57 Computer ManagedFiche Instruction 58 f. Computer InstrucLionand Microfiche 59 CHAPTER III.CONSIDERATIONS IN ASPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL APPLICATION 61 A. The Plan for Instructional Materials bl B. The Plan forDelivery 65 1. Equipment Selection 66 2. The Use Environment 68 3. Handling and Storage 70 4. Maintenance and Repair 70 5. Integration --"th Other Mklia 71 TABLE OF CNTENT- on L.

The Plan for . Use A 1. Indoctrination ofPersonnel

Aids to SystematicUse.

. Problem Areasand Accommodations D. Outline for Designand Implementation Administrative andOperat onal Units Initiation ofMaterials Prepration Delivery Considerations 4. Use Requirements BIBLIOGRAPHY

ix CHAPTER I MICROFORMS: GENERAL INFORMATiON Background This Guide presentsinformation pi-imarilyon the development and curre t use of microfichematerials in a train'a environ:_ ent. The level of sophisticationof mat- ials and equipment,as presented he-r,I, is that considered readilyuseful for the jndoctrinationof and utilization by trainees and instructorsin an Air Force Teehn calTraining School environment. Exte:sivet-atment of complicateduse patterns and gear are avoided,as well as sophisticatedor exotic systems to achieve communicaton, s rice the trairing condition focusedup n LS that of classroorr ;nstructin. Many individuals, industrialconcerns, research teams, and educators are cuvrently involvedin developing materials,equipment, and systems to utilizemicrofors in the educati nal environment,For soir e ti_e, microfor-have been accepted andused in industry for administrative purposes, suchas compressing files and recordsinto a small space, lowering costs ofmailing inforr _ation fromone place to another, developing readyaccess to statistical data throughautomatic ret-ieval of filmed informatiin,and utilizing the film modim to reduce costs of duplicating materials.In libraries, tco, microformsare accumulating rapidly;some of the applications include theacquisition of out-of-print materials,the reduction of costsin acquisition and storage, and the replacement ofbound serials with lesscostly film copies.Actual use of these materials_thin educational institutions has been very limited, andonly in the last-severalyears has the possibiliof active use of microformsin the instructionalp- ocess 10

1 been seriously considered. -ore discussing theinstructional us- of microform, thefollowing rei-v of the state-of-the-artin micropublishing is presented.

B. Defini ons; Ex.lanations ic °forms Microforms ar, visualmaterials-which containinformation that is recorded ina size too small to be ideniifiedby the nakedeye; some magnification of the image(s)on a mi roform must beachieved before the information heldin "micro rriage y"can be utilized. A large, printed notice mightbe photographically reducedto a smaller size and st 11 be easilyread I, ithout optical aid;this would not bea microform. Hoever, if the material \Vele furtherreduced i until one c uldno longer de ipher itsmessage, and a magnifying lens were required in order that iglu be read, then thatgreatly reduced age would be a microfo rofors are encountered innumer- ous modes, sizes, shapes, andreductions, some of whichare described below.Although some microformsare planned fo: use by groups of individuals, those ofconcern in this Guideare developed for use by people viewingthem singly.

a.Opaques are microfo_ms whichare developed on materials wh ch will not transmitlight, such a- sheetsof paper or cardstock. These forms require thereflection of the i-_age onto another surface, along with magnificaton, in order that theymay be read, or theymay be read directly througha magnifying lens.These imagescan be printed photographicallyor by means a highly developed litho- graphic process butthe reductions are seldomgreater than 20 times that of the original, andnormally are only,5to 10 t mes the original. 1

2 These mtci-oimages are printed on ltter-sized sheets of paper, as microsheets; on smaller sheets or cards icrocards), some being only 3 by 5 inches overall; and on narrow tape whichcan be cut and pasted to a sheet or card as desired,Especially designed equipment is-equired for viewing these materials. Transparencies are Tisee -through" materials used for storing -irmation, p `marily con. sting of fil: s of various types. These microforms are always obtaind. through a photographic process The original film ised for taking a picture for a microform is silver halideicrofil. it consists of a base of fire-resistant acetate or polyester, a gelatin layer in which grains of silver halides repose, and an element to reduce any light-sc-Ittering effect in the film itself. Other film typ s used to provide transpar,nt dissemination copies of th.e original microfilm are diazo and vesicular (Kalvar) films.Diazo films are dev-loped through a chemical reaction involving dyes: vesi,-!ular fiLms involve the creation of minute bubbles that cast shadows which create the image areas. Transparencies are uni.ized in to primary __lodes; as a long strip of images wound into a roll, or as a flat piece of film on which a number of images are imposed utiliz ng a coordinate system.Roll film is produced in varying widths, 35-millimeter being the width which was widely employed in the past and is still used extensively for filming of large-sized documents such as newspapers and engineering drawings.For s_aller-sized materials, such as report literatur, and textual infor ation, 16-millimeter films are now the i-nost widely used, but 8-millimeter iagesare being developed for some applications. The flat microforms ((!all fiche, from the Fr-nch) are commonly produced by cuttng 105-millimeter film into cards which are s zed approximately 4 by 6 inches, although other sizes of filmcards have beendeveloped and ut lized, i.e.2 by 2 inches and 3 by5 inches, as wellas 5 by 8 inches, and even larger sizes.The flat filmsare characte: 'zed bya ho izontal a d vertical coordinate system which used to arrange theimages they contain inan orc1,2rly fashion.The number ofimages on a microfiche de ends ., upon the degree to which thematerials have beenhoto- aphic lly reducedand on theirarrangement; smallerimage sizes are constantly being developed better v ewingequ p- ent and better films become available.During the past decade,files of material were placed on mIcroficheby Governmentagenc es utilizing a 16-millimeter imageon a 105 -millimeter filmdeveloping a 4 by 6- nch card containing 6rows of 12 iages each (the COSATIstandard). The tIstep.andrepeatTIcamera has been dP,relopedspecifically to produce the fiche format. Viewing equipmentmust translate themicroform into a readable age; therefore, the magnification-equired for the viewer utilized for thispurpose is determinedby the reduction ratio used to create the original microimagc.Some viewers havevarlable or exchangeable lenses andfilm holders; thesemake such equipment more universal in applicationbut delay viewing whenmodifications must be undertaken beforeuse. Where an appreciableuse of a specific microformis contemplated,viewers whichare designed for specific form seem the most appropriate fromthe userts point ofview. c. croform devicesare mechanical aids toefficient 'se of various forms for particular applications.Some of these devicesare -.2xplained below.

_p_o9_11_!_rr reelsare used to store roll filmand to deliver Sequen-ially or seriallyto the viewer.Such devicesare of a size

4 to hold a particular film width, and ofa diaeter sufficient for the length of the roll being wound int( single unit.Reels, appoximateiv 4 inches in diameter, -n and the reel is -ften boxed for storage. Cartrids and cassettes are holders for roll film which package the film in sucha way that it can 13_ inserted intoa viewer easily; simplified threading of the filminto the viewer is achieved with these devicesCass ttes completely enclose the Lil:1-iereas cartridges do not.Different v eers require different types of cartridges and cassettes;nce these are not interchangeable, film must be init4lly insert d into the unit that fitsthe viewer to be used. Currently, efforts are being madeto standardize these devices that they will be more universal,Holders, or cassettes, are being developed also for film cards,or fiche, which will eliminate many difficulties in proper fil .nsetion and aid in maintaining clean and undamaged materials.

A erture cards are paper file cards withframes of film mounted into windows. Such cardsare highly unitized and can be filed, and interfiled, permitting expansionand correlation of information maintained in mic oform.Since aperture cardsar- often of the punch- rd variety, theycan be easily .coded for inforation retrieval and for sorting into categoriesThis type of microform is useful where each imageor small group o_ images are able to stand alone as an information unit.Like aperture cards, the CIM-Card (continuous image microfilm card) holdsa limited number of images, this card being madeco_ pletely of a special acetate film of the diazo type. 14 icrofilm jacketsare t ansparent pockets into which strip film, or singleimages,r-71,9 slipped and held in placefor viewing in the samemanner as a fiche.The jacketsare made for films of various widths,as 16-millimeter or 35-mil1imeter,and in sizes most useful suchas 4 by 6 inches.These jackets permit the individual development ofa flat fiche employing a strip-upprocess, and the addition of material,or rearrangement of material, is readil

accomplished.

icro Fche notebook filesare available which permit the arrangement of _Acrofiche ofa limited number in a ring binder.These files store about 30 of the 4b 6-inch ficheper sheet,n pocketswith eye-legible headingson the fiche readily visible foreasy retrieval o individual fiche.This type of device forstorage of mt-- ofichets useful n development of a particular subject,or in assembling materialson film for a special study.Each fiche here isa unit of information, and the notefile as a wholecompr -es a larger unit of Informationwhich includes all of the fiche.

Storingicroforms involvesva ious pieces of equipment and furniture, suchas files, cabinets, and shelves.The method of storing microforms to be adoptedin a given situation is arrivedat ad__ nistrattvely from factorsprevailing in the particularenviron- ment. Of importance are the numberof rnicroforms in- olved; the total system of microformuse; who, when, and where the formsare to be read; whether the system willpermit free accessor contrlled access to the materials and equipment.File drawers arevery effective in storing microfiche.These can beas centrall -located cabinets; they might also be cabinetsdispersed into theareas of the reading stations.Both file cab nets and shelvesare suitable for

6 boxed reels 01 roll i and for boxed cartridges and cassettes. Lazy- Susan-type shelves are found useful for these small-sized mate ials ating materials are sometimes used as coatings for transparent films several puoses; one is to prevent film contact so as to prohibit the copying of these materials, and a second is to protect the materials from dust and scratches.In the case of high reduction microforms, such as those at 100-t mes reduct on, or more, any small impe fection, dust, or scratch, will be highly magnified when the image is vie ed on a screen. A lamination will eliminate this difficulty to a considerable d gree since the focal depth of the projection optics is so shallow that imperfectiors on the surface of the laminate are thrown far out of focus and have little eifect on the projected image.This is not eq ally true of loer reducti n ratio materials. Coding, indexklg and some bibliographic retrie- a information is necessary for all microforms to be useful.Eye-legible information must be on the film itself, as well as in an index or catalog.Establishment of standards for the appropriate access information and auxiliary tools for and in connection with microfors is presently being studied and is considered a major issue in establishing useful practices.

d. Material development is the-determination of content of materials to be reduced to a microform and made available where needed. Here is the decision as to what material will be recorded, whether theaterial will be a single item or a part of a colle-tion of related mate ials, whether it will be assembled Into a subject-related series, or a chronology, or some other of particular utility,

7 in whole or in part.Establishment of content of microformsmay involve completely reordering materialsas they appear in a hardcopy form, and presenting them insome new way which takes advantage of the particular values ofa microform to be used, andc'-he specific purpose to be served.

e. Production of microforms involves filming,developing, duplicating, and some distributing.As part of the product..onprocess, the editing, indexing, coding, andaccession controls necessary to the microforms must be conside ed.

Reduction ratio of a oform is the number of times the material is photographically reducecin relation io the originalmaterial.A standard reduction ratio is 20-to-1(or 20X, meaning 20-ties reductionwhi :h has been the standard establishedby the Comittee for Scientific and Technical Informaton (COSATI).(In this instance, an info mation area originally 8.0 inches by 10.0i ches would appear in microform as anarea 0.4 inch by 0.5 inch.) This U.S. Government tandard is extensively used for 4 X 6-inchmicrofiche report literature where 60 images appear icL 5rows of 12 each.Another much-used reduction ratio is 24-to-i presentng 90 images in 6 rows of 15 each, as established for 4 X 6 -i ch microfiche by the Natonal Microfilm A sso _iation (NMA).* Asnewer films and equip _ent are developed, greater reduction ratios are possible andare being used.More material s becoming available at 40X and 42Xon 8-millimeter fil computer output microfim (COM) willappear at both 20X and 40X (approximately).

* The COSATI standardwas revised in May 1971 to be consistent with the NMA standard at 24-times reduction. 17 The very high reductionratios, 100X, 150X, 200Xper_it the cons li- dation of a great deal ofinformation into a small f lmarea and permit a single book to a single fiche,or many related information bitsto a single fiche.

Projection ratios must coincidereasonably well with reduction ratios in order that microformsmay be read on a viewer pereen: however, an image might bereduced at 20-to-1 and bepro- jected back onto a sc-en at 30-to-1 so that the projected imagewas larger than the original.This is known as positive blowhck.If the image were projected in a size smaller thanthe original it would be projected at a negative blowback.The sartie material might bepro- jected at the same ratioas that at which it was reduced for normal vieing purposes, and ata po 'Jive blowback for otherrea ons such as for viewing bypersons with impaired vision.

ReadabIly of aicroform image has to do withthe quality of the materials and equipment,in combination, that isnecessary so that an ind vidualcan read the projected material in context.Quality of the image is not as stringentforreadability" as it is for "visibilit-" which has to do with positiveidentification of individual symbolsand characters on a viewerscren. For numerals, symbols, tables, graphs, and any materials whereindivid al characters r,orfant to communication, MvjsibilitylT is themandatory criterion.For narrative materials, "readability" is theessential cri'erion.

Generations are ascribed to microformcopies.The original silver film exposed to developa microform from a hardcopyor other source, is a first generation negative.The positive film produced from this original master isa second generation po. itive.The next film made from the positive isa third generation negatve, and so on. 18 In the case of COM (computer outputicrofilm), the first generation f om the comput-r output isa positive.Multiple filcopies can he made from any of these generations, but with eachgene.-ation some resolution is lost.In producing a microfo-1 of any particular reduction ratio, the full reduction can be accomplishedin several steps rather than in a singl- .;p; for instance, 100X filrrlay be produced by reducing the iginal -ource. material to a film at 10X, thenproducing a positive inte mediate, which is again phot _graphed at 10X,thereby producing a final master at 100X. Up to about 50X,at the present ti-_-.e, reduction can be accomplished in a single step; beyondthat, the two-step process is currencly employed. However,even for low reduction croforms, it ay be desirable to employa t- -o-step process to produce the particular microform d sired.

C__pyright is a problem in microform developmentas with the copying of any copyrighted material.Fair use prevails, ofcourse, and users must be aware of its appli ationsand its limitations.The entire problemf copyright as it relates topre ent copying techniques is under study and new legal guidelinescan be expected as time passes In order that existing informationmay be utilized, some new systes of permissions or licensingare being studied.

. Film formats and fildesign should bdete ined in accordance with the planned use ofa particular class of information, in the same manner that the de _isons as to reduction ratio and type microform are deter-_ ined.Use is the controll ng factor in all decisions; g: ater facility in utilization of information is the goal in thedevelopment of any segment of microform application.Mere substitu_ on of a less expensive medium is not the sole just fication forselectio-_ of a microform, it should be responsive,tp the user to the same degree,

10 at least, as the medium to whichhe has become accustomed.Micro- forms have the potential forgreatly facil tating informationexchange when properly employedand formats playa major role in overcoming nachine interfernee in the communicationsprocess. Continuiti of rricroformsmust be considered in planning materials.With roll film, the rollof a particular film lengthis the information unit and materialswhich are held in this fashionmust be appropriately described andindexed.The roll filmis particularly useful for serialized materialsuch asnewspapers and periodicals which

lend themselves toaccess thru their chronology and specialindexes. With other types of material,the information unitmust ie determined, and a be t form selected forit.Report literature, beingmost often of minimal length, can be wellhandled with microfiche inthe COSATI (20X) or NMA (24X)forat.Book-length materialsto be read sequentially from beg nning to endlend theselves to a presentatin on roll film which can holdan entire book as a unit, oron microfiche of a reduction ratio sufficiently highto permit one card to holdone book. For other materials, suchas educatio al materials, workbooks,and learning guides, the ficheform provides themost flexibility, and the reduction r2tio to be usedshould be determined by thetask to be pe.r- formed.In some instances, thecontinuity of materiale, and theunit to be retained, may bea departure from that previouslyaccepted; chapters from booksmay become units rather than the booktself; another departure might bethe collection ofa ser es of articles from per _dicals with each articlea unit rather than the- periodicalsthem- selves.in all suchcases, in-depth indexing andaccess controls are mandatory.

1 J. Polarity describes thereadable imageas to light refle ted or transmitted; the posit ve polarity is true to life,whereas thenega- tive polarity reveres the situation so thatnormally whiteareas or symbols are da k andthe foTmerly darkare light.The use situation determines which polarity is most appropriatefor a particularpiece of Tiaterial differentkinds of viewersrespond differentlyto positive and to negative polarity; the magnificat.on ratioof lenses deliverslight to the screen in differentways so that the individualuser responds to the light from positive and negativernages differently underdifferent circumstances.Ambierit lighting inuse environments isa fa tor to be considered in decidingupon which polar ty touse.The mate,ial it- -if, with graphsor photographs, may be bestpresented in positive or negative, or a mixture ofthe two.

Color in microformsmay become more broadlyuseful as development ofnew films come topass.Aside from aestheticconsider- ations, color isan important tool incom -unications.Color codes and color cues cont-ibuteto information transfe_and speed of identification. As this area of microform production ismor_ sophisticated, thee are problems to.be solvedrelating to true colorrepresentation where this s vital, copying of coloredmicroforms, filmresolution limitations, and costs. However, color shouldbe includedas a consideration in the formatting of materialfor presentation ofcertain types of information.

Changes in materialcontent may be in order.In developing microforms fromalready existing material,decisions must be made early as to whether thetask will beone cf merely copying material already availableonto a microform, therebyproviding a substitute for the hardcory original,or whether the microformwill be a new edition in which changes havebeen made in contento_ arrangement.It maybe 21 12 at additional informat on should be included with the old, and, therefore, the microform "copy" will be an expansionor editorilized version of a fo --__er publication.

Sequence oimages direction of image placement on microforms is impo tant in the reading of information.Original roll film has util zed two ge progress -n sequences, the comic,which is a horizontal row of images as in a comic strip, and the cine,which tical colun of imarzes as in cinema or movie film. An open book, to which users are accustomed o early training, is developed in the comic mode, with a left-hand page and right-handpage, and on to th( end.Certain old scrolls are in the cine mode and read vertically from one end to the other continuously without a break.In the comic or horizontal progre --ion of images, eachpage of material must be brought into alignment on a eer screen in order that it may be read; with the vertical progression o images, the usercan continue from the bottom of one page to the top of the next w thout losingeye contact on the viewer screen.The end use of the material must d_termine which progression to utilize; where images should be kept distinctlyseparate, the comic progression accomplishes this; whee material should be read without break, the rifle or vertical progression of the material serves this purpose.

Variable progress on can be achieved w_ h microfiche.In formatting material, it should be kept in _And that microform in sheet or card form presents the designer with an opportunity to develop materials which can be used in more dimen -ions than is possible with a book or with roll f lm.The user can progress through the mate ial fo ard, backward, up, down, to the right, to the left, diagonall- along some complicated map or route that the designer bringsto bear

13 22 in presenting his materiaI.This mul -di-nsona1 terta_ presentat on can be greatly exploited wIththe microfiche of high density. When color as a code is addedto this situation, the possibilitiesof utilizing the multi-densional capability__microfiche for individualized and programmed learningare evident.

Documentation o content_ is essential.No matter in what medium or form informationis developed, it must be well documented for access and retri valor it is essentially worthless.Great concern is cur -ntly expressed on the part ofinformation users as to the de- elopment of quantities of mieroformswhich may be difficultto retrieve and utilize because of iadequate bibliographic controls. The materials themselves, as wellas all associated containers and receptacles, must be carefully handledin this respect.Useful information is expected soon to help publisherswith this important problem. In addition to adequate bibliographicaccess tools to retrieve filmed information units, the microformsthemselves _nust be designed with internal accession aids thatare functional and simple to utilize.

h. Standards for microformsare minimal at this t__e due to the current expansion of the industryinto new and untr edavenues which could bring decidedadvancements to the user of microinforma- tion.The Government -tandard COSATI is wellknown, as is the NIVLA standard. However, itcan be expected that 8-millimeter imagery

40X reductions) will become plentifuls-.ce the compute_ _ COM utilizes this reduction ratio primarily.As some of the newer materials in higher densities prove their utility, standards willundoubtedly be adopted with respect to them. Knowledgeableindividuals foresee a fAmily of standards for different kindsof microorms, rather than the selecti n of a single type anddensity to perform all tasks ina compromised manner; different fori is will be used for the specific communication for which they provide th- most suitable and useful presentation in a specific environment.The users of microforms will have much to say about these standa ds in the future, their input being in th_ form of acceptance, endorsement, purchase, and use of particularly well-designed and applical,le materials. Information storos, bodies ofaterials which are being developed and will be available for use in many ways and through many channels, on site and remotely, are increasing rapidly; much of this information is held in the newer mediurns, electronic tapes, computer memory, and on various films.Data banks of many kinds, cover- ing a wide range of topics and statistical inforation, are becoming a major resource which can be utilized by an ever-increasing audience. In many casesthe coputer can be used to manipulate information and provide the management for data which is held in film storage. Retrieval of film records can be accomplished by the co _puter and with sophisticated mechanical and elect onic retrieval systems.Infor- ation is be ng developed and stored by government at all levels, industry, news media, banks, innumerable agencies, professional organizations, and educational institutions. Projectionquipment for Individual Users a. Viewers or readers are opt cal machines which utilize lenses, mirrors, and screens to magnify information held on mic forms and present it to a user in a size sufficiently large to be read by the human eye. Many different reading machines are available, of varying size and configuration, and the -development and manufactu e of new types is proceeding at a rapid pace.Viewers in the past have been primarily of a stationary type, upright and heav-so that they 24 15 might be consideredto function almost exclusielyin an institutional setting, serving a preciselydefinedpurpose. Now, the need fora more personal, and thereforeportable viewer hasbeen recognized and manufacturersare developing smalleran pieceof equipment for reading microforms.The for -ats formicroforms in the past, being almostexclusively the copying ofalready designed printed pages of information,have required thatreading machines be constructed with long opticalpaths to recreate forthe user thepage that was developed via the pri _tingpress.With moaif caton in material presentation, whethernew material or old materialthat has been redesigned for microforpresen'ltion, smallerpersonal viewersare possible.Statistical informationconcer ing different viewers is available from severalsources, including the AmericanLibrary Association.Literature fro anufacturers is helpful.Ho ever, best to determinemicroform equipmentcapability in situ since many local environmental conditionscontribute to thefunctioning of these machines, anda best fit cannot currenth bemade from statistical information alone.Equipment for viewingmicroforms presentsan image to theuser through proj ction ofan irriAge onto a screen. Some viewers project thisimage onto the back ofa translucent screen; this type is a rear projectionviewer. Other readersproject the microform image onto an opaque surface orscreen; this type is a frontprojection viewe r.

Although machineparts, as they confro ta user, should be kept to an absoluteminimum to lessen machineinterference with communications, vieers must be understood interms of their basic components in order that theybe less threatening.There must bea smoothly fun tioningsystem to hold the microformfIrmly in precise

16 2 position to be presented to theu-er.There __ust be a good and adequa lens to magnify the i_ lage; ifmore than one magnification is possible

with a single v ewe , then t, e.different lenses shouldbe easily brought to position for use. A system of mirrors whichtransport the magnified image from the lens must be heldfirmly in position t- keep the image from being distorted.The screen which confronts theuser should be clean, clear, and unmarred.A lamp of proper type and wattage is needed to force the microirnage throughthe system of lens and mirrorsnd onto the screen with sifficientcontrast to be readable. The intenr .ty. of the light is dependentupon the degree of magnification that must be achieved, high reducton ratios requiring the concentration of a great deal of light ontoa small film area.Since lights generate heat, where a great deal of lightis required it. .Aist,be dissipated from the film b- the use of fans.These can be a source of distractingno', unlessell designed. As the imageappears on the screen, it must be precisely focused by the user and thefocusing controls should bP readily accessible and smoothlyfunctioning.The entire viewer sy should be precisely engineeredto the end that the screen is equally bright overall, the image isnot distorted, and the focusonce adjusted for a piece of film does not needreadjustment as the taskpr g esses a e often required to produce hardoopy from a microform.This requirement may be lessened inthe future when more viewingequipment is available for use by additionalpeople. However, even with the advent ofmany viewers, hardcopies will be required for somepurposes.Machines which makepaper copies of microfor images are viewer-p_nters, primarily.These pieces of equipment are slightly larger thanconventional inst tutional viewers, and they are more expensive.The copies producedare --,-)riced per p-ge 26

17 since they require a specialphotographicpaper for their production. Other hardcopy machinesfor microformsare not viewer-printers but simply copying machines;these pieces of equipmentare bulky and strictly production oriented.Still othercopying machines developed tor microforms providenot hardcopy but duplicatefilms.Large processing installations performthis function for themost part but, in addition, small piecs ofequipment are becomingavailable particularl for the duplication ofmicrofiche.With suchequipment, dispensing of film duplicates froma central storage area wouldbe much lessexpen- sive and less t me-consinning, as wellas simpler, than therr_ king of hardcopy; however, thispractice assumes tht viewing equipmentis plent'fully dispersedas well.

Integrated carrelsare work stations whichintegrate equipment and worksurfaces, as wellas essential materials,in o a s ngle cont -rP for a particularfunction.integrated viewer carrels for an educationaltask would providea microform viewer, wr ting surface, space fcr hardcopy materials,files or sh lvesfor microforrns, localizedlighting systems andpower, and all required materials and equipment for an educationalreading and studytask ina 1, integrated locaton.The same type ofdevelopment could be brought to bear on an industrial taskso that the localuse environment would contain allele__ ent- for the taskto be accomplishedin a func- tionally designed,integrated module,

aintenanceust be acco plishedco tinuously and well. Film materialsmust be treatedth respect andmaintained, in clean, orderly arranger- ent under conditionspromoting a long anduseful life. Institutional maintenanceof icroform equipmentmust be undertaken by adequately trainedtechnic ansso that4tewersare useable at all 27 18 ties.Inasuch as the information needed on an individual's microform is act ally in his hand, his inability to read it becau.of viewer failure is devastatin it like an itch that he can't scratch.Equipment dealers should provide prompt servicing of their products when they malfuncti in, but users should be suff ciently educated in minimal maintenance to keep heir equipment operating under normal conditions. Here, the simplification of equipment 1 oking to maximum individual user mai tenance might be expected to increase acceptance of the croform medium through increased equipment availability

C. History of Microfilm Microfilm was developed about 1839 so that it has been available for 130 years.Not a great ch I was done with it,in the sense communications, however, 'until World War II.At that ti e 1_ was used to t- a smit a great deal of inforation overseas by plane. A use for film was developed by the motion picture industry ,several gener- at ions past, and much of the progress in microfilm technology resulted from this cine _a use.In the 1920's a need was felt to record bank checks arid microfilm was adapted to that requirement.Folloing World War II there was a requirement to reduce much -f the docu- ientation that had been developed in Lonnection with thewar effort _o less costly storage, so microfilui was utilized for thatpurpose The aperture card was developed for enginee -ng drawings in the late 1940's. Now, the amount of information being accumulated in written form isso great that the use of film is essential.The computer has greatly inc::-eased data output so that institutions are deluged withpaper.The use of film, :properly indexed and retrievable, can preserve essential written materials for future use.For information on the early 2g

19 development of microfilm,see F. Luther 1839-19003 publishedin 1959 by the NationalMicrofilm Association, Annapoli s, Maryland .

1. Concestions of ije Use potential formicroforms isas broad as informationuse in general; applications can be co sidered almostendless and onlya few have been actuallypracticed.Difficulties inuse have been glaringly evident, but 1- ve arisen to a great extentfrom the fact thatmicroforms have been creat dto serve onepurposc and then been askedto serve another.Microfors which -ere merely filmcopies of old materials, produced topreserve the information containedin deterioratingtexts, and held in storageoften with i adequateindexing oraccess control- and then recreated for a useron little understood andpoorly maintain d pieces of equipment, usually diff cult tofocus and adjust,did little to encourage users.This type of microformapplication was developed for preservation and storage of materialsand not for activeuse. As the need for routine use of microimagery increasesdue co the aount of information being created, thetype of material to beplaced on microform is changingfrom the old iriicroforrnconcept to a new and dynamic concept; microform willno longer be a deadstorage medium but rather will be aorking tool forinformation t ansfer:it will no longer be a substitute for hardcogy materialsbut will bea routine communications medium. Since the capabilty of microform isdifferent from that of books and paper, theformat for informationstoraae and use can change with themi_ fo s different potential.Microformscan bring graphic and visual presentationsinto more activeuse along with the written word because of the storagecapacity of microformunits, and

20 may be able to play a 6yn=ic role in conjunctionwith other media such as sound in an instructionalsetting. 2. Selection of Form The particular microformto be selected formaterial develop- merit must be keyedto a particular application.The unit of information must be considered, whetherlong or short, the kindof vieing equipment that would be_ ost appropriate in theuse environment, whether the inforination is developedin.a natural chronologyor by subject segments, and all factors thatcan be identified as specificto the particular use situation.When this has beendone, a best fitcan be determined as to the type of microformto be devPloped for thatmaterial and that application.

Unique Benefits ofMicroforml Many of the benefits oficrofo7:m have longbeen recogni such as reducing publicationscosts, publishing on demand,and greatly reduced storagerequirements. More recentlyrecognized benefits include automaticretrieval of information,enhanced cod'g and indexing via microforms, varjable unitization ofmaterial content, andthe multi-dimensional capabilty of sheet film, alongwith possibilities suggested for color codingof informaton avenues or blocks. Along with possible benefits,rest'ctins of p esent microformmaterials, systems, and equipment are being identified froma user orientationso that the benefitscan be exploited whileimpact of machinerestrictions are minimized.

4. Problem Areas As use of microforms inci a se s,refinements aterials and equipment are necessary to serve a broaderbase of users withroutine

2 1 requirements for infor ation ofvarying kinds and in differingenviron- ments. When a l-rge number ofpeople use the medium routinely, ristrictions are readily identified.In the past, att-- tion has been focused upon the t ethnology offilms, production andprocessing, and equ',pment parts and capabilities-with little ernpha5ison the user and his environment; the technicalcapability has be,-n developedbut the matching of the technology to theuser himself has been little studied. Currently, researchersare studying the microformuser to better fulfill his requirement_ andhave found that he has muchto contribu e _o the design of materIals, -ystems, andequipment that he will be required t- utilizeas microforms prol'ferate.Ident fiable problems are the disorie _xperienced by auser beeen an upright screen e entation and a working surface whenhe is performinga task involving both of theseareas.Orientation within the materialitelf, as presented on a screen, requiresguides and indexng to aid the user in establishing referencesto the whole body of the materialwith which he isnvolved, and theseare often inadequate.Dependable focusing within frames of material and flom frame to frame is often notachieved with a- ailable equipment.Fatigue from unevenscreen illumination is always a problem and dizzinesscan be experienced whenimages are moved across the viewer screen duringa search task.Cooling fanscan prove to be e tremely annoyg, and in a classroom theycan compete with the instructor.The space occupied byequipment can leave little working space fora user unless planned for in advance.Individualized markings on microforrns isa problem, as is the integrationof new material or updating ofinformat on.Sophistication of syste_s and equipment are fo__-iidableto the uninitiated, andequ.pment failure can leave the user helplessto achieve a desiredcomfnunication since alternatives have not beenestablished S h probles are attendant upon a change from com nercial appli ations to educational applicatins; from reference tasks which aregene ally spec fic, search-oriented, and short-lived, to study tasks where students mustuse the presentation for long periods of time.Th.e user in a commercial situation is highly niotivated due to his employment and thenat re of the tasks performed; the user in the education1 environment must find his own mot vation to perform the long-term tasks which are inherent in his ,clucational activity. Acceptance It is necessary that microforms satisfy the user's infor _ation requireents to be acceptable to him. He does not wani: to expend more effort in using a microform than he has beer= required to expend with other media in the past.The total microform system, materials development, accessibility, and machine delivery of information,must be so well designed that the user is assisted in gaining infor_ation rather than ha ipered by h= ing t-use microforms.The benefits to be derived from the system suse must be exploited to 'flake it valuable to the user as a sat -factory communications medium, and whenhe feels that he gets more from the microform system than he loses by haing to use a machine in order to read, the medium will be acceptable. New T- hniques and Processes Related to Microforrns Of particular interest at this tie is the production of microforms via the computer. COM is "computer output microfilming" whereby output from the computer, whether fromcoputations or as a resuit of programming a piece of textual material,OT the scribing of a computed graph or chart, can be filed directly within the computer by means of a cathode7_ ay tube and a camera which is pointed at the face of the tube.Since this operation is very fast, being li- itedat

-22 f° 23 this time only by the speed of the filmemployed for recording the co puter output, it is extremely important to the t talmicroform effort..L,ess fully developed at thi_ time is CIM, "computerinput microfiling" whereby microfilm is usedas input to the computer for manipulation of the inforation presently held on film.When thi= is iziore fully operational, fIlm _ecords will be used bothas inp t and as output with con-iputers for speed and greaterstorage capability.Another new development is OCR, "optical character recognition-'which is machine-reading of information in eye-legibleform.This, like CIM, is still in developmental stagesEquipment for the automatic retrieval of the physical films, rollor fiche, is being developed, along with equipment for display of the informationon viewing screens and return of the microforms to storage.These systems are expectedtr., be utilized in the future alongw th computer searches for relevarit_ate- rials for 7 particular informationrequirement. Some new equipment has been-developed which combinesa roll fI- -fiche concept, whereby fiche with its multiple frames ofinformation is contained within the equipment in a continuous roll for searchand display. As requirements are identified, and needs specifically expressed,the technology relating to microforms is sufficiently developedto be responsive.Of importance in the use of microforms Is thedevelopment of total informationsystems where microformsare to be utilized so that all of the elements which interact assist in the ultimatepurpose of providing the user with needed communications. Such total systemsare being developed in a number of areas and more will be achieved,directlthrough study of_quire- ments and deliberate application, andindirectly through trial arid error as use of microforms proceeds atan accelerated rate. Co- Tue costs associated with the development of materials for microform and the eq_ipment for their u-e is variable depending upon the ters of application.If microform _at-_ls are created simply by fil- ing existing hardcopy materials, and institutional-type, free- -standing viewers are employed for presentation of m-terials, the greatest cost involves the original filming of the material and the price of the viewing equipment. How erif yiate 'als are redesigned to take advantage of the benefits ot the microform medium, costs will be incurred in this work; the payoff for the additional cost of preparat on would have to be assayed against increased effectiveness of the p__sen- _tion and any sav ngs that accrue from this increased initial effort. an institutional sett'g, the savings in space brought to bear by Ilse of microfor_ as opposed to hardcopy mate -'als must be considered in light of the space needed for reading equipment and its maint -nance

costs.If individual view_g equipment becomes widespread, however, information stores such as libraries can become involved in dispensing t_ials at very low cost as microfor duplicates and save _aterially in operations associated with the lending of materials.The total system planned for microform use, involving the development of materials, their p od- ction, the storage and use environment, the equipment, and the operation and maintenance of the total system and its coponent parts must all be costed to arrive at a relate figure when considering the implementation of an actity utilizing microiorms as opposed to another mediuin.

G. Sugjested Readin s The interested reader is directed to a listing at the close of this chapter which provides repre-sentative refe ences to microform r; 41 4A

25 technology.There are now continuing publicationshich deal exclu- sivelyith the subject, as w-ll as many cu- ent references to microfo m de elopments in the literatare associated with related disciplines such as librarianship, optics, eq ip-ient manufacturing, and films.

Materials being generated in connection _ "th the offerings of microform equipment manufacturers, and publishers, are valuable for indoctrination of the novice, and the inforation availabl- is exceedingly plentiful.The references listed in this Guide serve only as an introduction to a vast amount of documentation on this subject. STED READINGS - RECENT LITERATURE Am -ican Documentation, published quarterly by American S ciety f Inforination Science (formerly American Documentation Insti-

tute ),1140 Connecticut Avenue, N. W., Suite 804, Washington, a C., 20036 (published in Baltir_ ore, Maryland).

Cornputer , special issue op microfilm, No. 195, June 11,1970. IMC Journal, International Micrographic Congress, 13388 Hammons Avenue, Saratoga, California -95070. Jourial of Microgr_aLp_hs, a bi- lonthly journal published by the

National Microfilm Asso iation, Suite 1101, 8728 Colesvi_e Road, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910. icrofiche Foundation Newsletter, published three timesa year by Microfiche Foundation, Amsterdam Rotterdm Bank, (Dude Delft, Delft, The Netherlands; Editors: Miss A. deBruin and Mrs. C. Sobey. Mic ograpl_lic Weekly, a n ws sheet published by Technical Information,

Inc., 6331 Hollywood Blvd., Los Angeles, California 90028. _icx_L-s_gr!Thics News a d Views, Box 2642, Palos Ve des Peninsula, California 90274. The Na ional Micro-News, predecessor of the Journal of Microra.hics, National Microfilm Associat. n, Annapolis, Maryland. National ReprgiLt. hic Cp-itre for DocurnenLation, Evaluation Reports, The Hatfield Polytechnic, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, England. NR d Bulletin, published by The National Reprographic Centre for Documentation, The Hatfield Polytechnic, Hatfield, Hertfo d- shire, England. Navy Managfiri nt Review, issue of une 1970 regardinglicro- forms and their use.

27 P1 n and Print, May 1971, specia_ issue relatingto microfilm. Editorial offices, 10116 Franklin Ave., Franklin Park, Illinois60131, Proceedings of the Annual konventions of theNational Microfilm Association, P.O. B x 386, Annapolis, Maryland 21404. Praceedingj_ of th, Annual Meetings of the AmericanSociety for Infor-

mation Science, 1140 Connectic It Ave., N.W., Suite 804, Washington, a C.20036.LC No. 64-8303. Publications of the International Microfiche Centre, Delft,The Netherlands.

Adern, L L , "The Queen's University ofBelfast Photog _aphic Unit", Microdoc, Vol. 9, No. 3,1970. Adern, L. L., "John Dancer, Father of Microfilming , Re rodction, Vol. 6, No.1, January 1969. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratos, "Maintenance Training Media--an Ann tated Bibliography", byHorace H. Valverde, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio,May 196 AD 673-371. Aerospace Medical Research Laboratories,"Learner-Centered Instruction", by Horace H. Valverde,Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, July 1968. AD 846-721. American Association of JuniorColleges, "A Research Project to Determine the Student Acceptability andLearning Effectiveness of Microform Collectios in Community Colleges", first report June 1970 by Louise GIles, Cont_ actOEC-0-9-180260-3703 (095). Amer,can Library Association,Library Technology Reports: croform Readers for Lib a ies,b- R. A. Morgan Company, May 1970,

28 Arg- rts, P. A., "Muliplant Microdata Sy_ - Recordb Maenent Quartej -,Vol. 3, No. 2, April 1969. Association of Research Libraries,'Determination of User Needsand Future Requirements fora Systems Approach to Microforrr

Technology" by Donald C. Holmes.Washington, D.C., July 1969.(Contract 0-.2C-0-8-080789-4612).ERIC ED 029-168. Avedon, D. M., "Transmis-ionof Information- New Networks", pçial Librariesr, Vol. 61,No. 3, March 1970. Baker, G. G., "Survey andReport on Microfilm Applicationsin the Motor Indus _y", G. G. BakerMicrofilm Consultant, March 1969, London. Ballou, Hubbard W., Guideto Mlcrore.roduction Esnient,National Microfilm Association, P.O.Box 386, Annapolis, Maryland 21404, 1968.LC No: 63-13880. BarreW., "Criteria fora 105mm Engineering Micrographics Syst_m", Re. roduction Methodsfor_Busijdustr Vol. 8, No. 5, May 1968. Bernhardt, H. I, "A Reporton the Role of Microforrns in theUniversity of Pittsburgh Librar es",The Engineering Library,University of Pittsburgh, 1970. Blundell, B., "A Personal Mic-ile", 17-111_q_Elly,1111.2.g-iVol. No. 6, March 1969. Bourne, Charles P.Methods of InformationHandling. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1966.LC No. 63-20628. Cochran, Milton, "CreativeTeaching w th Microfilm",American Vocational Journal, XLI,Septeb 1966, 26-7.

29 Commission on In-structional Technology,Committee on Education and Labor, U.S. House ofRepresentatives, "A Reportto t President and the Congress To Improve Learning",March 1970.Government Printing Office,Washington, D.C.20402. Committee on Scientific andTechnical Inforation, Direct ry Federalpprted Informalon An Ce ters, Clearing- house for Federal Scientificand Technical Infor lation,U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington,D.C., January 1970, PB 189-300, LC No. 73-606266. Crow, J. E., "Microforms andTechnical Information",Journal of Chemical Doc tion, Vol. 8, No. 4,November 1968. Defense Documentation Center,Defense Supply Agency, "Microfiche Viewing Equipment" by RonaldF. Gordon. CameronStation, Alexandria, Virginia 22314,March 1970.DDC-TR -70-1. AD 701-600. Defense Documentation Center,Defense Supply Agenry, "Coputer- Outp t-Microfilm (COM)Activities and Experiencesat the Defense Documentation Cent- I by Samuel E. Blumberg. Cameron Station, Alexandria,Virginia 22314, July 1970. DDC-TR-70-2. AD 708-600. D fense Docu- entation Center,Defense Supply Agency, "ABibliography on Microfiche, Mirrofl1n and Related.quipment", Vol.1, USA, DDC Alexandria, Virginia,l98. AD 675-300. Defens- Documentation Center,Defense Supply Agency, "16mmMicro- film Viewing Equipment Guide"Cameron Station, Alexandria, Virginia 22314, January1971.DDC-TR-71-1. AD 718-000. Down, M. L., "Internationally CentralisedData Processing Using Microfilm and Xerography",Microdoc, Vol. 8, No. 4,1969.

30 Ex ibe rt, R. S., e Di rectory", Information arRecords Management, Vol. No.5, June/July 1968. German Draft Standard DIN 1905 "Microfilm Technque, Filming of Documents: Recording of Documents, bothHandwr-tten and Printed, on 35mm or 16mm Film forDocumentation, Library, and Archives", Re tR-c_2gp-_Ide, Vol.10, No.5, May 1970. Harmon, G. H."Info- mation Systems: New Pa tners" ecial Libraries, Vol. 61, No. 3, March 1970. Harmon, G. H., "Microfilm Combined wIthComputer for Information Handling", Co a ion, Vol.17, No. 11, November 1968. Harrison, N. K., l'EVR; a New Audio-VisualMedium", The British

Journal of 1112.t2g1--1 , Vol. 116, No. 5660,10 January 1969. Hawken W. R., "Microform Standardisation;the Problem of Research Mate ials and a Proposed Solution",NMA Journal, Vol. 2, No,1,Fall 1968.

Hawken, W. R., Copying Methods Manual, AmericanLibrary Associ- ation, Chicago, August 1966. LIPPublications No. 11,LC No. 66-25095. Hawken, W. R., Production ofMicroforrns, Vol.5, Part I,of the

series: The State of the Librar Art,R. R. Shaw, Ed., Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NewJersey, 1960. Hertfordshire County Council, Microtexts as Media for Publication: The Pa ers and Discussion ofa Syniposium Held at Hatfield Technical Collegeon the 10th November 1959.Hatfield, Herts., England, 1960. J skowsky, J., "The MicrographicReprodu ion Chain: Resolution- Modulation-Legibility", Reprorhie, V1.10, No. 5, May 1970. 40

31 Koch, H., "Reprography Serv ce"Rep_rographie, Vol.10, No. 4, April 1970.(Description of reprographic services of the Reprographic Centre in F ankfurt/Main.) Lee, Th-mas, Current Trends in MicroformUsbSecondarSchools, Mona Shore Schools, Muskegon,iichigan, 1969, undercon- tract with U.S. Department of Health! Educationand Welfare. Lenneberg, H., "Problems in the Int,rnationalExchange of Microfilm", Fonts Ais Musicae, Vol.15, Nos. 2-3, May-December 1968. Lewis, C. M. and W. H. Offenhauser, crorecordin --Industrial and Library Applications, Interscience Publi hers,New 1956.

Lewis, R. 11V, "User's Reaction to Mic ofiche;a Preliminary Study" Collegand_Research Libraries, Vol. 31, No.7, July 1970. Luther, F., "The Language of Lilliput;A Thesaurus for Users of

Microfilr- ' The _Librar u nal, LXXXVI, March 1,1961- The Problem and Preparation forMicrofilming; July 1961--The Microformat; October 1,1961--Production of Microfilm; November 1,1961Econonlics of Microfilming;LXXXVII, January 1,1962Equipment; Ail= rch 1,1962--Glossary and Index. Luther, F., Microfhxx A Hstor1839-1900, Naional Microfilth Association, Annapolis; Maryland, 1959. McGrane, C. B."Micropublishing for a Worldwide Libra", Plan and PrInt, Vol. N42, No. 4, April 1969. 3M Company, Microfilm and the SchoolLibrar Backglound for

School Librarians. Minneaoo:is, The 3MCo., 1967. Maloney, Roy T.,Portable ovisual S stems, California, Lederer Street and Zeuss Co., Inc.,1966. Markle J., "COM in Use", Business Gra hics, Vol.4, No. 5, May 1970.

32 Martyn, A. W., "Ma ching the Microform to the A1lication", paper given at Microform International Seminar, June 1970.Business Systerns, p.8.

Mueller-Saala, H., "Microfilm in Use" translated from the German- 'Mikrofilm i m Einsatz--oder der Versuch') Repro raphie, Vol.10, No. 7, July 1970.

Muller, H. E., "Microfilm Duplication with Ozalid Duplication Films", (from th- Geran) ReproKraphie, Vol. 9, No.1, January 1969. National Microfilm Association, Glossar,, of Microyp-a hics, NMA, Suite 1101, 8728 Colesville Road, Silver Spring, iviaryland 20910. Nelson, C. E., "Micro-imaging Materials", Re roduction Methods for Bu iness and Industr_y, Vol. 8, No. 5, May 1968. Nelson, C. E., McrofilmTechnolgyEng_iering and Related Fields,

New ,ork, McGraw Hill Book Co., 1964.

Nelson, C. E., Microfilm Technologi, New York, McGlaw Hill Book Co., 1965.LC No. 64-22 198. Nelson, C. E., "icrofilm: Today and T_orrow ,Business Systems and Equipment, August 1970. Plumb, P. W., Editor, "The Economics of Microfilming andDocument Reproduction' papers given at seminars held by the Microfilm Association of Great Britain, Cambridge, 27 September and Edinburgh, 8 November 1968.

Plumb, P. W., "Microphotography and the Open Universi icrodoc, Vol. 7, No. 4,1968. Princeton Mic rofilm Corporation, The Microfilm TechyPrimer on Scholarly Journals, Pr nceton, New Jersey, September 1969. Prosch, H. von, "A Short Introduction to Photography andMicrofilm Techniques" from German) Repror Vol. 9, No. 2,1969. .4 ,

33 Ray, S. R., "Prospects and Problems in Designing Image Oriented Information Systems", Proce_f_tdiag-91tjle_1967 Cl]nicon Library

Applications and Data Processin , edited by D. E. Carroll, University of Illinois,1967. Rome Air Development Ce ter, Griffiss AFB, Nev York,"A Summary of the State-of-the-Art in Microfilm DocumentStorage and Retrieval Systems", Technical Report RADC-TR- 7-496 (Al 820-127) Rosam, G. H. M."An Introduction to Microfilm Ma-a eent in Action, Vol.1, No.12, September 1970. Rubin, Jack, Internatiop_p_d_ Directory of Mic rgap1ncEquprnet, International Micrographic Congress, -13388 HamrnonsAve., Saratoga, California 95070, 1967.LC No. 67-21469. Scanlai, J. F. and T C Nanney, The ActiveUses of Microfilm, a paperback book by Wolf Business Publications,Inc., April 1962. Schrock, Ruth, "Microfiche Readers andReader-Pi inters", Information Research Center, Battelle Me 1 Institute, Columb Lab- orat -ies, 505 King Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43201. Silkiner, M. D., "Revising Microfilm Documents;Automated Microfilm Aperture Card Updating System (AMACUS )"Plan and Print, Vol. N41, No. 11, November 1968. Skipp-r, J. E., Editor, "Photoduplicationin Libraries", specia of LiliaLy_2'xfa, Vol. 8, No. 3,January 1960.

Smedley, J., "Multiple Copy Jungle", Data SyLs_rris,Augu 1970. S fthe, T. 0., "COM: Linking Speed withSpeed"Journal of S -tes Mat_-19A_e_i7rient, June 1970. Starker, L. N. and JH. Kuney, "Microfilm Cost", Chemicaland Engineering News, Vol. 45, No. 53,18 December 1967. Stevens, C. W., Micro h toa Photora t Extrerne R solution, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 196 7 ..,13 34 Stewart, J. and D. Hickey, ReadinDevices for Micro-Irni,ges, V-1, 5, art 2 of the series The State Art, R. R. Shaw, Ed., Rutgers University Press, NewBrunswick, New Jersey, 1960. System Development Corporation,"Microfilm and InformationRetrieval", by Arthur Teplitz.Santa Monica, California,October 1968. AD 680-111.

Tan, N., "Microphotographs and lnformaton Retrieval", History of Microforms in Japanese.Dokumentesyon Icenkyll, Vol. 20, No. 3, March 1970. Talman, 3. J., "T enty-two Yearsof the Microfilm NewspaperProject", The Canadian Library,Vol. 25, No. Z, September-October1968. Tate, Vernon D.ar d David R. Wolf, "A Buyer's Guide forMicrofilm Reader Evaluation", NationalMicrofilm Association, Annapolis, Maryland, May 1968. Tate, Vernon D. aid David R.Wolf, "A Survey of MicroficheReaders and Reader-Printers CurrentlyManufactured in the United States", National MicrofilmAssociation, Annapolis,Maryland. May 1968.

Ten Eyck, H., GI or _o_Lir="jUsedin Microroduction, rev. ed- National Microfilm Association,Annapolis, Maryland, April 1962. Tyler, A., ' Units Shrinking the PaperBurden Facing Conputer Us s", Office Equi ment andMethods, Vol. 16, No.1, January 1970. Army Material Command,"Report on Non-ImpactPrinting Projects NIPP)" by T. G.Doran, January 1968. AD 671-611.

35 University of Denver, "An Investigation of the Characteristics of Ultra fiche and Its Application to Colleges and Universities", interim report by James P. Kottenstette, DU-DRI, Denver, Colorado 80210, 1969.(Contract OEC-0-8-080826-46481. ERIC ED 032-447. Univers ty of Denver, Microform Utilization: The Acadeic Librar Envronmenf, Alta Morrison, Editor, DU-DR1, Denver, Colorado, April 1971.Report of a conference in Denver, 7-9 December 1970, U_tiversity of Denver, "An Investigation of the Environment for Educa- tional Microform Utilization.Phase 1,Student Use of Class- room Microform in Support of a Survey Course", by Robert Grausnick and James Kottenstet. te, Denvei, Colorado, DU-DRI, April 1971. University of Denver, "An Investigation of the 2nvironment for Educa- tional MIcroform Utilization.Phase II, Student Use of Class- room Microform in Support of a Content Course", by James Lottenstette and K. Anne Dailey, Denver, Colorado, DU- DRI, Apiil 1971.

Veaner, Allen B., The Technicalvaluation o _icroublications: A Handbook for Librarians, prepared for LTP, American Libra_ y Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1970. Veaner, Allen B., "Mi.-roreproduction and Micropublication Technical

Standards; What they Mean to You, the UserChoice, V-1.5, No. 7, September 1968. Veaner, Allen B., "Check List CritL. ia for Evaluation ofa Micro- publicatiiProjectMicrodoc, Vol. 7, No. 4,1968.

Veaner, Allen B,, "The Crisis in Micropublication", Choice, Vol. 5, No. 4, June 1968. Verry, H. R. and Gordon H.Wright, Microcopyig Methods,London, The Focal Press, 1967.

Weber, J. R., -ofilm Makes it Easierto ", Business Auton_a- tion (Internatiolal Edition), V1.l 5, No. 10, October 1968 Weilbach, E."Microfilm versus ConventionalFiling: A Comparison of Costs", Inter ational Bsiness E uip-nentVol.7, No. 4, April 1970. V ,s inghouse Lea.rning Corporatin, "Analysis and Approach to the Development of an Adv-ncedMultimedia Instructional System" by William E. Rhode,et al., BladensLurg, Maryland. Contract F33615-69-C-1728.AFHRL-TR-69-30. AD 715-329, AD 715-330. Williams, B. J. S., ThsaurusofMicroform Terms, National _prographic Centre forDocumentation, 1969 SBN 85267-0079. Williams, B. J. S."An Introduction to Microfilm",paper given at

Microform InternationalSer,n- June 1970,13_..tis P.2. Williams, B. J. S., "MicrofilmTechniques, Applications andSystems", Visual, Vol. 6, No. 4,1968. Williams, B. J. S., "RecentDevelop- ents in MicroformSystems", The Information Scientist,March 1969 Williams, B. 3. S., "Observationson Mic °records Systems and the rogramme of the NRCd", Society ofUniversity Cartogiers Vol. 3, No.1, December 1968. Air Development Center,"Mcrofi1m Aperture CardSystem", y T. H. Korte, et al., Wright-PattersonAir Force Base, Ohio, Junc: 1960. WADCTR 59-746. AD 232-960. 4 k., 37 Wright, G. H., 'Microrecurdingas a Medium for Original Publication: Computers in Visual Communication", SIAD/Sgraphersi ComputelAyurn_ProcQsAiLim., London, Society of Industrial Artists and Designers, 1969. "Air Force Microfilming; Work Load Increases300-500 Projections a Month", Plan a d Print, N41, No.12, December 1968. "British Standard- On Microfilm (VSMF)",ASLIB P -edin- Vol. 21, 3, March 1969. "ERIC Issues Five Million Microfi-,he",news tem.Inform_ation. Retrieval and Lib =aAutomation Letter, Vol. 4, No. 10, March 1969. "Guide Lines of Job Descriptions for theMicrographics Industry" NMA Journal, Vol. No.1,Fall 1968. "1969 Information SourceDirecty; Microform Svstems and Supplies", Data SystemS News, Vol. 9, No. 17,December 1968. "The Many Images of Microfil", Data Systems News, May 1970. (Directory of equipment rnanufac, "Micro-image Catalog; MagnifilesLocate Catalog by Reduced Iage Lithography", Plan and Print, N41,December 1968. Microfilm Helps Computer Real.4e Capability", DELtaems News, March 1969. "Mic rofilm Equipment from Overseas",Librar and Information Bulletin, Vol.1, No. 6,1968. "National Microtilm Associations",a listing of microfilm associations throughout the world, I fomation Retrieval and Libraro- mation Letter, Vol. 4, No. 8,January 1969.

38 "The New Y'rk Timeson °fib Choice, Vol.5, No 10, December 1968. "UMF and the Future", Editorial.Saturda- Review 9 April 1969.

39 CHAPTER II MICROFORMS IA TRAININGAPPLICATIONS

An examination of the applicationsof microformin botl- indus t -ial and educational settings leadsto the conch sion that the microform

medium has been fundamentallya display mechanism_ substituting for the _,,riginal form3f the information presented. Asa display device it has certain unique and desirablecharacteristics, most of whichcenter around its capability for high density,low cost, and easily packaged dissemination of information.In this sectioiA, the capabilitiesfor alternate presentations with microformin a direct (non-resource) instructional mode are developed.This discussion is developedin

particular for _ 'litary training applications. A. Military Train 1. introduction The considerations o ilitary t_ aining program must t-ke into account both the deliberationsof general educationalprograi_ and those objectives peculiarto the military program and its special constraints and needs.These are apecified in the variousmilitar training handbooks andmay be summarized under the followingheadings: I. The qualitative requiree_ ts of e_ch plp:n of instruction. These are the specific taskobjectives of each trainingsituation. 2. The special needs ofa heterogeneous training population. In addition to attention to thewide variety in the indi -idualbackgrounds of trainees, instructionm -t be supplied in initial training,cross- training, and recycled trainingmodes. 3. The minimization of costbenefit ratio for preparationand delivery of instruction.To this is addeda requirement for ease of update and correction, flexibilityof use,. 7piroblems of materialstorage and transmission, etc.

40 49 4.Modification of instruction according to constraints o particular training environment g classroom or group sessions, field and laboratory applications, individual learning for remote areas, availability of trained instructors, etc.and further must be adaptable to the balance of the trainees proeram and military obligations,such as squadron duties, etc. In summary, there exists in the field of military traithng number of important and continuing needs which must be superimposed on a background of sound educational psychology. Microform Medium and Military Trainins It was out of such needs as these that some tIme during World War II a discipline which became known as human engineering developed. Human engineering is particularly concernc.d with ways of designing machines, operations, and work environments so that they match human capacities and limitations.It is concerned with the engineering of machines for human use and the engineering of buman tasks for operating machines. Although directed toward this special learning application, aLquisition of a motor skill, thc body of military training lit rature is highly influenced by the human engineering approach, as is most educational literature originating during and after this period. As such, it has contributed much practical information about training instrumen- tation, but also has originated a scie ce of human learning. The introduction of the microform media into the plamiing and delivery of training presents a very special application of this educational approach in which man-machine interaction becomes a factor not only in the sense of teaching perception-motor performance, a common military objective, but also in the verymethod by which such training is delivered.The usefulmss of a high density film card (fiche)

-41 with its ability to reproduce theequivalent of 60-3000pages,depending upon reduction ratio, in a compact readableform appears to begener- ally accepted ih applicationsinvolving res -urce materials,when r-dor access to the filmedinforiation is an importantuser consideration. This form of mIcroirnagery isvas ly superior to the roll form for instructional applications becauscof the serial characteristicsin thc roll film imagery.- However, before pursuing theapplicability of the microfiche presentation ina more direct training situation, the basic Lu anengineering question as posed by Smithand Smith (1966) had fist to be paraphrased for thispurpose: Can a machine of certain design be operated efficientlyin an instr ctional milieu bya human individual, or does itechnical design interiee with the normal patterr of human learning 7Experimental studies have been devisedto respond to this question.In One such study, Yrittenstette (1969)2dete mined in a reading experient that there areno fundamental physical or psycho- logical barriers to theutilization of microforms via Inicroficheand viewer in the communcaiorof narrative infoi-nation thatstudents custo__ arily encounter ir hardcopy.Studies such as the Baldwinand Bailey (1970)3 on performanceevaluation of techn cal trainingwith microfiche vs, hardcopysubstantiate these findings andadd to the accumulating experimental datawhich had first to be examinedbefore microform educational applicationscould be expanded fromtheir role as substitution for hardcopy to theirroutine utilization asa new communication medium.Grausnick aad Kottenstette (1970)4replicated the Bald- in and Bailey studyin order to establish boththe reproducibility of their results ina different user environment. (LowryAir Force Base) and to estabE.sh the reliabilityof the instruments they develped

_otnotes refer to the bibliographyat the erxd of the chapter. tools for future mic rofiche evaluations.[See "A formance Evalu- ation: Microfiche v- -sus Ha-dcopy"AFHRL-TR -71-42.1 Having accepted tl e mic roform mediumas a potential- vehicle for primary instructioal materials, thessociated ques of preparing the software Andintrodu mg the ha'- 1waresoftwarepack

age into the trainii g programs be Onappropriate isstios ti disc 5 B. Tr 'n Software 1. nghoi The preparation of instructionalmaterials must follow tho pr nciples of learning applicable to instructionalcontent and objectives, student nc ds, and trainingenvironment. A study of learning theo as appropriate for the authors of filmedmaterials as it is for the writers of text, lecturers, and otherpaicipants in teaching-le rning strategy, and in fact bcomes more important as the potential number of presentation options isincreased, as is thecase with microfiche, No single theory or principle islikely to be adequate for alltraining applications, but dependableinstructionri_l procedures for achieving specific obj etivesare needed so that application ofa variety of instructional methods is riot haphazard,but is based upon careful matchingof specific procedures with ide tifiedobjectives.Useful summaries of learning theoriesare found in Stephens (1956) and Sith and Smith (1966). Geneva' learning theories tend by theirvery nature to make little allowance for the highlyspecialized nature of human behavior organization.The human factors approachto training research, refe-- ed to earlieras human engineering, considers learningto be deterined by the nature of the behavingindividual as well as lo!, the design of the learning situations.Continuous feedback from 1ie learler into the ongo_ng tra flingprocess has been redefined du ing the last few years as "closed loop" or "behavioral cyberneti In order Lo Opti- mize information flow, a strategy must be developed forsubject matter, student diff rences and circumstances with attentionto what information, how much, how com lex and what communicationprocess is used. Microfice Mate 'als Translated into education objectives, stimulus-respons__theories of ed c tion lead to siple, stable, functional relationshipsin which the pu p se of instruction i_- to eLtablish relationshipsso that the pre- sentatinn of a stimulus results in a desiredresponse,hich is then reinforced, generalized upon, and discriminatedbeten or refined. Gest_ It therNries emphasize the value of presentationof new nforation, not in easily handled small st__ps, but asa simplified large and_ean- ingful whole so that as specific bits of informationare presented, they are assiriiilated into the greater information unit.Further, more lati- tude for student input and b anching to materialof interest to him is per -litted, which although indirect at times, contributes ultimately to the 1 arning objectives.The human engineering experimentscaut on instructors to pay sufficient attention to the indi-ridualtrainee by giving him an opportunity for m:nediate andcontinuous feedback into the learning operation.Obviously, this is best handled through learning simulators for motor performance objectives,but the theory can be incorporated into instructional materialsas well by providing uncom- plicated alternatives for individual trainees -hichnonetheless lead them to desir d outcomes.Finally, educators advise instructors to consider well the objectives oft- ining and the maturity of the trainee when composing instructional materials accordingto any of these theories.The microfiche pr tation can serve In each of these areas if the following attributes of the filmare incorporated in the fiche de ign as appropriate: 1. It presents frame by frame informationunits with question- responsor optional reading alternatives until generalitiesare finally induced by the ace ulation of examples and bits ofinformation. 2. The fichc film card, with its capabilityfor presenting strategically positioned associated informationin te tabular, and graphical form, aids in establishinga high level of student contact by allowing the trainee, to deal wIthnew infon --tion both verbally and non- v _13ally in an integrated way. 3. Each segment can contain sufficientrit-terial to illustrate and elucidate the central theme, from themost basic and elementary _o quite advanced exemplars, the eby accommodatingmany levels of sophistication. 4. Each central conceptcan be approached from several di ons: each converging on the conc__,and yet broadening the Lriformation base for further acquisition ofconcepts. 5. The -tudent can_rk inductively by taking specifics and moving toward general concepts (asin I) but the specificsare obtained by breaking concepts and principles intolofrical components and sh-ng the relationship of the partsto the 6. Each segment att_mpts to integratethe preceding segrnen to enable the student to combine the basicconcepts to obtain other, more remote conclus ons.The segments are interrelatedin a specific manner to underscore the gestalt obtained in thespecific area and to indicate the contribution of tht concept to other areas. 7 Recognizable terminal points fGr eachsegment are identified and established, and the materialis Lroken dcwn into skill levelsso

45 that the trainee can diagnose hisAl areas of deficiencv and enter and leave subject matter at the level of his own choice, skipping known material, concentrating on the unknown, and proceeding at hiso- pace where possible. 8. The information units are designed with internallysuppor and integ ated access tools!i.e., editorial comment, cross referencing, associated relevant material, etc. 9. Each unit can be quickly updated and easilyty -dified to include particular or specialized approaches toa given concept. F rmatting.The potential of the microformas an instructional media can be achieved through forn atting of microfiche.It is through formatting that microform can positively contributeto educational technology.The concept operativ_ in the selection ofa fiche forl at can be seen if the training n aterialsare viewed, either as already existing, or alternativelyas being under development.Format- ting of existin:2: training materials should be approachodthrough an analysis of the t aining objective, and, by working backwards,the essential inf_r_--ation to achieve that object.Pe can be identified as to enr-ounter sequence and re ationship to other types of supportingdocu- mentation.For example, to create a format for the instruction of trouble-shooting procedure for a specific item of eleconicequipment, it might be appropl-iate to begina fiche sequenceith a description of faultsa list of symptoms, a photograph of the appropriate sub- system, instrUction for dis-assembly, a set of diagnostic procedures, and a schem tic diagram. Associated materials mightinclude a parts list, safety pr cedures, tools and test equipmentrequired, circuit

46 performanceparame --rs and theory ofope ations.The relationships that are postgated are: 1.Symptoms andtheory. 2.Dis assemblysafety, _nd tools. Diagnosticprocedures, andtest equipment. 4. Schematic andcircuit performanceparameters. Schematic andparts lists. A comnati-n of vertical (columna ation of theouble- ShOotillelerneiLs, toge with t horizontal(row) tion of related information lements coule bean extre rTy effectivefiche format.The fiche should include theappropriate redundancy,examples and explanationif these materials contribute to thecompleteness of the desired commuliicatiorl. This strategy can be developed in thefollowir, way.The para-ters vvhich are keyed to thenature of the istructionai informa-- don can be manipulat dco identify systematicdifferences in the film format. Theseparameters are: Content of the Material ILself.Should additionsor deletions be made, or should the originalmaterial be heldintact for microform presentation? b.Film Input.Should the originalcopy of the materal be filmed or shouldthe material becomposed or programmed (reorganized internallyin each frame)differently for greater effectiveness?

47 Directional Format.Should the presea__n be organized horizontally, vertically,or mapped? d. image Arrange __ent.Should the film images be presented sequentially or otherwise related for greatereffectiveness ? If the reduction ratio, image polarity, filmsize, and unitization considerations are ignored, thena matrix ot for ___tting possibilities emerges as a result of the va_ous combinations of parameters. The table below summarizes these formatpossibilities and theyare dia- grammed in Figure 1.

Table I.Parameters for Mieric ormnf Parameters Considered A Content of Material No Change Changes FIlm Input Fixed Programmed Directional Format Horizontal Vertical iD Material Arrangement Sequential Related

In structuriiig a fiche presentatiin, the lesson designer makes several decisions with respect tosequencing instruction.After deciding in what order to presentconcepts and subconcepts of the subject matter, he decides whether theseconcepts are to be presentedas rules or as examples for whichtrainees are led to the guided discove-y of rules, and finallya sequence is determined for permittingan individual to test himself and to choosealternative sequencing--more and diffe ent explanation, explicit testing,self motivated andmore unstructured reading.According to the results of Gagne andBrown (1961) and Krumboltz andYabroff (1965) thejewas no significant differ- ence ii achievement attributable to inductive anddeductive learning 57 48 Hj, > (TO)

Figure 1 MICROFICHESize and Unifl FORMATS ignorin Reduction Ratio, Polarity, Film 2.1. Forrnat Key*AZ,Al, H&lBi, Cl,CI., DiD1 PresentationThis is the Standard by Standard COSATI COSATI pres,entation. Desc ripti on format, but material has erely copying onto been altered by M... making editori 1 changes (material reworked before filming). . 4.3. AZ,Al B2., BZ Cl,Cl Di presentation,programmedMaterial hachas to ornotbeen che been total appear on the screen ineditorialized for a partic.. altered editorialiy, material is set-up for a more meaningful way.1..,ut the information has comn unication imp additicn,Eachbeen 5. Al, Bi, C2, Di Thejudiciousthesequences only material change placement may has here beenbe programmedof alike fromprogrammed the Standardsegments toCOASTI or parts. or in variableappear infashion. a rneaningiul way through Single presentationslar purpose, and, in presentation is that the or entire 6. A2, Bl, 02 Dl presentation.)areas,(SinceThematerial material and editlg is theposted isrequires like, presented to can the befiche used re-printing, selection of vertically and has been edited in a vertical to ensure a more readable sequence. type styles, sizes, image (No other changes)for some screen. purpose. 8.7. A2,Al, B2, B2 C2 DiD1 imagestationVertical insofar or presentation entire as the actual that sequences programmed, alike., has beep progr,-..mmedmaterial being viewed for most suit,is concerned. ole in variable fashion. Single presen- * See Table I 02, presentationshasMaterial been programmed has arebeen sequenced editorialized to appear in a meaningful vertically. for a particular purposeway andon the the screen; material. the 9. FormatAlt BIKey Cl, D2 Here the material is presented sequentiallyDescription. in moreredundancies,: than a single are row separated is used for the from the main text sequence. a horizontal fashion,onto but an adjacent Examples, illustrations, row, and . 10. Al, C.2 1)2 columnThisistheeach presentation item presentationsuch for to theitem its reference ofis textplacedis by sequence. :sequential in a vertical fashion, inon the therow, main adjacent with text.: auxiliaryExamples, row in the material columnillustrations, by The effect of this redundanciesusing are more than one column. which relates arrangement sep- 11. Al, CI, D2 Thearatedinrelated the sequence main fromfrom to thetext. the theof mainre,ain materialgrapMcs text (Presentation by column, text onto an adjacent column,-in the row. which relateson the ficheredundancies, is horizontal., and examplar auxiliary material by row.) the item to its reference each such itemThe being main text is materials which sep- 12, Al, BZ, C2. DZ presentedThematerialforappear sequence both,: ofl inis oneinprogrammed of order columnmaterial to . an adjacent row (related to the ensure a most meaningful presentation.while illustrationson thefor and fichethe main is vertical. text, for The the main text by column). auxiliary material, main text is The input or A2, BI, Cl, 1)2 .involved,placementInbyappear this row.so thatformat,in The anof materialadjacent material both forcolumn which a body of related materials iseditorial changes and is programmed to develop maximum communication. relates this material major material changes other additional matethe riai,smost meaningful to the main text are horizontalthe main text.mode, with the The main text is reworked related materials falling and appears sequentially presented supplementing in other rows which in a . thisauxiliaryrelate presentation to materialthe main appearing assumes a textgrid, by with the maincolumn text in which they vertically.. running horizontally,appear. and The material in . 14. FormatAZ. BZKey Cl, DZ To fully exploit the medium's capacity Description materials.materialsbutrials,columns the changessingle onand the imagerows and screen, usedadditions, presentation forto relate the and main is This presentation incorporates, main text andprogrammed supplementary input. programmed for best placementtextto and relate for of materialsthe supplementary not only horizontal sequence of mate- materials, are 15. A2.B1, CZ, DZ. .materialsthemainrials, mainfhis text form_develops verticaltextare is placedbysequenced all by the column rather sequence of materialrow. placement, on adjacent columns,This form relating has editorial supplementary and same components as No. 13, except that the than by row and the supplementary .more than one co1umr major changes in mati items to 16., A2, Z, C2 D2 presentation.madeThistosented present andformat verticallymajor sequence follows changes rather theof material. in than -±e horizontally.material The main text falls pattern of No. 14, except that the material on a column which is bounded by supple- have been incorporated Editorial changes have been into the is pr fallingdegreeplaced-mentaryous placement cf.on materials communicationthe borders of materialsrelated of the from to mainwithin the the main single Here, too, the input has been .text. comp:;site of single images and those p textogram.ined by the rows for the.mostin whichimage advantage-they areas to exploit the greatest are atcgies uti_izing example before rule, and rule and then example, respectivelyThe system of foi mat d antitiation presented in Ficture can then be applied to t -ted r lationsnips as postulatedn the ample on page 47: instructional param-ters ide -itified onpage 47 and the learning guid lines referred to in this chapter. Form.1 EampieThe nature of the fiche medium, with its capability for display of information in both lateral and longitudinal dir ctions, presents alternatives to the auth-instructor which are in addition to the options available to the writer of workbook materials. This two-dimensional capability for adjacentl material requires decisions rega ding identification of instructionalpurpose and content and the org- nization of such materials to take advantage ofthe increased opportunity for strategic separation from straightmain text information For most applications some basic expository inform-tion caribeidentI- fied as essential for the mastery of specific objectives.As one reads through most texts, other informationappears to be fothe purpose of elucidation-- such materIalr may be in the form of e;camples,e. g. numerical or case history, or graphical illustrations,or re--xplanations with reviewd references for review.Other in _tion classes may be non-essential to the mastery of specific objectivesbut pr vide relevant topical inform-tion for the student whose personalinterest needs are in excess of his training objectives. A fiche format developed to motIvate, interest, and instruct the average and the notso average student alike is illustrated in Figure 2.This design corresponds to combinations AZ, Bl, Cl, D2; Number 13 in Figure I.The main line text hel:e appears as the third row (h.orizontal) of the fiche film andis read from left to right.Other formats could show material located by column for so--what easier tracking on the fiche viewer. The h-.- z ntal path sho-:n here wIth the COSATI standard fiche takes advantage 82 lig1=ZONOWIINEMMganer riche No. 1 ComputerC 3mponents Basic Computer Operation Study Guide 1 System Components, Central Study Guide & Workbook 3AB ROS530-ii110 (Part 1) Processing Unit, Main Pram,: Storage

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LOAD -I WORKOOKAND REVIEWPROBLEMS I 5 --,

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OUTLINE

. 1 4 6 1 7 10 11

Figure Z. An Example of FicheFormatting to Enhance Instructional Communication

54 of the 12 the row ascorn -ed to theL7) or 6 frame vertical capability.Directly above the mainline text are located optional readings in theform of examples andillustrati ',nsas described earlier theta _ee who is not certain of hisgrasp of the material. He is informed ol the avail bility ofst, h material by properlyplaced 'Pnes and arrows in his _ ain text, and heelects to useor no,: use this ad ed feature Directly below themain line text andassociated with each of the f -ames is selected roleant materials non-essentialto the objecti% _s but of interest, to themore motivated student,and motivating the casually interestedst ident. He issimilarly informed ofthe presence of this mat_ ial bylines andarrows. There are twoc her information categoriusrequired by thetrainee to utilize hismaterials efficiently:(1) an outline ofcontent and (2) workbookarid revie problems to test hismast ,ry of conceptsand skills.The first -f these, the outline, is shown along the fifthor bottom row of the fiche.The student scans this row until he reaches thesubject informationof intere t to him. By moving only verticallyfrom this locationto the third row, main te.;,t, he will find theinformation describedin the outline.His workbook andreview problemsare located along the first or top row of the fi he These appear abovethe te, t explanationthey -t relate to, so that if a studentwants to check hisr athodology or to review the expl_nation needed fora pa- ticular problem, hecan encounter the relevantinformation by movingone or t To frames below the problem fra__-..e. The outline ispr_ ided as an extra studyhelp of p- rticular value to a fiche presentation it elf.This wholeconcept of vertically relating complementary materialsis to provide optionsfor individual students, to encourage thebroadening ofan information base and the integration of concepts, todiscourageunnecessary and

55 dysfunc __al ropotiti lanatio-a ni snrlag,nobis of areas deficiency with provision for self-h lp.See "MicroForm Use in a Techr cal Training 7-'ironment -- A Experiment, AFHRL-TR-73.-43- formore detail. b. Colored Mic rofiche.Almost all of the instructionalmaterials utilizing n icrofiche deve'opedto date have been in black and white, either wIth a positivE negative image.Microfiche can be developed using colorsas either background or print, and thereis developing reseal:ch to indicate thatthere is some justification,apart fron-i the pleasing quality of theuse of color, to justify the additional ense of colored fiche. The e are, in generaltwo principle uses of color: colorwhen it is intrinsic to the material,e.g., nature study, anatomyart, interior design, etc., and coloras a cue.In this latter category, color is used to dramatizeor focus attention on some importantor summary concepts.This is of particular importancewith rticrofiche since the user hasno oppo-ftunity to mark or underline hiscopy, and requires s_me designed-inmechanisms for highlighting. Arecent study on color coding'illustrates the usefulness of colorgrouping as a memory device.In this study, studentswere requir-d to memorize the namesf some of the bones in the humanskeleton.Boi es were classified and shown accordingto shapewith different colors indicating the shape classifications.Color clues given early in thememory task were shown to be of advantage in recalling theclassification.Perhaps the most importantuse of color Is the increased capability itgives for visual separation.Color detail in schematics and othertechnical graphics give increased clarity_-o the specific working part being described and to themanner in which that part fits into the whole.

65 56 s Tara r to locate and idontify Color provides interest,oree.rid con rast as well as an additional learning clue.

c. Media Mix ard Instructional Microfiche. Although the microfiche medium presents a useful instructi nal alternative whenused as a primary source of trainin, material, it may serve equally well for certain applications, as an adjuHct source of instruction. Somecur ent research in education--il technologypointsto the d sirability of fhe- audio systems, computer-marraged fiche presentations, andcomputer assisted instruction with microficheresource.The increased cost of developent and presentation of coordinated materialswithcomputer utilization influences the selection of multi-media. Many of these methods are in prototype de elopment stages,an'', although the rationale for their use is educ tionally exciting, cost benefit analysesof each these systems of instruction will pi-obabiyorece their widespread use. d. Fiche-Audio 5 sterns. An example of workin 1 sson material preparation using microfiche cards wIth audio is the workbeing done at the Lincoln Laboratory Educational TechnologyProgram. The Lincoln Trainir g System (LTS) carries lesson materialon microfiche cards containing 192 frames each of visual material andan equal number of audio frames.Each lesson frame contains four element - audio, visual, control, and lesson code. Asall monitoring compuer is said to be able to accumulate records fora whole classroom of terminals.Control information is extracted from each framepho electrically as the fraes are projetted fovieing.The rationale for the development of thisvery con-licated sound-slidesyste,n gi en ir the Quart_ _ly Technical Surmar y from Lincoln Lab,December 1970. HUse of the LTS has atleast two advantagesover use conventional materials forprogiamrn edstructi n: (1) audiopresentationand (2) a _tomaic student rnonitor- ing An audio channelpermits verb 1 instruction for those who, for whateverreason, listen better than they read.In the class with self-pacedinstruction, the instructor faces the problemof keeping track ofthe progress and problems ofn any trainees.This i6 a very real problem andsome form of computer managed instruction (CMI) is 'required.The use ofa machine like the LTS makes realtime CMI economicaland easy to achieve. " e_ rich- Inst uction.Although the LTS machine hassome of the control features ofcomputer managed instruc ion (_cord-keeping), all printedinstruction comes to thetrainee via the fiche. A well developed CMI systemsupplies a whole mosaicof learning media experiences, some of whichmight be t.cl.0 dant.CMI meets some of therequ rements of human engineeringas well as other contemporary learningexperiences by regulatingnot only content and skill level, but theinstructional mediumas well, to the learner. Computer termInalcontact with students is oftenrese ved for initial determination of suitablecourses, recorrrnndations forresources (microforms, programmedteKts, films, etc.) fordiagnosti s and for testing.The informationretrieval features of sucha system work much as the LTS control system in the record-keepingand reportng capacity. Among thereasons for select,ing the mult-media approach

5 is the recognition of the .ual literacy and sophisticationof r-ost young people.With CMI, micr fichecan be used as a substitute for hardcopy in providing convenientand imraec{iateaccess to varied resources, or it can be used inany of its instructional formatsas a primary teaching aid, ap ending upon the nature of the task, theavail- other resources, and thesophistication of thecomputer pr grammer in designing the complementarysystem. Com.uter Instruction and Mierfiche.Another alternative utilizes thintructona1 capabilities ofthe computeras as of t e microfi he.Computer assisted instruction(CAI) is w- l suited to the theories of programmedinstruction. Automatedprogrammed ilstruc- tion such as CAI facilitatesriaterial presentation andacco_ plishes the necessary switching and branching autoatically via re _iote computer consoles teletypes_lying ocess morec-ntinuity. The,dvantages of CA_ include theconvenience of learning during highlrnotit id moments, 3.more individualized approach to review or new instruction, and theadvantages of active partiipation on the the student who must makea physical response in order to continue the instructionalconvertpation.CAl has not hadunqu lified succe-showever, and researchcontinues on the suitableuse of this 'potentially powerful teachingaid. One of the biggest problemsassociated with computerpro- grammed instruction is theloading and storing ofg eat ainounts of instructional materi-1on computer memory equipment.These methods are not effi ient for compilingand reproducing exposItorymaterial exceeding one or twosentences.For individual diagnostic teaching,a great deal of the effort is involvedwith step-by-step question,response, and evaluation.Educational material oftenneeds, however, to be

549 presented with descripti -e portions to assist the student in the verbali- zation and consequent internalization of larger concepts.Present meth .ds for accomplishing this usually refer students to suggested optional textualaterials, with the attend _nt problems of search and inconvenienceAn auxiliary fiche reader can not only serve to fill this need, buL can do so many ti- _es more effi-iently than the usual reference te ts because it can make immedi-tely accessibleon a sin-le film_card examples from many Associated academic disciplines, various skill levels, and different points of view, each designed with internally supported and integrated access tools:i. e.editorial com- ments, cross-referencing, associated relevant iiaterial, etc Con- yers ly, CAI brings a desirable dimension t- microfiche informatIon units because of thq capacity for processing anticipated but incorrect responses, thereby increasing the effectiveness of prograi.ed instruction as an instrument for individualized diagnostic teaching.

60 CHAPTER III CONSIDERATIONS IN A SPECIFIC INSTRLTCTIONA L APPLICATION

This chapter considers thepracti al problemsasso_ ated with the use of instructionalmicroforms and d velopsa strategy for the successtv I introduction ofone rnicroforrr system microfich) into the training environment.The previous chapterhas considered thelinks between educational theoryand the design of filmedmaterials in order to achieve an active mecflum ofinstructi n rather thansimply a hardcopy subst tute.The theme of "addingvalue" through themicroform is also essential in .-_heimplementation, which includesa plan of delivery an3 of use.

The necessity forreading equipment, togetherwith imagery that is not eye-legible, isclearlynre demanding of theuser than his famil ar hardcopy.The succes ful introductionof microform, therefore, depend-on the creat:Dn of a system ofuse so that the value added through the microformcan be perceived by the trainee.There are three major el_mentsin the system:

1 Th plan for instructionalmaterials. 2.The plan for delivery 3.The plafor use. When these elementsare understood, then the desigand iplen-ientation of specific instructionalapplications can be developed;an outl ne is provided hereinfor such development. A. The Plan Fo tonal Materials

The commient to develop instructionalmaterials on fichemust be accompanied bya com_t__ ent to add,alue to the materialsthrough util'zation of the uniqueaspects _(:;).f the microformpresentati,..nor the endeavor will fail.This statement means t at a change in mediumfor instructional r-iaterials must b- justifiedon the bas-s of user benefits as well as administrative _ost.Chapter II has consideredsome -f the educat_ nal theory and certain strategies leadng to added value and user benefits; this section will consider the development of instu tional materials in an administrative context in orderto set the stage for specific implementation of microform ina training environment. The attractiveness o_ilizing microform as a substi ute hardcopy training materials is extr -mely dece ving when thematials' production costs are considered alone.Utilizati n costs turn the picture around because of the capital required for readingequipment in addition to operating costs.The c- -ts associated with theuse_ of hardcopy materials in the resident t-ining environment essentiallycease with the di tribution of the mat rials.When micr form is utilized, the costs really begin after distributi n of the film.This may be illustrated best through an example, drawingon the experience gained at Sheppard Air Force Base, Wichita Falls, Texas. Assume a three- eek trainingcourse, operating on two shifts, with a student toad of 1Z menper shift, 50 weeks a year.Further, assume that the Study Guides and Workbooks average 150pages per week of instruction.Approximately 1200 students wouldreceive training in a year's time and each studert would require $9 wortho printed material.(This example ignores the cost of preparing the "photoready" copy since it is alsorequi -d in microfiche production. Hardcopy, for a yea 's operations wouldcost $11,000.The cost of

* The cost of producing training materialsin hardcopy is estimated at a page, including storage and distribution, forruns of approximately 1000 copies. 71 62 providi g 1200 sets of fiche,5 fiche in a set 90pages to a fiche wi the new COSATI Standard),ould cost approximately $300in-house, and $600-$750 if producedby a commercial microflm servicc ganization.

The very favorablep oduction picture changes dramaticallywhen the c sts of the readersare consi.dered.Approximately 40 clas readers would berequ red and 7E; residential readers wouldbe necessary for a student flow of 72men.These readers wouldcost between 15 000 and $20, 'VC): further,electrical power andmaintenance costs wo ld approach $1000 peryear.The break-even point,using the micr form instead of hadcopy, occurs after twoyears.This example has equated thep -duction of the master ficheith the cost of produc- g offset plates, a v ry conservativeapproach since the platecost would approach $100 whilethe filming cost wouldapproach $50 if done erciaily.

The picture drawn hel'ehas placed te cost of microfor-- a useful perspective.Sin,-.e reader costsare sign ficant, the major short-term cost benefit of themicrofilm lie-in those applicat ons where (1) the amount ofmaterial is excessive, (2)an up-date or revision occurring more often thanonce a year is desirable, (3) distributioncosts important.

The develop ent of microfiche,to include the concept ofadding valu-distorts this picture onlyat the point where thecontent of the Study Guides is prepared. .Thecost of additional ficheto implement an instruction sequence properlyformatted to add value issmall. For instance, if ten fichewere required instead of five,as in the above e_ _ample, the added cost lies in thedifference .between in-houseand commercial production of thediss mination copies.Proper formatti

63 in the simplest sense, implies the design of the fiche to facilit te the instructional objectives, all the while consistent with the constraints of the display system.This implies that the creation of a rnster fiche will be i7re expensive than that presently associated with commercial practice.It implies that each master fiche be "compos d" as the content is developed in order to identi_y classes of material and intro- duce exainplesadditi.onal explanation, redundancy, and revision as required in the implem ntat on of a formatting concept.The creation of the :iaster is a labor-intensive -tep because the -tit, g requires the production of intermediate negatives hichin turn, are used to produce a master fiche through a second filming step.Only through

this intermediate steo, in the '7re7qion of the .ste: can the fiche designer obtainntrol over the variety of input d cumentation that is appropriate to the film format.The intermediate negatives area ranged to provide the desired relationship between and aong classes of information as dictated by the formatting concept employed.The variety of input might include color visuals, overs ze schematics, blo-ups of drawings and photographic compensation for underze type fonts and drawings. One extre -ely lmportant advantage of the intermediate step in cr _ation of the master fiche is the fact that updating and revision can be accomplished very easily:a new negative is simply stripped into the matriK of negat ves assembled for the intermediate composition -_nd then, a new master fiche is produced The costs associated with the production of master fiche through the two-stage process are difficult to access and are beyond the scope of this Guide.But to establish a f- a -_e of reference, it might require four hours to produce a 90-frame aster using the two-stage approach and only 20 n nutes to producea master using the conventional "s and-repeat" ca -c This esti__ ate, of course, does not d al with the substantial issues erification and rework in case of filmingerrors. The administrative considerations presented here introducethe considerat ons associated with deli.ery anduse of microform in the t aining environ -ent. B. The Plan for Delivery This section deals with the considerations involved in bringing the students, the hardware viewers), and software togethereffectively

in the training enirironment. The system of delivery affectseveryone . assoc ated with the training process, but in different wys.The school administration particula -ly will roake decisions at theoutset that will d f ne ihe direction and overall effectiveness ofany conveion to a microform-based instructional medium. Theprimary eleent in the system of delivery is, of c__se, the viewing equipment itself, and the selection of this equipment will be discussed in detailbelow.The fact that equipment is involved has far-reachin";consequences, particularly because of the requirement for a one-for-one relationshipbetween students and viewers. The presence of viewing eq-_pent makes the classroom and the dormitory or residence an extension of the delivery_t m: these environments can contribute to the ease of equipmentuse in a direct way.Conversely, the microform system must be integrated with cher media in these envir nment- in order to achieve theIlia potential of the educational experience. Equipment also implies logistical considerations:Storage, maintenancl, power require- -nts, and abuse,are all factors related to delivery.Finally, substantial microform use impliesnew support personnel associated with imnpleting and sustaining thesystem.

65 Equi.ment Selection Microform equpment to support instuctional use of filmed materiL is only now being seriouslydeveloped.In the near future,new models will be available from whi-hto make equipment selection How well a viewer perfors is largely a matter of image qualityand con- venience of controls.Image quali,y can be evaluatedby considering sharpness of the image, the qualityof illumination, and thecontrast. In makina selection,it is best) compare the images on thescreens in their use environent because the irnas the mostimportant consideration. Factors which affectsharpness of input have to dowith the original source material, thefilming, or the projectionequipment. There are several methods ofmeasuring this, in linesper millimeter of resolution, and in terms ofmodulation transfer function whichis best done in a labo atory withspecial equipment.Lines per millimeter is not an absolutemeasure and different people may get differentnumer- ical answers.The quality of illumination hasto do with inte sity and evennes.s.The use environment contributessign ficantly to this factor, as does the length of the focal path.The projection ratio affectsillumi- nation also, as does pola ity of the filmmaterials.Lack of contrast arises when light is reflectedabout inside thev ewer and reaches the screen to wash out the image. Althoughitis best to inspect andcompare readers on site, having establisheda class of readers from general specifications, there are basicrequire:_ents to be con- deredin selectn; these include low cost; minimum time andeffort to prepare for use, operation, andmaintenance; optimum imagepr sentation for maximum reading comfort; andminimum space occupied fora given projected information area. Thesemay be amplified thus: 1 it must be easy to insertor remove the fiche or film without damaging it, and to rapidly locateio--;to the screen any of the frames

66 on any of a range of possible forats and.,if necessary,to rotate image to achieveright reading; 2. the image on thescreen must be adequatelylegible (i.e. of adeq ate size, resolution, and contrast)under all likelyambient 1 ghting conditions; the surface of thescreen should pret rablybe normal to the sight lineof theaverage seated user;eye strain \ ith prolonged use shouldbe minin al; 3. all controlsmust be readily accessibleand visible to the user, and require minmum effort, ental and physical,to operate; 4. theeader mustoccupy minimumspace, particularly minimum desk-_p area, but must beadequately stableon a desk-top; 5 if po table, it must be small,easy to fold, or unfold,self- contained, robust,lightweight, andformed so as to beeasy to transport or carry; 6. it must conform withrelevant safetystandard-. 7. performance on amicroficheor microfilm viewermust not be compromisedby attempts atver-atlity, inpa t-ular by acco da. -- other microforrns; 8. form, color, surface textures and finisttesshould becom- patible with tr)reseeableworking environments; servicing facilitiesmust be available,and partseasy to replace. In addition to theabove, the followingpoints should bepar icularly checked: 1. a hard, unIform focus,both in normalframe-to-frame operation and while scann ng materials, mustbe maintained witha minimum of adjustments; 2. fan noise from equipment should beminimal ornon-existent, especially in a classroo

67 3. a "bright spot" in the center of the screen must be avoided when the viewer is destined for long periodsof use; 4. the f che loading and carriage mechanismsshould be con- veniently located and operate smoothly and witha minimum amount of fcc; 5. the lamp should Lombine adequate illuminationcharacter- istics with long l"fe to reduce maintenance and classroominterruption due to equipment failu 6. screens should be posi ioned at a height and an angle approximating that of the work surface insofaras this can be achieved; and 7. manipulation of machine parts should beacco _p_ished with one hand in every possible instance. Z. The Use Environment The classrooms to be used in the instructionalsegue ce sup- ported1-ty icroform system should be examined to identifyany changes necessitated by thisuse of machines.Prim- -y consideration should be given the room size,power and lighting requirements; vet lation, and the general arrangement of theroom itself for instructor-student interaction when viewersare in place for reference. Power considerations include the amount and distribution ofthe wiring and the location and compatability of the outlets withthe vie ers selected for classroom use.The particular ar- angement of classrooms is dependent upon the type and size of the equipmentused, room geom- etry, and the use of other visual aids suchas chalkboard and slides. The classrooms should be arranged to optimize student-istructor eye-contact with consideration given to locatingpower outlets to,achieve this goal.Ep.cll student should have hi_w.n work-space in addition to his own reader.Careful consideration must be given to advanced 77 68 planning as regards schedulingfor maximum utilizationof both equip- rr__nt and the classrooms if viewersare to be left in classrooms when not being used; when viewersare maintained cont nuously in classrooms they should be covered whennot in use.If portable viewes are used to support the microform in tructionalsystem, the classrooms involved in relevant courses could be used in a normal fashion; inany event, a-Y changes in the arrange-_ ent of classrooms to support microformsystems should not interfere with classesusing hardcopy materials. For those classes supported bymicroform materials and which ve additional periods of study outside of the classroom,an adequate environment must be provided formachine use of thecourse materials contained in microform elsewhere.A wo -k sv face for study indorm_ tory or residence must be sufficientto hold the viewer, whether portable or of an institutionaltype, and also providespace for hardcopy materials such as workbooks andnotebooks.If regulations requir_ that the equipment be stowed whennot in use, adequate provisionmust be made for storage. A comfortable,well-designed chair whichmoves about eas ly is importantto the use of fixed reading equipment.A book be n ved about to achievea difA erent viewing position which retards the onset of eye and bodilyfatigue; this same situationcan be approxi- mated, to some degree, by themoving of the student's chair forward and backward, and from sideto side, while focusingupon a fixed screen mage. Adequate illumination is needed forresidential study as for classroom study, andpower outlets must be available. Some degreeof isolation for the student must be achievedinsofar as noise and inter- ruptions are concerned, and ventilationshould be sufficientso that heat from lamps is readily dissipated,particularly in small rooms 3. H _ndling an. Storage

Arrangements must be made for thehandling and storage ofnew equipment, the iss a_ ce and set-upof machines to be usedas a-icro- for---_-supported class convenes; and thereceipt, maintenance, storage, and reissue of equipmentas men depart and othersare rotated into courses.Reading equipment should bestored in their original boxes to protect screens and minimize dustaccumulation; the viewers should be examined, cleaned, and adjustedafter each week'suse, and prior to turn to storage. A place for theaccor iplishment of this handling and issue, maintenance and storage, isrequired, as well as the personnel and procedures to support theoperation.All equipment should be clean and operative at the time it isissued to students.If non-portable viewers ar,_, used in classrooms,they.must be transportedto the room t into position, cleaned, and checkedout prior to the first class meeting, which would require thatsuch classrooms be vacantduring off shifts.The viewer boxes would be retainedin the assigned storage area.Vie ers to be used in studentresidences should be clea ed, as embled, adjusted, and then reti_ _nedto their boxes pror to delivery to students.Tf res de- tial viewersare of the non-portable type, deliv- e y schedules must be arranged and fulfilled-The procedure for issuing the viewers to students wouldbe developed in amanner compatible with practices on the baseor in the training environment where themicroform system is to be employed. 4. Maintenance and Re air A schedule must be estabIishedand personnel made available to _perate under it, for the periodicmaintenance of viewing equipment, as well as for the necessary-repair ofequip_-_ nt which malfunctions after beingsued to a studentor stat oned in a classroo All students 79 70 involved in microformsupportedclasses should be wellinstructed in proper use of equipment, the limits, of theirr..sponsib lity for it,and what to d- in case of equipment fai.lure.To properly maintainthe necessary vie e s, technicians .adequatelytrained in the functioningof the equipment rn-_st beavailable.So that undueinterruptions and delays are not encountered in classrooms,ext- a fiche, lamps, anda limited number of idle viewers should be maintainedwithin classrooms.In accordance NA,th admin strativedeterminations, completeoverhaul and replacement of viewingequipment should bescheduled. 5. Integration with OtherMedia In this treatment, itis not expected thatmicrofiche will stand alone as t e totalinstructional medium.In the clasroom,the instructor will bring hispres ntat on to the studentsand the microform will support his coursedelelopment.In turn, the microformwill be supported by certainhardcopy materials, suchas handouts and notebooks.Depending upon thecourse of instruction, othermedia -ay be employed in conjunction th the microformpresentation, suchas chalkboard demonstrations,slide presentations,and the use of three- dimensional models.In practice, the 35mmslide presentationparticu- larly complementsclassroom use of filmreaders because thepreferred ambient illumination levelsare suitable forproje tion as well.In more sophisticated instructionalenvironment,the microfichemay be an element in asequence involving audiotapes in lieu of an intructor, or in combination with a programmedlearning sequence involvingcomputer control.The particularuse of microforms, incombination with other media, and the level ofIts role ina mixed-media instructionalsituation, would be determined by materials andequipment availability,the educational strategyto be employed, and thedeg ee of individualized

71 instruct on comp'eted for the student.The point to consider isthat microforms are not expectedto play the total instructionalrole but to support and be supported by othereducational components and at.7-,I es. The Plan For Use 1. Indoctrination of Personnel The effect ve utilization of micro erials and equipment for instructionalpurposes in educational and t_ aining environments requires a thorough indoctrinat-n of the instructors who will employ them in the classroom and of thestudents who will use themas their primary resource medium. Thewide variety of te_ chingapproaches and techniques encountered ineducational inst tutionssuggests the need for a group indoctrination-demonstrationof microformuse in the classroom to allow inst uctorsto share ideas of methodologyand become aware of the advantages and possibilities ofmicroform beyond theiruse as a book substitute.If a particular microformsystem has been selected for classrom use, the disc ssion should demonstrateits operating characteristics, indicateany disadvantages inherent irits use, and emphasize Its flexibilityas a teaching aid.This would all_w individ-ual instructors to decidehow to incorporate the equip-ent and materials into their teaching methodand to develop strategiesto counteract or minimize the disadvantagesof the system. Theinstruc- tors could also considerways to better employ the unique formattingor organizational capabilities of the ficheto present instructional materials in a way whichimproves the effectiVeness of classroominstruction. The students should also begiven an orientation demonstration to help insure their successful utilizationof the microformsystem. Basic to this orientation isa brief explanation of the microformconcept and technology and an indicationof the advaqtages of thesystem which led to its use In thecou se in which they are enrolled.However, most emphasis should be placedon the equipment and materialsto be used b- the student.This includes a descriptionof the software and adjunct reference materials to be usedin connection with theequipment and a thorough e_ planation of the developmentand use of the formatselected to present the material.The loading and operatingcharacteristics of the viewing equipent should be demonstrated andall student: should be given some "hanas-on"experience v ith the viewe-I in order to beco- e familiar with them.Finally, student responsibilityfor lost, stolen, or damaged equipment and procedures to follow incase of equ-Pa ment failure should be firmlyestablished. Z. The implementation ofrnicroforms to presentan tnstructtoia1 sequence should include the developmentof soft -are supportIliarials to be used in conju ction withthe course.The support package should include detailed operatinginstructions, procedures to followin case of equipment failure, methods forcleaning fiche, and an explanationof the fiche format used.Howeve-the priary objective in the design of the package should beto provide ways to convenientlyand eff_- tively relate fiche materialsto classroom lecture, notes, andadjunct refe ence materials.This requires, fi st of all,that the fiche themselves be o ganized and stored sequentiall- ina manner -hich provideseasy access to individual fiche.Each fiche should containan eye-legible heading which relates it by number position and content to the instructional sequence.This heading should bev sible to the user hen the fiche is located inits storage container.Second, an index cardor grid to be used with the viewershould be designed tocoordinate with the fiche formatso that, using this grid, the instructorcan direct all students to thesaTe fiche frame.Finally, the organ zaton of

82 73 adjunct reference materials andpaper for notetaking should becare- fully planned so that theseaterials can be easily relatedto the fiche and to the lecture. One suggestionmight be to provide studentswith a hardcopy outl ne of main topicareas and their location on the fiche, with space provided for studentnotes.This would give studentsa con- ven ent way to relate their notes to the mater alcontained on the fiche. Specialized hardcopy materials shouldbe utilized in the support package appropriate. 3. Probleni A eas d tions Viewing equipment presently used ininstructional environments has certain physical and operatinglimitations which requirean accom- modation by the user.F- r example, _aintaininga hard, uniform focus on the v :werscreen often requires frequent adjustment: fannoist can Interfere with communication in theclassroom, non-uniform illumination of the vie screen results In a "hot spot" and the inconvenient locati n er controls make loading and maneuvering of fiche bothersome. These problemsare emphasized or compounded by the size andgeometry of the reader, which makes itnecessary for students to adjust to the reader ratherthan incorporating the reader into their study methods. Theseviewer limitations e _phasize the need for the development of microforreading equipment designed specifically or instructional applications.It is anticipated thatas commercial developmentprogresses, problems will be minimized, but the instructor should beaware that these difficulties will be encountered at the present time and certain allowances,such as breaks or the intermittent use of otheredia, could be helpful. D. Outline For Desin and Im lementation The further use of microfiche in thetechnical t -airfing environment requires detailed plannng and cod' dinati n of effo t on a broad 3 74 basis because of the systematicaspects of trainingschool operdtions. The fundamental concern in any )oposal to i Sitroducemicroform as the medium of instruction is for thepreser- ation of the essentialfeature of military trai g: that is, the effe ,tivenessof an instructionalprocedure in combination withcourse content which hasproven validity. The plan ofimplementation providedbelow drawson the struc- ture of the 3750th Technical TrainingSchool, Sheppard AirForce Base, Wichita Falls Texas, in order to identifythe essential unitsin the training environ ent that must interactsuccessfully in or3erto tiate and sustain a micrcrorm basedtraining program. The plan assumes that a program director, associated withthe Department of Support Services, wouldhave responsibilityfor the microformprogra This approach ispa.. icularly recommendedbecause this Department has responsibility for the preparationof all phot -readymaterials through its graphicarts capability. 1. Administrative and 0erational Units There are threeschool elementsaffected bya decision to mplement a microform program; in add iLion to theadministrative personnel of the school,the t ainingdepartments .iithe school, and the supporting service organizationsare also involved. Some ofthe areas of involvementcan be seen In the followinglisting. Th- SchoolAdministration wouldconsider: Selection of theprogram director Commitment of enablingfunds Creation of policies forcourse selectIon, review board responsibilities,operating procedures, and new squadronrequirements

Igt h.The Schc ol De-Dartment Directors would consider: Facilities availability Candidate courses for microform Instructors participation in the desi n of the microform format Internal logistics (equipii-i --or ented) Instructor training and student indoctrInation Evaluation for t aining objectives The Supportiing Departments would consider: Production of microform naterials Maintenance of viewers Provision for secondary training aids Production of students' support materials (notebooks, etc. ) The actual instruction of trainees would occur under the direction of specific departments of the School.Within a department The Curricula Unit, The Requirements Unit, The Instruction and Measureents Unit, and the Instructor Squadrons would be affected.The pr ncipal effects are associated with the initiation of instruction through roform; after sta t -up, the sustaining of the microform courses is the burden of the supporting departments, primarily. 2. Initiation of Materials Prepara ion Once a course has been selected for pres ntation via the micro- 'che medium, the Study Guide for that cou -se should be reviewed by representatives of the various units associated with the development of training materials.The School Project Officer would assume responsi- bil ty for the overall organization and development of the new materials, as well as the scheduling fcr art work, printing and film manufacture, and duplicati n.The Curricula Unit representative would be pr.arily

76 r sponsible for insuring that objectives of the Plan ofInstruction are met and are emphasized to the traineeThis would necessitate clear specification of goals and objectves within the non-optional instructional areas of the film card.7urther, he might be expectedto oversee the format details to which t aining documentsmust conform and to apply these r quirements to the fiche Study Guide,e.g. ,positioni g of titles, ction headings, guide numbers, The responsibility for the actual writingor rearrangement of contentould also fall wIthin the activities of theCu ricula Unit. Here, with the working cooperation of theInstructor Squadron, mat rialscan be up-dat d and rearranged to takeadvantage of tile fiche capability for norizontal and vertical positioning ofassociated information, withnon- essential information readily availableto tl-e trainee but not confused with the required POIpresentat on.The In tructor Squadroncan be expected to c ntribute special insightsgained from previousexposure to classes with the same objectives, identfying trouble spotsso that the fIlm medium can supply optional examples,illustrations and details, t identify the kinds of information studentsnormally wish to highlight, and to indicate where students' interest in thegeneral subject requires information not already included in thetext. rhe Instruction and Measureents Unit would take responsibility for coordinating materials withinstruments of evaluation.Items for which there are test questionsmust be consistent with POI andmust be treated within the main body of the StudyGuide. As withany materials development for instructionalpurposes, the proce ses of development include input from administration,instructors, evaluators, andcur- ricula coordinators.Increasing the options to the developersincreases this need for coordination andcooperation. 8.6

77 Delivery Co sideratio s The actual use of the microform lies that the trainees, the instructors, the fil materials, and the viewing equipent, have come together succe- fully.This assumes that: The orientation procedure has been developed for the trainees by the instructors and Program Director. The indoctrination plan has been prepared whichteaches" the instructors how to maximize use of the film in classes; and e a -ines the role of other audio-visual media in further support of in tructional objective The Requirements Unit in the De2artment has developed schedules for routine maintenance of equ pment, and the handling procedures for home viewer check-o- t, return, and storage. The filmed training materials are available to the partment, together with all other student support materials that have be n developed for the course. It is extremely impo:tant that members of the Instructor Cadrepar- ticipate in the select on of viewing equipment i:hrough aual t -ial.This the cr Acial element in the delivery requi -ements and the instructors who will use the vie \ ers- routinely sh-uld make the final selection. 4. Use Requirements The nature, duration, and content of the course of instruction will dictate the preparations nece:sary for fa -ilitatng the trainee's task.The microfiche must be packaged for studentuse and this "packageL provides the opportunity to colniently meet other student needs such as the documentation that he takes to his assignment in the field after the resident training is completed.The package might include an annotated outline of the plan of inSttuction for thecourse,

78 with provisions for the studentto develop his specialized annotationsfor the identification and retrievalof important filmedsequences.Properly done, this package willserve as both an instructional and fielddocument. The possibility of including selectedEammary documentation in hardcopy form, bound into the package,should be examined.This material might includea basic flow diagram, an organizati nal chart, or any reference information that could be ofa critical concern to the trainee a d his performance.The philosophy guiding these effortsmust be s nsitive to the fact that themicrimagery needs to be related to the eye-legible w-ld in order to be satisfactory. The development of these student aidsis the responsibility of the program director, with input from the instructors,particularly those with field expeence BIBLIOGRAPHY

University of n,.nver, Microform Utilization: TheAcademic Librar, Environment, Alta Morrison, Editor, Denver,Colorado, April 1971.Report of a conference in Denver, 7-9 December 1970. University of Denver, "An Investigation of the Characteristics of Ultrafiche and its Application to CollegeLnd Universities, " an interim report by james P. Kottenstette, DRI, Denver, Colorado 80210, 1969.(Contract OEC-0-8-080826-4648). ERIC ED 032-447.

Baldwin, T. S. and Bailey, L. J."Readability of Technical Training Materials Presented on Microfiche Vs. OffsetCopy." Journal of Applied Psychology.Vol. 55, No.1,1971 (Feb.), 37-41.

4. University of Denver, "An Investigation of the Environmentfor Educational Microform Utilization.Phase I,Student Use of Classroom Microform in Support (z)fa Survey Course, " by Robert Grausnick and James Kottenstette, Denver, Colorado, DRI, April 1971.

5. Stephens, J. M., Educational _Ps cholo rev. ed. (New. York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1956

Smith, K. U. and Smith, M. F., ,ybernetic Principlesof Learning and Educational Desin, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966.

7. Indiana University, The Effect on Learn the Color CcLig of Pictorial Stimuli, by Dan Lee Isaacs, Bloomington,Indiana, Audio-Visual Center, September 1969.

80 Unclassified security c a DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA R& D c rity ries 'on of title, dy of abstract and indexing annotationmust be entered when the overall report V classified) 1 iGINA TING AC TI vI Ty(Corpo h-- . REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION University of Denver Denver Research Institute 24. GROUP University Park, Denver CO 80210 REPORT TITLE A GUIDE TO INSTRUCTIONAL USESOF MICROFORM

4 DESCRIPTIVE NOTES (T)'peofreportand inclusive dates) Final Report (July 1970 to July1971) AUTHO 'rst name. middl name) James P. Kottenstette Alta Bradley Morrison Anita S. West Robert R. Grausnick r4EPORT DATE TOTA _ NO. OF PAGES lb. NO. OF REFS May 1971 80 TRACT OR GRANT NO 9a.ORIGINATOR EPORT NU BER(S) F41609-70-C-0040 AFHRL-TR-71-44 b.PROJECT NO.1121

e. Task No. 112101 94. OTHER REPORT No(S ) this report) (Any other numbcrs that may he assIgned d. Work Unit No. 112101009 10. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT Approved for public release; distributionunlimited.

1. SUPPLEMENTARY NOT 2 SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY Technical Training Division Air Force Hurnan Resources Laboratory Lowry AFB CO 80230 ABSTRACT

This Guide presents informationon the use of microforms in a training environment;to provide basic background on microfonnsas adistinct communications medium; andto illustrate the steps required in operationalizing the use of microfonns ina training sequence. A review of the material to be presentedresulted in the preparation of three chapters forthe instruction of individuals requiring an understandhig of 'hesubject: (1) general information on microfonnsto include definition and explanations of terms, materials, andconcepts; applications and acceptance;new techniques and processes; costs; and information sources; (2) the use of microforms in a direct instructional mode and therelation&hips of microform capabilities to trainingapplications; and (3) the considerations to be takeninto account in any specific instzuctional application, which includea plan for instruelion& materials, a plan for delivery, anda plan for use; as well as an outline for desip and implementationof such an operation.

FORM NOV 473 Jnclassified ecurity cies Unclassified Security Classiftcation

Key WORDS technical training microforms microform devices instructional modes

Unclassified Security Cla, cation