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Ethnic Discrimination in the Swiss Labour Market – Ethnic Hierarchies in Correspondence Test Results

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Ethnic Discrimination in the Swiss Labour Market – Ethnic Hierarchies in Correspondence Test Results Thèse présentée à la Faculté de Lettres et sciences humaines Université de Neuchâtel Par Eva Zschirnt Pour l’obtention du grade de docteur en science humaines et sociales Soutenu le 2 Novembre 2018 Directeur de thèse : M. Gianni D’Amato, professeur, Université de Neuchâtel Rapporteurs : M. Giuliano Bonoli, professeur, IDHEAP, Université de Lausanne M. Arnfinn Haagensen Midtbøen (PhD), Senior Research Fellow at the Institute for Social Research in Oslo, Norvège Mme Judy Rich, Research Fellow at Portsmouth Business School, University of Portsmouth, Royaume-Uni Summary As a part of the NCCR on the move’s individual project on “Discrimination as an obstacle to social cohesion”, this dissertation focuses on the discrimination of ethnic minorities in the Swiss labour market. Since discrimination is no longer an overt and thus easily observable phenomenon, research on discrimination, and especially on discrimination in hiring decisions has become more challenging. In order to study and measure the extent of discrimination in hiring decisions, researchers have used diverse approaches, depending on the disciplines, mostly drawing on statistical analyses of observational data, behavioural research, attitude research, and victim research (Veenman 2010). While all of these approaches have their strength and weaknesses, a rise of field experiments and in particular correspondence testing can be observed in recent years. Since the late 1960s researchers have used field experiments in which two candidates with exchangeable qualifications that differ only in the characteristic to be measured apply for the same job. These experiments have been successfully used to quantify the extent of discrimination faced by minority applicants in an increasing number of (in particular) OECD countries. This dissertation focuses on ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions in the German speaking part of the Swiss labour market and it uses a correspondence test as its core methodology. The main research question addressed in this project are: - Do we find ethnic discrimination in the Swiss labour market? - Do ethnic hierarchies exist in the Swiss labour market? - Did discrimination in the Swiss labour market change of time compared to Fibbi et al. (2003)? - How do the results from the Swiss labour market compare to other countries in which correspondence tests have been conducted? - Does discrimination only occur in hiring decisions? Next to contributing to the literature by providing data on ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions, this dissertation also contributes to the theoretical debate whether discrimination is due to taste or statistics. It shows that correspondence tests in German speaking labour markets have reported discrimination rates that are lower than the international average and offers specific characteristics of labour markets in German speaking countries as possible explanations. Compared to most correspondence tests on ethnic discrimination in hiring, it goes further than “just” presenting the classical descriptive results of a correspondence tests, i.e. whether applicants were invited for a job interview or not, but also qualitatively analyses the email responses that were received from potential employers. Keywords: Ethnic Discrimination, Labour Market, Hiring, Correspondence Testing, Switzerland Résumé Dans le cadre du projet individuel "Discrimination as an obstacle to social cohesion" du NCCR on the move, cette thèse porte sur la discrimination des minorités ethniques sur le marché du travail en Suisse. Étant donné que la discrimination n'est plus un phénomène ouvert et donc facilement observable, la recherche sur la discrimination, et en particulier sur la discrimination à l'embauche, est devenue plus difficile. Afin d'étudier et de mesurer l'ampleur de la discrimination dans les décisions d'embauche, les chercheurs ont utilisé diverses approches, selon les disciplines, s'appuyant principalement sur des analyses statistiques de données d'observation, de recherche comportementale, de recherche sur les attitudes et de recherche sur les victimes (Veenman 2010). Si toutes ces approches ont leurs forces et leurs faiblesses, on observe depuis quelques années une augmentation des expériences sur le terrain et en particulier des tests par correspondance. Depuis la fin des années 1960, les chercheurs ont eu recours à des expériences sur le terrain dans le cadre desquelles deux candidats ayant des qualifications échangeables qui ne diffèrent que par la caractéristique à mesurer postulent pour le même emploi. Ces expériences ont été utilisées avec succès pour quantifier l'ampleur de la discrimination à laquelle sont confrontés les candidats minoritaires dans un nombre croissant de pays, et en particulier des pays de l'OCDE. Ce mémoire porte sur la discrimination ethnique dans les décisions d'embauche dans la partie germanophone du marché du travail en Suisse et utilise un test par correspondance comme méthodologie de base. Les principales questions de recherche abordées dans ce projet sont : - Existe-t-il une discrimination ethnique sur le marché du travail en Suisse ? - Existe-t-il des hiérarchies ethniques sur le marché du travail en Suisse ? - La discrimination sur le marché du travail en Suisse a-t-elle changé dans le temps par rapport à Fibbi et al (2003) ? - Comment les résultats du marché suisse du travail se comparent-ils à ceux d'autres pays dans lesquels des tests par correspondance ont été effectués ? - La discrimination ne se produit-elle que dans les décisions d'embauche ? En plus de contribuer à la littérature en fournissant des données sur la discrimination ethnique dans les décisions d'embauche, cette thèse contribue également au débat théorique sur la question de savoir si la discrimination est due au goût ou aux statistiques. La thèse montre que les tests de correspondance sur les marchés du travail germanophones ont révélé des taux de discrimination inférieurs à la moyenne internationale et offrent des caractéristiques spécifiques des marchés du travail des pays germanophones comme explications possibles. Par rapport à la plupart des tests par correspondance sur la discrimination ethnique à l'embauche, il va plus loin que la simple présentation des résultats descriptifs classiques d'un test par correspondance, à savoir si les candidats ont été invités ou non à un entretien d'embauche, mais analyse également qualitativement les réponses reçues par e-mail des employeurs potentiels. Mots-clés : Discrimination ethnique, Marché du travail, Embauche, Tests par correspondance, Suisse Table of Content List of Figures and Tables 3 Acknowledgements 5 1 Introduction 7 2 Defining Discrimination 11 2.1 Ethnic discrimination across disciplines 11 2.2 Cumulative Discrimination 13 3 Explaining discrimination 15 3.1 Taste-based Discrimination 15 3.2 Statistical Discrimination 16 3.3 Critical Discussion of economic theories on discrimination – why 18 does discrimination still exist? 3.4 Other explanatory approaches 19 3.5 Conclusion 24 4 Measuring discrimination 27 4.1 Statistical analysis 27 4.2 Attitude Research 28 4.3 Survey Experiments 30 4.4 Field experiments 31 4.5 Ethnographic Observations 31 4.6 Victim Research: Perceived Discrimination and Legal Cases 32 4.7 Conclusion 33 5 Methodology of field experiments 35 5.1 Field experiments on discrimination in the labour market 36 5.2 In-person audit studies 37 5.3 Correspondence Test of Ethnic Discrimination in the Labour Market 38 5.4 Criticism of in-person audit studies and correspondence tests 41 5.5 Testing discrimination theories in field experiments 43 5.6 Research Ethics Concerns 44 5.7 Matched pair testing vs. single application 45 5.8 Field experiments for research vs. field experiments for enforcement 45 5.9 Conclusion 46 2 6 Context in Switzerland: Labour market inequalities between natives 49 and immigrants 6.1 Immigrants in Switzerland 49 6.2 Public debate on immigration in Switzerland 50 6.3 Immigrants in the Swiss labour market 52 6.4 Evidence of labour market discrimination from previous studies 55 6.5 Conclusion 63 7 A correspondence test in the Swiss labour market – the research 65 design 7.1 The Ethical Dimension 65 7.2 Identifying groups for testing 67 7.3 Signalling ethnicity: construction of names and portrayal of citizenship 69 7.4 Identifying locations for testing 71 7.5 Selecting occupations 72 7.6 Sources for vacancies 73 7.7 Constructing the applications 74 7.8 Overview of the sample 80 8 Summary of the Papers 83 9 Conclusion 87 10 Abstracts of the Papers 99 References 103 3 List of Figures and Tables Figure 1: Correspondence tests on ethnic and racial discrimination in OECD p.39 countries 1990-2017 Figure 2: Unemployment rate based on ILO definition by nationality and p.53 gender Figure 3: Gross monthly wage in 2014 in CHF in the private sector p.53 Table 1: Warmth and competence of immigrant groups in Switzerland p.63 Table 2: Names used in the correspondence test p.70 Table 3: Characteristics of occupations chosen p.73 Table 4: Number of paired applications by nationality tested in the pair and p.80 occupation Table 5: Number of paired applications by gender, nationality tested in the p.80 pair and occupation Table 6: Number of paired applications in rural/urban areas by occupation p.80 Table 7: Number of paired applications by Canton and occupation p.81 Table 8: Number of paired applications in the private or public sector by p.81 occupation Table 9:
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