WATER RESt MANAGEA/iENT IN THE NORTHERN JORDAN VALLEY

By MOSHE INBAR and JACOB O. MAOS

I Photo supplied byauthocs"*/' WC-lS./A. -• ...... Its general outline is determined by the geologi EDITOR'S NOTE: This scholarly article provides cally young tectonic features of the Rift, one of evidence — once again! — that politics often are whose last phases caused the formation of the part of the problem rather than of the solution. body of water variously known as Lake Kinneret, Convincingly — at least to the Editor — the co Lake Tiberias or the Sea of Galilee, some 18,000 authors conclude that "the argument of water years ago. Elevations range from 2,814 metres at scarcity as a reason for all-out conflict is refuted the summit to minus 210 metres by the fact that it was possible to withdraw at lake level. substantial quantities of water from the Kinneret The natural system of the and of (Sea of Galilee) reservoir for irrigation on the Lake Kinneret (which acts as an intermediate without impairing the functioning lake) drains toward the Dead Sea situated at 398 of the system or creating major shortages."And metres below sea level. Physiographically, the as for the future, "further demographic growth basin is characterized at the North and on both and economic development in the region, and the flanks by mountainous ranges and by a central attendant intensification of water uses will put a part covered by alluvial plains. The mean annual premium on growing coordination among all the precipitation for the Lake Kinneret watershed is co-riparian states..." 790 mm, ranging from 1,600 mm in the upper area, to 400 mm in the South, over the lake region. The Jordan River supplies an average of 650 mil lion cubic metres of water per annum, or about Physical Features 40% of 's total water budget. Its main sour Countries usually consider water as a national ces are the Hermon karsticsprings, andtheflowis resource at their sovereign disposal. Yet, the continuous throughout the year, averaging from sources of water — the catchment area, river 18 million m3 in August to 75 million in February. basin boundaries and river channels — are not Stormflows occur as a result of heavy precipita always respecters of political borders and often tion in the northern part of the catchment area transcend them. Although relatively small, the and in the . Flooding takes place when Jordan River Basin epitomizes many of the precipitation reaches an intensity of 50 mm per problems of water resource management which day in the Hula Valley. Over the 22-year period occur in other parts of the world on a broader but from 1959/60 to 1980/1, the mean annual equally complex scale. The constraints of a highly water flow entering Lake Kinneret was 521 mil intensive water management system, and the lion m3. This figure represents the net flow, after necessity for an optimal utilization of all natural deducting an estimated quantity of 110 million m3 resources, are compounded in the Jordan River consumed in the upper basin. Basin by the particular geo-political structure of the'region to which Israel is bound by the heritage Regional Water Development Schemes of its past and recent history. Many a visionary and planner has been intrigued The Lowdermilk Plan (1942) envisaged the diver by the inherent potential for the development of sion of the sweet waters from the Upper Jordan the Jordan Valley. Among the first to translate and the Yarmuk River (a major tributary entering these ideas into tangible engineering concepts the Jordan River south of Lake Kinneret) into open was W.C. Lowdermilk who realized the canals or closed conduits running around the opportunity to apply to the Jordan Valley the slopes of the Jordan Valley. Dr. Walter C. Lowder experience acquired in the development of the milk also noted the difference in altitudes Tennessee Valley Authority of the United States. between the Jordan Valley and the Mediterra nean Sea which offered a splendid opportunity for The physical setting of the Jordan-Kinneret Basin a combined power and irrigation scheme (Fig. 2). (Fig. 1) is an elongated valley, 100 kilometres in Several of these ideas were later incorporated length, varying in width from 20 to 40 kilometres, into a detailed technical report prepared by the situated between Latitude 32°48' and 33°29' Commission on Palestine Surveys, which fore North; and Longitude 35°35' to 35°53' East. It saw the utilization of water resources on a covers an area of 2730 square kilometres and regional scale, including the use of groundwater, drains the Northern Jordan Rift Valley. interception of storm run-off, drainage of the Hula Lake and swamps, and irrigation of the lower Jor Left: General View of the Hula Valley Valley. The Commission suggested that all and Mt. Hermon near Jordan River head-streams of the Jordan River should be col-

KIDMA/21 Fig. 1: Natural and political divides in the Jordan- Fig. 2: Schematic map of water system in the Kinneret watershed (drainage are = 2700 km2) •Jordan River catchment area, showing approximate yearly flows in mil/ion m3 (MCM) and salinity in parts per million (ppm).

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lected by a countrywide water-carrier and Various components of the original scheme such diverted near their sources, thus enabling flow by as the use of water from the Litani River or the gravitation with a minimum amount of pumping. Mediterranean-Dead Sea hydro-electric project, Headwater from the Litani River (in , were subsequently discarded either because they north of the Jordan River) was to be fed into the proved not to be feasible or because of opposition Hula Valley, thus augmenting the quantity of from the Arab States. water available for irrigation and hydro-electric The final plan regarded Israel, Jordan and Syria as power, and the Yarmuk Riverwas to be diverted to co-riparian States to the Jordan and Yarmuk Riv Lake Kinneret. Ultimately a seawater canal from ers, while Lebanon was recognized as a riparian the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea was to be built to the Jordan Basin. The plan took into account inorderto replace theflow of the Jordan Riverand the development schemes prepared separately by to generate additional hydro-electric power. Israel and Jordan, and made provisions for supply These proposals, as well as other projects ing as far as possible the full quota of water stipu embodying similar concepts, were the fore lated by the governments concerned for the runners of a unified plan for the integrated devel irrigation of their farmlands. Nevertheless, opment of water resources in the Jordan Valley although the Johnston Plan was endorsed by prepared in 1953 at the request of the United experts of both sides as a logical and equitable Nations; known as the (Eric) "Johnston Unified approach to the joint development of the river Water Plan", it became the basis for extensive system, it was rejected by the Coun negotiations between several Arab States and cil on political qrounds. Israel.

22/KIDMA Israel and Jordan thereupon proceeded to work region in southern Syria. The main part of the separately, each on its own modified water devel project was the construction of the East Ghor opment scheme, i.e. the National Water Carrier Canal for the irrigation of traditional farming areas Project (Israel) and the Great Yarmuk Project (Jor and formerly undeveloped arable lands in theJor dan, in cooperation with Syria). Both projects dan Basin between the Yarmuk and Zarqa Rivers. were basically in line with the Johnston Plan and A 900 metre-long tunnel was built to conduct the can be described as follows: water from the Yarmuk headstream to the 70 km-long East Ghor Canal running down to the ISRAEL: The National Water Carrier Project south, roughly paralleling the course of the Jor The National Water Carrier extends from the . The amounts of water carried by this Upper Jordan Basin through nearly the full length canal were augmented by the damming of several of the country, linking up with, and interconnect small wadis (side streams) in the area. Trie com ing, existing branch networks and local drainage, pletion of this part of the Yarmuk Project coincided storage and irrigation systems. with the inauguration of Israel's National Water Its design derives from the marked difference in Carrier in 1964. By 1979 the East Ghor Canal had rainfall between the northern and southern parts already reached a length of 100 kilometres and a of the country, seasonal variations and regional further extension was planned to bring the canal drought situations. Another characteristic is the nearer to the Dead Sea. availability of water at elevations below sea level In order to impound the winter flows of the Yar in the North (Lake Kinneret lies 210 metres below muk Basin, two dams were projected: the sea level) which has to be conducted to the South Maqarin Dam, about 35 km east of the Yarmuk- for lands suitable for irrigated and mechanized Jordan confluence; and the Haled Dam, some 20 cultivation at elevations above sea level. km east of the same confluence. Both locations, In order to overcome these shortcomings and to however, did not fit in with certain Arab plans for coordinate the water supply with other existing diverting part of the Jordan River headwaters to systems, a 200 km-long trunk line was built to the Yarmuk River. An alternate downstream loca carry water from the Upper Jordan Basin to the tion was therefore chosen at. Muheiba, near South. The carrier comprises a complex of canals, Hamat Gader, about 10 km east of the Yarmuk- pipelines, and tunnels, with a capacity conform Jordan confluence. Construction of this dam was ing to the water allocation of the Johnston Unified started in 1966 but interrupted by the 1967 war. It Water Plan. was later continued at the Maqarin site and will Originally, the National Water Carrier called for presumably be completed by 1985. the withdrawal of water directly from the Jordan Although the Johnston Plan was officially River at Benot Yaacov Bridge, situated between rejected by the Arab States, it was adopted in Lake Hula and Lake Kinneret. This location, being practice by Israel and Jordan: both countries above sea level, would have allowed gravitational accepted, even if not formally, the water allotment flow and the descent of excess winter flows into laid down in the Johnston Plan. Israel proceeded Lake Kinneret for storage and generation of elec with the building of its National Water Carrier, tric power. In 1953, however, Benot Yaakov was while Jordan carried out its own irrigation devel within the demilitarized zone between Israel and opment programme of the East Ghor Canal. Syria, and when construction on the intake struc In 1964, shortly before Israel started to pump tures began, Syria protested to the United water from Lake Kinneret into the National Carrier Nations. As a result work was suspended pending System, the Arab League decided to divert part of the outcome of the debate in the Security Council, the Jordan River headwaters, so as to prevent and Israel embarked on the building of an alter their flowing into Israeli territory. The Arab plan nate intake at Eshed Kinrot, on Lake Kinneret. called for the diversion of the in Lebanon to the Litani River byway of a tunnel, and for diverting the flow of the Wazani and JORDAN: The Great Yarmuk Project springs to the Yarmuk River by means of a 70 The Jordanian project was planned so as to pro kilometre-long canal which would cause the vide in its ultimate phase about 700 million m3of water to flow into the Raqqad River, a tributary of water a year for irrigation and hydro-electric the Yarmuk (Fig. 2). The Banias-Yarmuk canal power, mainly from the Yarmuk River but partly was to be constructed against the rising slopes of also from the Lower Jordan River Basin and from the Golan Heights at an elevation of 350 to 300 several small tributaries. The Muzeirib phase was metres above sea level, in some places within designed to withdraw 70 million m3oftheYarmuk short distance from the Israeli border. headwaters for the irrigation of an arid farming The planned carrying capacity of the canal was to

KIDMA/23 be 17 million cubic metres per month, but since means of an annual water allocation of 54 million such flows occur only between December and cubic metres.* Already by 1980 about 22 million April, the annual quantity of diverted water would cubic metres of water were provided for the irriga be only about 125 million cubic metres, including tion of some 6,500 hectares, apart from the con the Hasbani waters destined for use in Lebanon sumption of water in the Druze villages on the and Syria. When fully operative the canal would Golan Heights. deprive Israel of about one-third of the installed The manifold increase in water supply to the capacity of its National Water Carrier. Moreover, Golan Heights was made possible by developing the partial removal of saltless headwater would local resources and by drawing water from Lake increasethe salinity ofLake Kinneret —the main Kinneret. The development of local water resour- I reservoir of the Israeli water system — by about ces comprised drilling for groundwater and the construction of dams for impounding winter 60 parts per million. A study of the potential applications of the storm runoff. Sixteen dams with a total storage diverted water in the three countries involved in capacity of 10 million cubic metres were planned the scheme revealed only marginal returns. From and several of them are already in operation. either an economical orengineering point ofview Tapped groundwater and local springs further the execution ofthe plan appeared rather unreal increased the water supply by several million istic, mainly because of the rugged terrain along cubic metres a year. Onthe southern Golan —an area devoid of natural water resources, but pos the canal's proposed trajectory. It is worthwhile to dwell briefly on the dynamics sessing the major concentration of arable land — which brought about the diversion plans: toward water is supplied through pumping from Lake the end of the 1950sandbeginning of the 1960s, Kinneret. the Arab world was divided into a triangle of Except for minor quantities in the eastern part opposed camps: Egypt; Iraq; and the so-called which would normally drain into the Yarmuk Conservative States. With the dissolution of the Basin, most of the water available on the Golan United Arab Republic in 1961, Syria became yet Heights actually forms part of the Jordan- another factor in this antagonistic framework. Kinneret watershed. In otherwords, the agricultu- • The Arab-Israeli conflict was frequently the cen ral development of the Golan Heights draws tral theme of political dispute among Arab States. mainly on Israel's own water resources. But in In the course of mutual allegations of neglecting spite of the substantial amounts of water thus Arab national interests, thesignificance of Israel's withdrawn from the country's main supply, the Water Carrier Project was blown up beyond all efficiency of the system has not been impaired. proportion and branded as a crucial step in the Even the future utilization of 6 to 7 percent of the new State's socio-economic development which Jordan Basin's total wateryield is not expected to allegedly had to be halted before Israel became a cause major problems or shortages. solid reality. To date Israel's Water System has been able to The gradual escalation of border incidents which accommodate, within bounds, most national erupted into full-scale war in 1967 put an end to requirements for agriculture, industry, and the diversion project, while the consequential domestic needs and is expected to be capable of changes in the geo-political space containing the absorbing fluctuations resulting from an erratic region's water resources neutralized, for the time climate anda growing economy. Much of thishas being, the Jordan headwaters as atool of political been achieved through rationalization, particu manipulation. larly in agriculture, with the introduction of new In the aftermath of the 1967 war, development technologies such as drip and trickle irrigation. was continued in two areas: the Hula Valley and Planners are confident that current reserves and the Golan Heights. In the Hula Valley drainage seasonal replenishments are adequate to meet and canalization work, formerly obstructed by the bulk of the demand for whichthe entire sys Syria could at last be carried out and was in fact tem was designed. Even so, however, future pop concluded in 1971. The main purpose was to ulation growth and the expansion of farming may reduce flooding in the Hula Valley by lowering the require the development of new or non- water level of the Jordan River and to enable conventional sources of water in the 1990s. faster drainage of storm run-off. Since the com-_ pletion of this work, no flooding has been recorded in the Hula Valley; In the Golan Heights a large-scale agricultural * Before 1967, there was hardly any irrigated land in this area, as development programme was initiated, envisag can be deduced from the markedly low water consumption - about ing the irrigation of 9,000 hectares of crops by 1to2 million m* per annum -for livestock rearing and domestic use.

24/ KIDMA The operation of an integrated and centrally- ties, the Jordanian Government quietly resumed controlled water system has afforded considera the development of the Yarmuk River sources as ble flexibility and regulative capacity for meeting originally contemplated. fluctuating demands and varying situations. How While water continues to be a vital commodity in ever, when used to the limits of its capacity, such a the Jordan River Basin, the argument of water system (functioning practically as a closed one) scarcity as a reason for all-out conflict is refuted must depend increasingly on a delicate balance by the fact that it was possible to withdraw sub between quantity and quality. stantial quantities of water from the Kinneret Salinity has probablybeen the most complex prob reservoir for irrigation on the Golan Heights with lem encountered during the various stages of the out impairing the functioning of the system or project. Contrary to earlier plans, the Yarmuk creating major shortages. In the long run, popula River was diverted directly to the East Ghor Canal tion growth and agricultural development may rather than be allowed to flow first into Lake Kin require new and non-conventional sources of neret whose diluting effect was thus lost. The water for the region. At the same time, however, it Arab Diversion Plan, if implemented, would have seems that quality rather than quantity will still further exacerbated the salinity problems in remain the overriding criterion in the region's the system's main reservoir. water resource management. At present the salinity of Lake Kinneret amounts The implications of a closed and intensively-used to approximately 240 parts per million, compared water system can already be noticed in several with 20 parts per million at the Jordan point-of- areas. Apart from salinity — still one of the major entrance to the lake. Although a salinity of 240 concerns — there is the problem of a gradual parts per million can be tolerated forsome agricul deterioration of water quality, expressed in terms tural uses, it is considered too high for the irriga of growing pollution along the Upper Jordan tion of citrus groves which produce one of the River. Since the National Water Carrier was country's major export crops. The diversion of planned to conduct potable water, health hazards saline springs from the shores of Lake Kinneret penetrating the system may very soon become of and the abundant rains of the year 1968/9 helped critical importance. The draining of the Hula Val to lower the chlorine content of the stored water ley has also increased the flow of nutrients to Lake which is expected to remain at present levels. Kinneret, while the flushing of long-lived pesti Another problem is the rapidly expanding role of cides into the system's main reservoir constitutes the Upper Jordan Basin and Lake Kinneret as an another health risk through the contamination of inland recreation area. The Israeli withdrawal drinking water and fish life." from Sinai following the Peace Treaty with Egypt From an environmental standpoint the growing and the evacuation of numerous beach resorts urbanization in the catchment area and the addi and recreational facilities along the Red Sea coast tion of untreated sewage from uncontrolled sour have already begun to attract large numbers of ces are particularly critical issues. The growing vacationers to the northern riverine region and importance of the Upper Jordan Basin and Lake lake shores. The environmental impact of these Kinneret as inland recreation areas adds yet stepped-up recreational activities is expected to another facet to the pollution problems already compound the problems of water quality already caused by agricultural and urban effluents. Last caused by agricultural and urban effluents. As the but not least are the changes wrought by the system approaches the physical limitsofthe avail retention of water which may affect both the natu able water supply, appropriate devices and plan ral and historical landscapes for which the Jordan ning measures must be utilized to permit the River is famous. Although pollution can.be alle existing system to function in enhanced harmony viated by dilution, it is clear that within the given with the environment. Such measures will limits of the Jordan River Basin mere quantitative require, inter alia, enlarged administrative capac considerations cannot serve as a substitute for ity and improved management techniques. the need for rational and meticulous planning to In retrospect, it is obvious that the Syrian diver meet future demands. sion plan was basically politically motivated and Evidently the conflict over water in the Jordan that no real advantages in terms of economic Basin stems, to a considerable extent, from benefits were to be gained from the project for the human interference with Nature's delicate eco States concerned. That, apart from its questiona logical equilibrium. Further demographic growth ble feasibility, both from economical and engi and economic development in the region and the neering standpoints, the diversion plan was attendant intensification of water uses will put a primarily a political move, is further confirmed by premium on growing coordination among all the the fact that after the cessation of the 1967 hostili co-riparian States in the not-too-distant future.*

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