Sri Lanka 1948 2017 Transitional Justice

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156 | Sri Lanka 1948 2017 transitional justice. Council resolutiononreconciliation and Sri LankacosponsorsaUNHuman Rights 2015 coalition withtheUNP. upset presidentialelectionandforms Maithripala SirasenadefeatsSLFPinan 2015 dissent. impeached, continuingacrackdownon Chief justiceoftheSupremeCourtis 2013 1965 official language. Sinhala OnlyActmakesSinhalesethe 1956 jailing hisdefeatedopponent. President Rajapaksawinsasecondterm, 2010 civil warentersitsmostviolentphase. Peace talkswiththeLTTEcollapse,and 2006 ceasefire whichislaterbroken. Sri LankangovernmentandtheLTTEsigna 2002 Ranasinghe Premadasa. The LTTEassassinatesPresident 1993 will dieinthecivil warwhichlastsuntil2009. as BlackJuly,andwarbegins.Over70,000 military ignitesanti-Tamilviolenceknown Deadly ambushbytheLTTEonSriLankan 1983 creating anexecutivepresidency. government writesanewconstitution The UnitedNationalParty(UNP) 1977 significantly disadvantageTamilcitizens. religious andlanguagepreferencesthat A newconstitutionestablishesnational 1972 Peramuna (JVP)isformed. Marxist movementJanathaVimukthi

1987 led parliament, withoutelections, until1989. Referendum extendsthetermofUNP- 1982 Prabhakaran. (LTTE) isfoundedbyVelupillai The LiberationTigersofTamilEelam 1976 crackdown. thousand dieintheensuinggovernment First JVPinsurrectionbegins.Tentotwenty 1971 voting rightstoIndian-bornTamils. Citizenship Actdeniescitizenshipand 1948 United Kingdom. Sri Lankagainsindependencefromthe 1948 constitutional reform. Government initiates consultationson 2016 four anddisplaces10,000. Anti-Muslim violenceinthesouthwestkills 2014 removes two-termlimitonthepresidency. strengthens presidentialpowersand The 18thAmendmenttotheConstitution 2009 death ofitsleadership. War endswithdefeatoftheLTTEand 2009 becomes president. coalition winselections.MahindaRajapaksa Sri LankaFreedomParty(SLFP)led 2005 three yearsandkilling30,000–60,000. Second JVPinsurrectionbegins,lasting 1987 resolve theconflictwithLTTE. Sri LankaandIndiasignapeaceaccordto

* Rankingsarebasedonthelast15yearsandrelativetootherAsiancountries. Sri Lanka where themilitaryremains present. constitutional reform. Due toslow progress,however,tensionspersistin the northeast, and of power provincial devolution through of warandTamilgrievances, particularly President MaithripalaSirisena initiatedareconciliation process to addressthelegacy Rajapaksasemi-authoritarianafter10governmentbyyearsof rule, coalition led the 2014. Followingthe2015presidential election,removed which President Mahinda in June in theanti-Muslimriotsthattookplace Buddhists, asseen majority Sinhalese crimination againsttheTamilcommunitypersists, Muslimsarealsotargetedbythe between Buddhistextremistsandethnoreligious minoritycommunities.Whiledis nationalism isincreasingongoingcommunaltensionsandsporadic clashes Buddhist groups continueinSriLanka. sions amongethnoreligious of Sinhalese The resurgence Despite thegovernment’svictoryoverTamil separatistmovementin2009,ten At a glance a At Overview Shifted from hightoabsent Separatism andautonomy Not present Transnational terrorism Medium National politicalconflict Shifted from hightoabsent National civilwar Urban crimeandviolence High Local resource conflict Medium Local politicalandelectoralconflict Medium Communal/ideological conflict Decreasing from hightolow - -

157 | Sri Lanka 158 | Sri Lanka for themselvesspiraledintoacivilwarthatlastedfrom1983to2009. population. ofthe 15 percent while the mostly Hindu minority of Sri Lankan and “upcountry,” Indian-origin Tamils represent 1977, 1981,and 1983and constitutional a amendmentmaking it illegal for tocalla separate state. anti-Tamil riotsin after for violentmilitancy gaining support in 1976.TheLTTE started formed (LTTE) Tamil Eelam of Liberation Tigers mid-1970s, the in the state sovereign an independent tocampaignfor byTamilyouthbegan led movements Asseparatist andscience. medicine, in law, the numberofTamils serving in cantly reduced government andtheiraccesstojobscareers signifi measures These positions. public for requirement Sinhala-language a and admissions, quotas foruniversity ethnic of Buddhism, asystem to 1972 constitution the given by preference religious the included These tensions. increased that Sinhala-majority government the by acted autonomy, itwasopposedbyconservativeSinhaleseBuddhists. regional greater Tamils of assured that in 1957 a pact Sri Lankan governmentsigned and the Party Tamil Federal the status. Although of powerandequallinguistic devolution for the called Tamilgroups areas. ofthese composition demographic the tochange aimed Lankan Tamilslived, 1956. in language, official only the Sinhala OnlyAct,making Sinhalese by the to Indian-born Tamils. This wasfollowed year, the Citizenship Act was introduced, which denied citizenship and voting rights specifically same groups. In the rights ofotherethnic the several lawsthatrestricted government enacted and stateadministration. Afterindependence, thebalanceofpower shifted, andtheSinhalese-led island. Under British rule, mainlySri Lankan prominent positionsin Tamils business occupied central partsofthe plantations inthe tea on the British toSriLanka by the to work“upcountry” and after independence. During thecolonialperiod, large numbers ofIndian Tamils were brought Sri Lanka Post-independence, in an attempt to reverse colonial imbalances, several policies were en were policies imbalances, several colonial reverse to in anattempt Post-independence, from before back topolicies Tamils canbetraced and the Sinhalese the Divisions between Sinhalese, whoare predominantlyBuddhists, make up75percentthe population, of two principalethnolinguisticgroups,theSinhaleseandTamils. The majority its between conflict by marked been has Lanka Sri 1948, in independence Since National civilwar 2 Land reform and development projects in the north, where most Sri north, where in the projects Land reformanddevelopment 1 The desire of mainlySriLankanstate Thedesire Tamils foranindependent National level - - Front. However, these Tamil and LTTE splinter groups turned againstPrabakaran, Tamilgroups LTTE andLTTE splinter the Front. However,these Liberation Revolutionary People’s Eelam the and Organization Liberation Eelam Tamil the as the conflict. of years four last the during long-running civilwar,died in the fatalities all one-third of sides, on all than 22,000 in 2006. More people collapsed process peace the after again dramatically dropped after the government and the LTTE signed a ceasefire in 2002 ( 2009. and 1984 between conflict the in lives their lost people 70,000 the LTTE, anti-Tamil which killed13 pogroms andriotsinresponse.Over soldiers andtriggered by the Sri Lankan military. The conflict began with a deadly ambush on the Sri Lankan army by killed were group’s leadership the Prabakaran rest of Vellupilai LTTEand the 2009 leader when several reportedcasesofenforceddisappearanceformerTamilmilitantsandlocalactivists. been have there conflict, the of end the Since persist. Muslims and Tamils displaced of tlement reset and land, over conflicts presence, military continued as such problems where east, and north inthe high remain tensions Meanwhile, war. ofthe end atthe forces bysecurity committed ininvestigationsintowarcrimesallegedly involvement toallowinternational reluctant has been judges. foreign andother Commonwealth of humanrightsandviolationsinternationalhumanitarian from the abuses law, withsupport investigate mechanism to a judicial establish to country for the calling Council resolution Rights elites. among political on devolution ment agree is, however,little provinces. There the to devolution strengthen 2016, is to early which reform in constitutional of process a Sirisena initiated President by led government coalition progress has been made towards addressing Tamil grievances and the legacy of the war. The leader, duetointernaldisagreements. Source: The conflict between the government and the LTTE began in July 1983, and ended in May in ended and 1983, July in began LTTE the and government the between conflict The Since the defeat of the LTTE,the of particularly2015below),defeat someand the (see the since election Since , , , , , , LacinaandGleditsch,“Monitoring trends inglobalcombat,”andMelanderetal.,“Organized Violence” 4

Other Tamil armed groups besides the LTTE fought against the government, such the against LTTE fought the besides groups Tamil armed Other

Figure 1.

Numberoffatalitiesinseparatism conflict(1984–2009)

6 3 government slow,andthe hasbeen however, Progress,

In 2015, the government cosponsored a UN Human a UN government cosponsored In2015, the

657

3,762

3 3

Thenumberoffatalities 5 figure 1

), but increased

2,494

7 - -

159 | Sri Lanka 160 | Sri Lanka during theJVP’s second insurrection, whichledto669 peoplebeing killed, primarily bythe took place The1989elections and theirsupporters. among politicalparties tensions increased parliament until1989insteadofholdingaregularparliamentary election. 1977 the of term the extending a referendum won in 1982,Jayewardene election presidential the winning After 1978. in constitution new the under president executive first the became prime minister.TheUNPleader,J. above the R. Jayewardene, presidency lishing anexecutive deaths. in 62 scale, resulting on anunprecedented violence saw postelection elections general The 1977 mid-1960s, particularlyduringelectionperiods.has becomeacommonoccurrencesincethe parties political among (SLFP).Violence Party SriLankaFreedom the and (UNP) Party National Subsequent changes to the electoral system in 1978 and the extension of parliament’sterm in 1978andtheextension system electoral to the changes Subsequent 8 The UNP, which won a majority in the 1977 elections, TheUNP,whichwonamajorityin wrote anewconstitutionestab the 1977elections, ence, political power has alternated between two main political parties, the United parties, the main political two between has alternated power ence, political periodicmisuse ofgovernment powersuppress to political dissent. Since independ and violence marred byelectoral been has democracy of Sri Lanka’s history long National politicalconflict Colombo NORTHERN PROVINCE EASTERN PROVINCE - - became increasingly polarized following the election of a president and a prime minister from minister prime a and president a of election the following polarized increasingly became 2000 and2001resultedin7383murders,respectively. the 1999presidentialelections. during deaths and eight elections during the1994 in 12general deaths voting stations,resulted on UNP, andLTTEattacks SLFP andthe the between violence rule. Electoral UNP of decades Freedom Alliance,UPFA)wontheparliamentaryandpresidentialelections,endingnearlytwo 1993. People’s year, Alliance(laterknown Inthe SLFP-ledPeople’sasUnited thefollowing in Premadasa Ranasinghe President LTTEassassinated the continued, northandeast in the Marxist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna (JVP) regime. and paramilitariesofthe be activeincountrieslikeIndia, Malaysia,France,Norway,Canada,andtheUnited Kingdom. still may LTTE the of cells foreign that concerned remains SriLankangovernment Sri Lanka.The are expectedtotakemuchlongerthanthecurrentgovernment’s tenure. term limitsonthe president.However, Sirisena’s which reinstitutes ambitious politicalreforms and government officials. Several steps have already been taken, including the 19 politicians by power of corruption and misuse and address system, electoral improve the ence, independ judicial restore reforms to political other promised Sirisena also President very slow. has been provinces; however,progress the to power further devolve reforms to constitutional from remesinghe’s UNP, the Tamil with support National Alliance(TNA), provides achancefor intimidation andthreatsatvotingstations. to related mostly were which incidents, 316reported despite fair, and free mostly were polls coalition. The UNP-led the to lost year, but same the later held parliamentary elections in the prime minister to become Rajapaksa then attempted president a surprisingvictory. Defeated SLFP, of the won secretary minister andgeneral former health coalition whowasthe UNP-led period. election during the murder reported only one president.Despite fearsviolence, of the 2015 presidentiallargelypeaceful, was electionwith isfied with corruption and nepotism and constitutional reform that gave excessive power to the continued withtheimpeachmentofcountry’schiefjusticein2013. overthrow thegovernment in a militarycoup. to forattempting evidence, substantive without wasarrested, Fonseka General election, the lowing Sarath Fonseka.Fol former armygeneral the against term second his Rajapaksa won Mahinda police. and judiciary, service, civil the to appointments all over authority final ident pres six-year terms,andgranting the serving morethantwo president bar onthe removing the 18 the election, presidential activists, and usedmilitarymeanstoendthewaragainstLTTE in 2009. Before the2010 on antigovernment crackeddown supporters, and their parties opposition in 2005, divided ed presidential electionsweremorepeaceful. conflict. demands, whilePrime solution tothe Minister Wickremasinghe and theUNPfavoredafederal different parties in 2001. President Kumaratunga and the SLFP resisted accommodating Tamil Due to intense fighting between the LTTE and the military, the parliamentary elections in elections parliamentary the military, the and LTTE the between fighting intense to Due A coalition government between President Sirisena’s SLFP and Prime Minister Ranil Wick Sirisena’s SLFPandPrimeMinister President between A coalitiongovernment dissat as votersgrew election, 2015 presidential in the defeated Rajapaksa was President An SLFP-led political alliancespearheaded byPresident MahindaRajapaksa, whowaselect 12 After the ceasefire agreement was signed in 2002, the 2004 parliamentary and 2005 and parliamentary 2004 the 2002, in signed was agreement ceasefire the After Lankan nationals fightingfor the Islamic State (IS) and ofsuspected IS members in Sri few a of reports media unconfirmed some been have There country. the inside transnationalterrorists offoreignoriginoperating Sri Lankacurrentlydoesnothave Transnational terrorism th Amendment to the Constitution was passed in September 2009, in September passed was Constitution the to Amendment 10 16 14 Thegovernment’s crackdownon political dissent 15 Maithripala Sirisena, a candidate of the MaithripalaSirisena,acandidate 11 The political climate in the country Thepoliticalclimateinthecountry 17 9 As the conflict the As th Amendment, 13 President ------

161 | Sri Lanka 162 | Sri Lanka raids, andattacksonmilitaryciviliantargets,withanestimated30,000–60,000killed. when theJVP leader waskilled. This time around, theJVP resorted tosubversion, assassinations, gatherarmscampaignforto anotherandinsurrection. insurrectionThesecond 1990, until lasted inits tone ananti-India JVPtoadopt the drove SriLankanstate, aunitary within Tamil demands Lanka and India, which attempted to resolve the conflictwith the LTTE by accommodating certain Sri accord between parties. The1987peace leftist NSSP, andother CP, the the with operations Black July. The government subsequently banned all three parties, but the JVP later resumed its anti-Tamil violence known as inthe NawaSamaSamajaParty(NSSP),hadparticipated and the nationalist. In come increasinglySinhalese 1983, the JVP, along withtheCommunistParty(CP) JVP memberswerekilledinthecrackdown. 10,000–20,000 Anestimated thanamonth. inless insurrection the andsuppressed emergency of controlareasSouthernall almost ofthe Province. The Sri Lankan government announced state a to and roadsblocked. Themilitantsmanaged cut were lines and power country. Telephone the eera. In April1971, JVP stations andgovernmentbuildingsacross members attacked92 police were uncovered, leading to the detention of 4,000 suspects, including JVP leader Rohana Wijew caused nationwideinfrastructuredamageandkilledanestimated80,000people. drawn to themovement. were JVP-led and socialopportunities attacks in 1971 and 1987–1990 political, economic, oftheir erosion bythe angered generations socialist revolution.Younger a to goal their and elevated militant became movements in Colombo.Around1970,the based elites to English-speaking and therural youth poor, as opposed Buddhist Sinhalese unemployed The second insurrection took place between 1987 and1990,JVP by whichtimethe between had be insurrectiontookplace The second power government seize to plans JVP when 1971, March in out broke insurrection first The Peramuna (JVP), which wasformedin 1965. among educated, They foundsupport Janatha Vimukthi the as such Marxist movements of growth the in partto tributed 1960s con the during crisis an economic to respond to government’s inability The Large-scale communalandideologicalconflicts On theTamilseparatistmovement,seenationalcivilwarsectionabove. Separatism andautonomy 19 Subnational level 18 20 - - - through materialandspiritualinducements Buddhists converting forcibly are Christians that believe community SinhalaBuddhist in the placed. and morethan10,000 in fourdead,80wounded, temporarily dis against Muslims,resulting violent attacks group, BoduBala Sena(BBS), anti-Tamil riots. AhardlineBuddhistinstigated of thecountry,worstcommunalviolencesince1983 took placein the coastalsouthwest Christians, and as Muslims minorities, such religious in Tamilareas.Other present still troops by shrines built and stupas, statues, number ofBuddhist rise inthe an exponential witness as they Buddhists, affect politics in Sri Lanka. Tamils fear that their areas are going to be colonized by the Sinhalese access tolandishighlypoliticized. and of ownership east, and north the in displacement and conflict of decades After war. the by displaced were they lived formorethan100 years before they are theirlands, where view, these reserves. forest Reserve andsurrounding Nature Wilpattu in the of water. farmers over upstream anddownstream the allocation between disputes tlements, andcaused enti ethnicizing as perceived was This land. downstream the given were who farmers, Muslim farmers, theupstreamland, comalee District,favoredSinhalese who received over Tamil and irrigation northeast.scheme knownasAllaiExtension,inTrin Forexample,alarge-scale the minorities in and ethnic majority Sinhalese the between ethnic tensions that escalated projects During the1950s, thegovernment ofPresidentBandaranaike launched several development planned forearly2018. fourdeaths. at least in resulting elections, local 2011 the of phase third the in intensified UPFA the within conflict The turnout. voter a high had north war-affected the cards, polling of confiscation and groups, violations, various reports ofelection such asvotebuying,voterintimidationbyarmed Despite in anintrapartyclash. killing ofaUPFAsupporter the incidents, including had severalviolent 23, day, onJuly election and violence, marred by also was elections local the of phase second attack, assaults,andintimidation atvotingstations. one murder,agrenade in twodeaths. resulting andMarch15, January27 between recorded were incidents 400violent over local elections, 2011, were marred by interparty and intraparty violence. In the lead-up to the first phase of the of October in March,July,and phases in three held were which elections, local last The level. gious minorities. the majorityBuddhistsandreli violence between communal tensionsandfrequentlow-level objects. their members,ofreligious and desecration attacks on 2013 ofchurchproperties, and 2014, to destruction between leading recorded were Despite theend ofthecivil war, themajoritarianism ofSinhalese Buddhists continues to 22 Christian communities also experience religious persecution in the country, assome in the persecution religious also experience Christiancommunities 30 More recently, Muslims have been accused of illegal encroachment andsettlement of illegal accused Muslims havebeen Morerecently, Land has fueled conflict between the Sri Lankan government and local communities. Local conflictover resources andcommunityrights national the at climate political the reflect often violence electoral and conflict political local parties. Therefore, national political the of members cians aremostly in SriLanka linked tonationalpolitics,aslocalpoliti Local politicsisintimately Local politicalconflictandelectoralviolence among theTamils, Sinhalese,andMuslims. exist land over disputes country, the of northeast war-affected the in Particularly 21 also face sporadic discrimination and violence. In June 2014, anti-Muslim riots riots 2014,anti-Muslim InJune violence. and discrimination sporadic alsoface 28 The next local elections, which have been postponed for two years, are years, fortwo postponed been have which localelections, next The 25 Election day, on March 17, witnessed 56 violent incidents, 56 violentincidents, including day,onMarch17, witnessed Election . 23 Over 200 violent incidentsagainstChristians 24 Therecentviolenceisacontinuationof 29 Some of these tensions arehistorical. Someofthese 31 From the Muslims’ point of point Muslims’ Fromthe 26 The lead-up to the Thelead-up Local level 27 - - - - -

163 | Sri Lanka 164 | Sri Lanka have declinedsignificantly. Province ( city Western in the major cities the of one is Gampaha (8.1), Northern Province, which and the of capital the is which (9.4), Jaffna by followed people, 100,000 per 11.1 at rates, homicide Central Province, highest in the had the Eastern Province, is located in the and Kandy,which in SriLanka,0.9 rates ofanycityper100,000 in 2016. just with Ampara, lowest people a city to homicide, however,Colombohadoneofthe cities. Whenitcomes common crimesinthese crimes from2009 number ofreported to 2016. most and robberyarethe Home burglary,theft, Kelaniya, Mt.Lavinia,city anditssuburbs,suchasNugegoda, and Gampaha, had thehighest land fornewcamps,andconcessionshavebeenawardedtooutsidedevelopers. this land confiscation, the military under the Sirisena administration continues to take additional livelihoods. Even though several protests have been organized to express local grievances against their of populations local depriving areas, fishing and agricultural large occupied has presence military expanding The projects. military for confiscated land their find to returned have IDPs justified by demining operations and the need to prevent the return of Tamil militancy. Tamil of return the prevent to need the and operations demining by justified to thegovernment’scontinued, heavymilitarypresence, Tamils andotherethnicminoritiesdue persons (IDPs), primarily Tamils andMuslims, asenseofmistrust andgrievance endures among Despite the government’s postwar effort to resettle more than 430,000 internally displaced figure 2 figure 5 5 3 35 crime and violence than other cities. According to the Sri Lanka Police, the capital Sri Lanka the Police, According to cities. than other crime andviolence frequent. The Colombo metropolitan region has experienced a higher level ofurban slowly, has grownrelatively Sri Lanka’s urbanpopulation Urban crimeandviolence 5 ). Since the end of the conflict in 2009, homicide rates in Sri Lankan cities Lankan Sri in rates homicide 2009, in conflict the of end the Since ). Gampaha olombo Source: Figure 2. ana andy SriLankaPolicestatisticsand2012 census Homicideratesinurbanareas (2009–2016) mpara atticaloa 3 35 5 34 but urban crimeisstill but 33 32 Many Of the 15 percent of Sri Lankan men in a 2013 United Nations survey who had committed rape, committed had who Sri Lankan Nations survey of men ina2013 United percent 15 the Of to stigmaandfearofreprisalfromperpetrators. due likely toreportthepolice lence, areless vio sexual forms of and other rape violence, particularly gender-based experience and girlswho difficult todetermine the nature, extent, and magnitudeof the problem, however,because women 2,036 in 2006to2016( years, from1,463 cases ten last in the 40 percent by against theirabusers. ficers, as well as lengthy court procedures, further discourage victims from pursuing legal action of among police violence sexual against laws of understanding and limited sensitivity gender conflict. the after and during violence sexual of acts committed who personnel police for militaryand impunity end to very little Sirisena administrationhasdone In addition,the is not recognized as a crime under existing law unless the wife and husband are legally separated. consequences. nolegal faced orgirls women against rape committed rape. timate-partner had donesoonmorethanoneoccasion, nearly 65percent Perpetrators ofdomestic andgender-based violence enjoy a culture ofimpunityin SriLanka. , ,5 , ,5 5 Figure 3. Domestic andgender-based violence 2005 and 2016. Incidents of rape and incest recorded by the police have increased police by the 2005 and2016. recorded Incidents ofrapeandincest Police recorded over 33,000 casesofviolence againstwomenandchildren between remain prevalentinSriLanka. violence The SriLanka and gender-based Domestic Seual eploitationochildrencruelty tochildren apeincest Gender-based violencecasesrecorded bythe SriLankaPolice(2006–2016) 38 The survey findings revealed that over 95 percent of Sri Lankan men who Source: SriLankaPolice 3 41 37 Procurationtraicking Grave seualabuseunnaturaloense and 60 percent had committed in had committed and60percent 39 In Sri Lanka, marital rape InSriLanka,maritalrape 5 figure 3 figure 40 Lack of ). 36 It is - - -

165 | Sri Lanka 166 | Sri Lanka 3 2 1 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 Notes The Guardian in crackdown,” held Jason Burke,“SriLankan general 9, 2010, “Eighteenth timeunlucky,” resources/a3a0e081d8d2852cc065394acc740420.pdf 2016), (Oslo: Norwegian PeacebuildingResourceCentre, Castillejo, Clare and NewYork:AnthemPress,2009),144. and Challenges nities in Elections,” Variation Parliamentary Across ThreeUnderstanding inSriLanka: andViolence Höglund,“Elections Kristine Ibid. Ibid. et al.(NewDelhi:SagePublications,2004),262. Order aNewSocial toCreate gling Strug of Globalization: Lankan an Era Society in Sri Shoring Up Civil Society in an Era of Globalization,” in Sisira Pinnawala, “DammingtheFloodofViolence and amnesty.org/en/documents/asa37/5497/2017/en/ (London:International,Amnesty 2017), International, Amnesty G15/236/38/pdf/G1523638.pdf?OpenElement https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/ in SriLanka” (A/HRC/RES/30/1), 14, 2015, October Human Rights and Reconciliation, Accountability ing 30/1,“Promot Resolution Council, Rights Human UN starting-the-reform-process.pdf Files/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/278-sri-lanka-jump ICG, 2016), starting thereform process International Crisis Group (ICG), See Melanderetal.,“OrganizedViolence.” doi/abs/10.1177/0022343316663032 no. 5 (2016): 727–742, 1989–2015,” Violence, “Organized Themnér, Lotta and Pettersson, Therése e/10.1007%2Fs10680-005-6851-6 145–166, 2–3 (2005): battle deaths,” “Monitoring trendsin of global combat: A newdataset and 1993. BethanyLacina andNilsPetter Gleditsch, Dataset’s bestestimatesforaperiodbetween1989 Conflict Data Program (UCDP) Battle-Related Deaths best estimatesfrom1984 to1988, and theUppsala Research Institute Oslo(PRIO) BattleDeathsDataset’s The total number ofdeaths is calculated using the Peace national languages. official as Tamil and Sinhala both recognizes 1987, in revised was ofSriLanka,which constitution the Today, FinalReport/FinalReportE.pdf lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/ Economic Affair, 2012), 141, and Housing,2012 Statistics, and Census of ment Sri Lanka Depart 4 percent. Indian origin,makeup “upcountry”Tamils,of so-called population, while Sri Lankan Tamilsmakeup11percentoftheSriLankan Report onElectionRelatedViolence: Presidential (CMEV), Violence Election forMonitoring Centre ed-coup-charge dian.com/world/2010/feb/08/sarath-fonseka-arrest http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/ http://www.economist.com/node/16992141 http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/ The Project:Opportu Democratization , February8,2010, European Journal of Population . Political Parties andPeacebuilding Political Parties (Ministry of Policy Planning and Policy of (Ministry , ed. Swain Ashok et al. (London , ed.SwainAshoket https://link.springer.com/articl Sri Lanka: Refusing toDisappear Journal of Peace Journal Research http://journals.sagepub.com/ The Economist http://www.statistics.gov. (Colombo and Brussels:and (Colombo . Census ofPopulationCensus . https://www.theguar ; and Erik Melander, ; andErikMelander, , ed. S. H. Hasbullah S.H.Hasbullah , ed. Sri Lanka: Jump . https://www. , September , September 21, no. 21, no. . Final Final . 53, - - - - - . .

21 20 19 18 17 16 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 (12.6 percent), Muslim(9.7percent),andChristian(12.6 percent), Hindu by followed percent), (70 Buddhist dominantly SriLankaispre census, 2012population onthe Based Ibid. Ibid. 2001), 385. Nat J. Colletta etal. (Washington, DC: World Bank, Asia in Prevention Conflict and Cohesion Social in Sri Lanka:and CivilSociety,” State The Roleofthe Jehan Perera, to EndingtheCivil War “Approaches in sirisena-and-sri-lankas-false-dawn/#3816af933279 forbes.com/sites/realspin/2017/02/03/maithripala- False Dawn,” Taylor Dibbert,“MaithripalaSirisenaandSriLanka’s 2015.pdf practices-parliamentary-general-election-17th-august- final-report-on-election-related-violence-and-mal 2015), mentary General Election 2015 Final Report onElection Related Violence: Parlia (CMEV), forMonitoringElectionViolence Centre dential-election-2015_cmev.pdf cmev.files.wordpress.com/2015/06/final-report-presi 2015 Election Mohamed Shareef Asees, “Resettlement ofMuslim “Resettlement Asees, Shareef Mohamed Ibid. no. 3(2006):391–403. in SriLanka,” and entitlements access violence, of politics changing the commons: assessing Benedikt Korf and Hartmut Fünfgeld,“War and the from-mann-mysore.html canherald.com/content/196621/content/212867/ Deccan Herald “Sri Lanka’s rulingcoalitionsweepslocalelections,” https://cmev.org/2011/07/ (CMEV) website,July23, 2011, accessedApril26,2017, July 2011,”Centrefor Monitoring ElectionViolence 23 Elections onLocalGovernment “CPA Statement April 26,2017, 2011,accessed 17, March website, (CMEV) Violence Election Monitoring for Centre Day,” onElection niqué 2011: “Local AuthorityElection Commu Final Media ment-elections-in-sri-lanka/ blog/2011/03/questioning-democracy-local-govern March 16, 2011, Lanka,”Sri in Localelections Harshadeva Amarathunga, “Questioningdemocracy: ucs_report_2017_web.pdf Dame, 2017), 25, Global Christian Communities Findingsofthe UnderCaesar’s SwordProject on Sword, Caesar’s Under place-in-sri-lanka/ com/index.php/are-religious-conversions-taking- November 4, 2016, Takingsions InPlaceSriLanka?” Muttukrishna Sarvananthan, “Are ReligiousConver attacks-160615112109494.html sri-lanka-muslims-remember-buddhist-hardliner- 2016, ber Buddhisthardlinerattacks,” Dilrukshi Handunnetti,“SriLanka: remem Muslims (7.4 percent). http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/06/ https://cmev.files.wordpress.com/2016/02/ . (Colombo:CMEV,2015), 7–8, Forbes https://cmev.org/2011/03/ , October 9,2011, , October https://www.insightonconflict.org/ https://ucs.nd.edu/assets/233538/ . https://www.colombotelegraph. , February 3, 2017, In ResponsetoPersecution: . . . . . (University ofNotre . InsightConflicton Al Jazeera ColomboTelegraph (Colombo: CMEV, http://www.dec Geoforum https://www. . , June 15, https:// , ed. 37, . - - - - - , , 35 34 33 32 Homicide ratesare calculated based oncrime statistics in urbanareas. lives population the of 18 percent only 2017, of 2012.As and 1981 between growth ulation Sri Lanka 0.5 annualurban percent pop experienced 18. Ibid., lanka-s-transition-nowhere crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/286-sri- to Nowhere tion International CrisisGroup(ICG), wilpattu/ index.php/resettlement-of-muslim-idps-issues-of- 2017, 5, January ofWilpattu,” Issues IDPs and years,” Sri Lanka of CensusandStatistics Department “Table2.2: Urban population sexandby district, census 2017, April28, accessed website, Statistics,” SriLankaPolice “Crime of suicide. of abetment cases 2014 also include 2009and between ofhomicides census. Policerecords Sri2012fromthe Lankaand the Police population https://www.police.lk/index.php/crime-trends . https://www.colombotelegraph.com/ (Brussels: ICG, 2017), . Colombo Telegraph Colombo Sri Lanka’s Transi Sri https://www. - - ; , 41 40 39 38 37 36 tics,” SriLankaPolicewebsite. Statis “Crime graph. See in the included not is fore, it there 2012; for available was data first-quarter Only content/uploads/2016/07/CSV-paper-June-2016.pdf Alternatives,2016), Violence in SriLanka and Reparations for Victims of Conflict Related Sexual BhavaniFonseka, and Woodworth Anne 45. Ibid., Ibid., 29,42. vention.org/node/515 Nations, 2013), 43, United Pacific the and Asia in Violence and Men Studyon theUNMulti-country titative Findingsfrom Can WePreventIt?Quan Against WomenandHow Emma Fuluetal., See “CrimeStatistics,”SriLankaPolicewebsite. gov.lk/Abstract2016/CHAP2/2.2.pdf website, accessed April28, 2017, Why DoSome MenUseViolence https://www.cpalanka.org/wp- . (Colombo: Centre for Policy http://www.partners4pre http://www.statistics. . Accountability Accountability (Bangkok: - - - - .

167 | Sri Lanka