MATERIA ARQUITECTURA #07 Dossier

CHANDIGARH: and the new city in the Chilean culture, 1951-1957

Horacio Torrent Supreme Court of Justice. The city would a strong urban seggregation between School of Architecture, Pontificia have residential areas, parks, avenues, what was considered the “anglostan”, Universidad Católica de Chile groups of buildings and, among them, an an area of British garden city, and the Santiago de Chile area assigned to the university. Besides, “hindustan” – sectors overcrowded with [email protected] at the beginning of 1950, Nowicki, a buildings without services—,to use Polish architect, joined the team for the Digby´s classification, made known Key words: Modern urbanism, development of the architectural projects in 1901 in his work Prosperous British periodicals, Pro Arte, Pomaire (Munford, 1954). The Indian directors India and the situation recognized by were P. N. Thapar, a member of the British Nehru in his autobiography, published in 1. It is well known that, between 1950 civil service in the former colony, and P. 1962 (Sarin, 1982). By 1948 the Indian and 1958, Le Corbusier planned and L. Varma, the Head of engineers of the Board of Town Planners, most of whose developed the city of , Punjab. Varma had been commissioned members were architects, had already capital of the Punjab, in India. The plan to the USA to study the American road been established, with the purpose of was to create, from scratch, the new construction system and urban planning having the necessary knowledge for urban capital for a provincial state set in the and it was he who contacted Mayer and planning. Together with many intellectuals territorial division established in post signed the contracts for the development of and national leaders, they were searching independence India in 1947 (the old the work (Evenson, 1966). for an expression of the new independent capital of the Punjab, Lahore, had become nation in art and architecture. Some part of Pakistan). It is also known that he Mayer´s work was based on a system of supported a return to the mughal(1) style developed the architecture for the Capitol, “super blocks” or neighbourhood units in architecture. Others advocated, in which characterizes de city. looking for a certain identity on the urbanism, a return to the traditional ideas It is less known that Le Corbusier scale, but the distance imposed the lack of the Manasara Shilpa Shastras(2), one developed the plan based on a previous of awareness regarding forms of local of the most traditional scenarios of urban one done by Albert Mayer, of the Mayer, development. When Nowicki died in an architecture and environment, dating back Whittlesey and Glass company in New aviation accident, Thapar and Varma approximately 1,000 years (Tadgell, 1990). York, who had been a military officer went to Europe to contract two architects stationed in India during the Second World without a definite architectural preference But newly coined ideas were more War (Sarin, 1982). Towards December who would be able to reside in India for important to represent the new nation 1949, Mayer had started the planning three consecutive years at least, in order and formed several groups to promote work for a city of 150.000 inhabitants to help setting up a local organization the values of the new society. Part of this with a projection of 500.000 in the future. and train architects capable to assume process was an architectural publication It was specified in the contract that there the continuity of the project (Sarin, called MARG (Modern Architecture would be a complex called Capitol, which 1982). The result of this process was the Research Group), founded by Mulk Raj would have a building for the Provincial contract of Le Corbusier, as a consultant, Anand, who was an expert in the problems Assembly, the Governor´s Palace and the and of Pierre Jeanneret, Maxwell Fry and generated by the partition produced by

This paper is part of Fondecyt research project 1110494: Jane Drew, who would live in India, as the independence process. Maristella “Urban experiences, transformations, plans and projects: architects in charge. Casciato (2012) has described the representations in periodical publications. Chile, 1930 – development of the publication and how 1960”. My thanks to Fondecyt for their support to make this research possible. 2. The cities of India had maintained as one of its assistant editors, she became

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acquainted with Le Corbusier´s thinking were to present the ideas under debate in on architecture. A score of articles on after reading the 1927 English edition of general culture, bring artists and cultural architecture were published; some on the “Towards an Architecture”. MARG was operators together and consolidate a local situation, others on the international born in an atmosphere of enthusiasm that public audience around the problems of scenario, some of them reproductions of accompanied Nehru´s ideas, and it had a the various cultural sectors. As it was a authors such as Paul Lester Wiener, Sibyl wide approach to Indian culture, with two weekly publication, it showed the Chilean Moholy-Nagy and Joseph Hudnut, and objectives: cultural dynamics and particularly that even some written by Frank Lloyd Wright. «Creating a public platform to give of Santiago. There were 181 issues in all, objects, places and ideas a story so that with regular sections such as plastic arts, The ideas, projects and works of they could continue to flourish even after music, drama and literature, with sporadic Chandigarh had a considerable effect on the end of the colonial period; fostering notes on architecture, cinema and ballet, the limited number of articles of the two the knowledge of the Indian cultural complemented with other more general magazines. The figure of Le Corbusier heritage (and in more general terms, the notes on cultural events. Its editorial was recurrent in Pro Arte, less in Pomaire, Asian one), voicing the expressions of team was formed by Enrique Bello Cruz as but he was definitely a protagonist. the collective and regional memory by a Director, Santiago del Campo, as deputy process of awareness that went through director, Sergio Montecino and Camilo It is symptomatic that the view of the entire nation » (Casciato, 2012, p. 37). Mori, both in charge of the section on Pro Arte on Le Corbusier is directly MARG had a vanguard role; it published plastic arts; Pedro Orthous, Agustín Siré aimed at presenting an architect that the plan and architecture of Chandigarh, and Etienne Frois in the drama section is fundamentally a doer, against the and «was certainly the most fertile soil and Daniel Quiroga, Juan Orrego Salas utopian view that had attracted attention for nourishing the concept of planning & and César Cecchi in the music one. The before (Torrent, Undurraga, 2012). He dreaming, more incisive every time after magazine was financially supported by no longer appeared as a promoter of the 1947» (Casciato, 2012, p. 39). Sergio Larraín García Moreno, Dean of the radical urban transformation aiming at Faculty of Architecture of the Pontifical the materialization of his theories —of Eventually, the ideas adopted were those Catholic University of Chile. the or the Ville Radieuse —, supported by Le Corbusier. The definite but as a constructor facing the urban plan was based on the theory of the Pro Arte promoted architecture topics phenomenon with more realistic clues, seven ways and its relationship with with a strong presence of the Plastic Arts without abandoning his lyricism and urban sectors, zoning criteria of modern Group of the Faculty of Architecture of theoretical approach. urbanism, some of the principles of the the University of Chile during the initial of 1933 and the ideas he years (1948-50), and more sporadically Thus, the weekly periodical stated that: had developed more widely in 1945 in later, publishing two special editions, one «The daring concepts of the ideal “city of “The Three Human Establishments”. about Santiago, in 1953 and another on the future” that the wise French architect Latinamerican architecture, focussing on launched at the end of the First World 3. The knowledge of the urban experience Brazil, in 1955. War will become a fact. The personality that was developing in India had some of someone who was classified as repercussion in Chile(3). It was particularly Pomaire was a periodical publication “theorist”, “naïve” and “dreamer” now recognised in two publications that in the of cultural promotion, too, continuing, reaches an important place in the field of 1950s appeared in the Chilean cultural in a certain way, with the work of Pro contemporary building practice” (Pro Arte, scenario: Pro Arte and Pomaire (Torrent, Arte. Between 1956 and 1958 Pomaire 1948, p. 1). 2012). published 18 issues with a team formed This is how the architect was described in by Santiago del Campo as director, Mario his first inclusion in Pro Arte, in the first Pro Arte was a magazine published Planet as editor and Jorge Costabal page of the second edition of the weekly between 1948 and 1956 whose objectives Echeñique in charge of the section periodical. It seems symptomatic that

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the first reference to Le Corbusier in a 4. There are two articles on Chandigarh areas close to our continent: publication of the 1950s would try directly in Pro Arte, one published in 1951 and «He now goes to Bogotá, on the antipodes to put back the figure of the architect as a the other in 1954. The first was a text by of India. Bogotá is a secular, traditional, doer and not as a promise, as it had been the French art critic Simone Gille-Delafon, Spanish city. It has recently burst its seen until that moment from the local an interview with Le Corbusier in July borders. Once aviation arrived, it was an editorial field. 1951, and probably published in the almost insane expansion, what could be periodical Arts de París, where she was called the “boom”, or the top of economic The articles of Pro Arte probably did a collaborator. The article, entitled “Le activity. It is necessary to neutralize such not show an idealistic an chimerical Corbusier and the CIAM build a “Shangri an extremely explosive development. From Le Corbusier, but a concrete and –La” city in India”, dealt with the basically 500 thousand inhabitants it will increase working one, as he was added to the spiritual conditions of the society; on to over one million» (Gille-Delafon, 1951, intention of showing achievements in the chosen site was an open plain set p. 11). tune with the consolidation moment at the intersection of the main roads of The second article was written by Juana of modern architecture in the local the region and on the background, the Subercaseaux (1954), based on the environment; above all, in harmony with Himalaya. Because of that landscape information she had translated for the the strenghthening of modern ideas like and that culture, Le Corbusier considered magazine. The title was “Le Corbusier´s project theory and practice at schools of that: «Town planning shall, therefore, ‘radiant’ city. The most beautiful architecture of local universities between be ingenous and fine. Not only at an architectural adventure of our time 1947 and 1953. economic and social level. Here we have becomes real in India”. It dealt with the It is surprising that only in 1947 a gone back to biblical times. Things have idea of a well constituted city versus publication would acknowledge Le to be considered from a very special the monumentalism of its Capitol. Le Corbusier as a builder of works. The standpoint» (quoted in Gille-Delafon, 1951, Corbusier´s first ideas were set in the “Villa Saboya” was already twenty years p. 11). Regarding climate conditions, the urban network and in his special housing old and it had been about the same time maestro affirmed the following: project grouped by areas, in which he since the construction of the Oberpaur(4) respected the relationship with climate building, in Santiago, traditionally «The sun is the great friend; but it is also and people´s traditions. considered as the first modern work of the great enemy [and thus] the first thing I The article focussed on the theories architecture in the country. have done is to abandon the “pilotis” and of areas and the seven ways for the I have put large parasols over the houses. organization of the city plan. But, beyond If the figure of Le Corbusier was These parasols will be permanently technical considerations, what was shown historically associated to his urban irrigated. My purpose is to construct was a particular way of thinking the city: proposals and to the idea of a theoretical very thin buildings, that at the beginning «It was in a hotel room in Bombay, where dilettante that did not implement his of the night shall send off heat instead the architect had the clear revelation ideas, it was, probably, because in the of retaining it » (quoted in Gille-Delafon, of the task he should undertake. He 1930s and early 1940s his writings 1951, p. 11). understood that what he had to give were published more systematically The article clearly focussed on an urban the Hindu people was not a western than his works. He was, undoubtedly, and architectural view in relation to the aesthetics but to satisfy their life needs. better known as a town planner than local environment and culture, giving as “It is, [Le Corbusier] explains, a problem as an architect, mainly associated to the main arguments, the conditions of of resistance and structure, not of an interest and a debate about modern the town planning of the CIAM and the folklore and art history.” In fact, a type of architecture homogenized by urbanism Corbusian lyric. In the last paragraph aesthetics completely new to the “parasol and planning. That would be the image it referred to Le Corbusier´s immediate and umbrella” architecture is being built and those would be the ideas that the departure, showing the probable in Chandigarh, since in India one cannot articles of Pro Arte would try to change. repercussion of his urban strategies on avoid the sun, the rain and the winds. By

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building a “climate wall”, Le Corbusier novel Lost Horizons, in 1933, published from its practice, new resources and new has brought up to date over forty years of in Spanish by Editorial Peuser in Buenos forms » (Hudnut, 1957, p. 13). research» (Subercaseaux, 1954, p. 5). Aires in 1945, a utopian, idyllic, spiritual place for the development of a perfect Hudnut regarded Le Corbusier´s works as: The interpretation echoed by Pro Arte society in contact with nature. «Beautiful essays on the art of abstraction, was apparently quite predominant at but significant only as they bring up the the time; the idea of Chandigarh as 5. Pomaire, published “Le Corbusier problem of the new plastic arts in their a “Ville radieuse” adapted to local gives a new structure to India”, by Joseph relationship with life in the society of our conditions had already been presented in Hudnut, Dean of the Graduate School of time and the progress of our technique. periodical publications like L’Architecture Design of Harvard University between They make us see that contemporary d’aujourd’hui, which in its edition number 1936 and 1953. The tone was again quite structures are capable of solving the 46 published an article by Ashoke Nair close to the idea of showing the maestro in demands of modern life, without losing entitled “Chandigarh – Ville Radieuse a new facet: sight of the emotional aspect; the world des Indes: une capitale construite par des «It cannot be denied that Le Corbusier is had waited for this message for a long architectes français”, and would continue a virtuoso in the art of sensationalism. I time and, I believe, this would have been to appear in the article that Maxwell think that the need is an excuse for this less convincing if Le Corbusier had not Fry published in Architectural Record resource; but, in any case, his speculations, found the way to validate his principles (Vol. 117, n.° 223), entitled “Chandigard brilliant as they are, could not explain for a wide social conglomerate» (Hudnut, New Capital City”, which highlighted by themselves his tremendous influence. 1957, p. 13). the main points of the relationship with His speculations have dazzled his time, climate, sun, rain and the climate walls but it is the use that has been made of And in that context, together with other that formed the brise-soleil, aspects that in them what makes them important. The urban projects, Chandigarh seemed «his 1956 Fry would also develop in the book provocative and attractive designs, fertile definite recognition» (Hudnut, 1957, p. 13). Tropical Architecture, written together fruit of his imagination, would have been with Jane Drew. forgotten like fair fantasies if they had The photograph illustrating the article was But Pro Arte´s interpretation would not not reached beyond their originality and a lateral view of the portico of the Court be just that, it also had an esoteric touch, ingenuity, a harmony that deeply brings of Justice, with some people walking, and it refered to the , forth our mentality. If he had not shown the reinforced concrete brise-soleil stands to the symbolic figure representing the us, by means of his plastic language, that out as a dominant feature. The footnote of harmonious spiral and the signs of the our structural possibilities could have the photograph, probably drafted by the new town planning. A city respectful of charm and proportion as eloquently as editors, indicated: «traditions and the contact with nature» any other sensitivity and human sense » «Building of the Court of Justice in (Subercaseaux, 1954, p. 6). (Hudnut, 1957, p. 13). Chandigarh, capital of the state of The text highlighted extensively the the Punjab, India, city that is being It is symptomatic that the title of the capacity to trascend the problems constructed entirely under the direction text refers to the “Ville radieuse”, which proposed by the words “style” and of Le Corbusier. The central idea is to had been Le Corbusier´s most widely “international”: while “style” could only show that contemporary structures are published and probably the most be applied to something “finished”, capable of solving the demands of modern acknowledged in Chile, which at the “international” could only refer to an life, without losing sight of the emotional same time had shaped the idea of the «architecture devoid of character and aspect. The experience shall continue in theoretical town planner. And it appeared evolutionary capacity», the Corbusian Brazil(5)» (Pomaire, 1957). facing the dream place, the Shangri-la, ideas rather supported a living that fictitious place that the English architecture that «would permanently be The ideas spread in Chile about the novelist James Hilton had described in his producing new elements and deducing, Chandigarh experience, although

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probably confirming that the views that monumental kind of heritage. Although HUDNUT, J. (1957). Le Corbusier da nueva estructura a la India. Pomaire(5) (April-May), 13. historiography has later supported, it is generally the Capitol buildings that about this case and also about the one in represent the city and its architecture, MUNFORD, L. (1954). Nowicki’s Work in India. Architectu- Brasilia – as announced in the footnote what was presented in Chile was clearly ral Record(214) (September), 153-159.

– have been notably different from the different. Not the Capitol as a monument, POMAIRE. (1957). Le Corbusier da nueva estructura a la ones acknowledged by the intellectual but the landscape, the urban configuration, India. Pomaire(5) (April-May), 13. and cultural sector that constituted the response to tradition, the everyday PRO ARTE. (22 de Julio de 1948). ¿Le Corbusier a Chile? the readership of the Chilean cultural life conditions, the ways of adapting to Pro Arte(2), 1. publications. the climate; and how these outstanding SARIN, M. (1982). Urban planning in the Third World: the Joseph Hudnut proposed that «Society points were interpreted in a plan and Chandigarh Experience. London: Mansell. propiciates the architecture that interprets an architecture capable of combining its aspirations, as a spontaneous process modernity with the spiritual and SUBERCASEAUX, J. (28 de enero de 1954). La ciudad “ra- diante” de Le Corbusier. Se hace realidad en la India la of selection, whether right or wrong », environmental conditions of a culture. más bella aventura arquitectónica de nuestro tiempo. Pro and that «The architect´s wish to impose Arte(168), 5-6. NOTES: his principles is positively limited by (1) N. from the editor: The Taj Mahal and the Red Fort are TADGELL, C. (1990). The History of Architecture in India. the satisfaction of his client », pointing examples of the mughal style. London: Phaidon. out that in order to create architecture, (2) N. from the editor: Shilpa Shastras is the name of a series TORRENT, H. (2012). Chandigarh en Chile: la nueva ciudad you have to obtain the understanding of hinduist texts that describe manual arts, religious icono- en la cultura urbanística y arquitectónica chilena, 1951-57. of the public: «Only architecture that is graphy, sculpture and architecture (although the texts that Fondecyt 1110494. Preliminary version presented at the 1st supported by the public and recognized as deal more specifically with architecture are collected in the International Conference "Conectando Patrimonios de la Vastu Shastra, a hinduist doctrine on the relationship bet- Humanidad y Civilizaciones" (May 31 to July 1, Universi- its own shall survive» (1957, p. 13). ween the laws of nature and human dwellings). dad Mayor).

(3) A more extensive version of what follows in this article On the other hand, Gille-Delafon, TORRENT, H. & UNDURRAGA, M. (2012). Del ideal al was presented at the 1ra Conferencia Internacional “Conec- hecho: la figura de Le Corbusier y la introducción de ideas stated that the fabric of everyday life is tando Patrimonios de la Humanidad y Civilizaciones”,( 1st urbanas alternativas de la modernidad en Chile. Fondecyt highlighted in the city on the dominant International Conference “Connecting Human Heritage 1110494. Preliminary version, Santiago. and civilizations”) organized by Universidad Mayor, the monuments, even though the image of the Embassy of India and the Embassy of Mexico in Chile bet- BIBLIOGRAPHY: Capitol has been the one that traditionally ween 31st may and 1st June, 2012. DIGBY, W. (1901). Prosperous British India. London. refers to the city. (4) N. from the editor: on behalf of the German busi- FRY, M. (1955) Chandigarh New Capital City. Architectural Juana Subercaseaux affirmed the nessman Overpaur, Sergio Larraín G. M. and Jorge Arteaga Record, 117(223) (June), 139-148. entirely new aesthetics of the city, not designed the building set on the south west corner of the streets Estado and Huérfanos. because of the monumental condition FRY, M. & DREW, J. (1956). Tropical Architecture in the Hu- mid Zone. London: Batsford. of big buildings, but for that «parasol (5) The periodical proposed to address the planning of the and umbrella architecture, as in India new capital of Brazil, which was being favoured at the same FRY, M. & DREW, J. (1964) Tropical Architecture in the Dry time. and Humid Zones one cannot avoid the sun, the rain and . London: Batsford. the winds», pointing out that building a REFERENCES LE CORBUSIER. (1945). Les Trois établissements humains. CASCIATO, M. (2012). Scienza e arte dell´architettura: Paris: Denoël. “climate wall”, Le Corbusier has brought due reviste nell´India di Nehru. Las revistas de arquitec- up to date over 40 years of research tura (1900-1975): crónicas, manifiestos, propaganda. Actas LE CORBUSIER (1952). Chandigarh, capital du Punjab. (…) These are details that do not get preliminares del Congreso Internacional de Historia de la L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui(39) (February), XX-XXI. Arquitectura Moderna Española (may, 3-4, Escuela Técnica much attention once you get used to Superior de Arquitectura de la Universidad de Navarra), NAIR, A. (1953). Chandigarh – Ville Radieuse des In- them» (1954, p. 5). Regarding the end, Pamplona: T6, 35-40. des: une capitale construite par des architectes français. Subercaseaux stated that: «Chandigarh L’Architecture d’Aujourd’hui(46) (February-March), 102-103. EVENSON, N. (1966). Chandigarh. Berkeley: University of will not be like other cities. It has its signs California Press. NEHRU, J. (1962). An Autobiography. New Delhi: Allied. » (1954, p. 5), refering to the open hand GILLE-DELAFON, S. (1951, July 31). Le Corbusier y el monument. CIAM levantan un “Shangri-La” ciudadano en la India. Pro The city attracted attention for a non Arte(138), 11.

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