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Graduate Thesis Collection Graduate Scholarship
1929
The Effect of Education Upon The Life of The Alaskan Eskimo
Howard H. Burkher
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Recommended Citation Burkher, Howard H., "The Effect of Education Upon The Life of The Alaskan Eskimo" (1929). Graduate Thesis Collection. 86. https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/grtheses/86
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Scholarship at Digital Commons @ Butler University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Thesis Collection by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Butler University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE EFFECT OF EDUCATION UPON THE LIFE OF
THE ALASKAN ESKIMO
BY
HOWARD H. BURKHER
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE IN
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
BUTLER UNIVERSITY
1929 '1
Acknowledgements
The authJr in presenting this work CMeS a debt of gratittrle to the following fEOPle: to
Dr. W. L. Richardson and Dr. A. B. carlisle for much helpful criticism and advice; to Jonathan
H. Wagner, Chief of the Alaska Division of the
Bureau of Education for valuable assistance in obtaining source llE.teriali to the missionaries
Rev. E. B. Iirrsson, Rev. F. Drebert, and Rev.
Adolph Stecker for help in gathering historical data and statistical recnrds; and to Dr. 1. T.
Shultz, Dr. 'Ibll:x:rrt. F. Reavis, Professor Albert r-tx:k., and Professor Lee o. Garber for helpful suggestions. Credit is also due to my wife without whose inspiration and candid criticism this study cnuld hardly have teen possible. CONTENTS
Chapter Page
I. Intrcxluction. 1
II. Racial Traits of the E.<3kirro. 4 Geogra~cal distriwtion of the Eski.no race. Authority for tribal classifica tion. Distrib..ltion of tribes fran Point BarTcM to Bristol Bay. Physical charac teristics. Unifying influence of various educational factors. Surrmary•
III. Canparison of Primitive and M:rlerI). Fcxrls. 13 Relative i.rnp:>rt.ance of focrl in the life of the primitive Eskirro. Kinds of focrl taken fran the sea. Kirds of focrl taken fran the rivers and lakes. Kinds of land anilIals and birds used for focrl. J:n1pJrt ance of roots and rerries in the diet.
Value of the white man's focrl to the Es- ki.no. ~thod.s of preparing and eating fcxrls urrler primitive and nodern corrli tions. Vegetables. Reirrleer. SUIlIIBIY•
TV. Canparison of Primitive and M:rlern Clothing. 25 Kinis of rraterial used for clothing. Var
iation in styles of clothing. Description of standard articles of clothing. ~thod.s used in naking clothing. Intrcxluction of re.N rraterials, styles, and roothods of oon struction by white men. Changes in meth ods and rraterials of adorrurent. Influence of education in regard to clothing changes. Surmary.
V. Canparison of Primitive and tvbdern Habitations. 39
Types of dwellings used for different seasons. ~tlx::rl of oonstructing the win ter house at Point BarrCM. Variations in winter oouse oonstruction in different tribes. Uni.versality of
Chapter Page
VI. Changes in OCCUpations am Irrplements. 53 A. Mefuxls am irnplarents in fishing urrler 53 primitive ronditions. Adoption of new mefuxls am irnplarents as a result of association with white rrerl. B. Mefuxls am irnplarents used in hunting 59 urrler primitive c:x>rxlitions. Adoption of new mefuxls am irnplarents as a result of imitation of white rrerl. C. Attitudes of the Eskim.J tcMard regula- 64 tion of hunting am fishing activities. D. Brief history of the intrOOuction am 65 developrent of the reirrleer irrlustry• E. Limitations am p:JSsibilities of 75 gardening as an industry am::>ng the Eskim.J. F. Developrent of miscellaneous occupations 77 as a result of education. SurmaIy.
VII • Primitive am M::rlern Hea.lth Conditions• 81 Effects of changes of foo:1, clothing, and habitations up:>n the health of the Eskim::>. sane diseases as gifts fran the whiteman to the EskiIro. hbrk of the Bureau of Education in i.mproverrEnt of health con:li tions arrong the Eskirro. Surmary•
VIII. Fran the EskiIro to the English Language. 95 Value of the Esk.i.no language as a rreans of ccmmmication. Limitations of the Eskirro language under the rrcrlern form of civiE zation. Work of the Bureau of Education in the academic training of Eski.m::> child ren. Value of the ability to SPeak, read, and write the English language as taught to the Eskim.J chidren in governrrent schools. Surmary•
IX. Fran Shamanism to Christianity. 103 Furrl3rrental religious concepts arrong the primitive Eskirro. The relation of reli gion to the everyday life of the Eskino. Part played by the 11sham;m" and his ritual. CONTENTS
Chapter Page
IX. (cx:ntinued) The intreduction of Christianity by missionaries. The mingling of t;w:) relig ions. Effects of Christianity upon the life of the Esk.:i.no. Surnnary•
x. Primitive arrl t-trlern Social Relations. 112 The tribe as the social unit. System of tribal government. Custans relative to family life. The "kashimll as the center of social life. Attitude of roth old and ymmg in regard to control of Eskirro by the United states goverrm:mt. Part played by the Bureau of Education schools in establishing social ideals and attibrles arrong the Esk.:i.no. Surnnary•
XI • Surnnary• 124
XII. Conclusions arrl Reccmrerrlations. 129
Bibliography. 136 LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
I. Birth and Death Rate Arrong Eskirro, 87
Irrlian, and Mixed Blcx:rls. (1 924 to 1927)
('This table is rnt in this ropy, rot was in the original sulmitted to the University.)
II. Total Births and Deaths in Alaska. 88
( 1917 to 1921 )
III. Armual Birth and Death statistics for 89
Unalakleet. (1894 to 1927)
N. Armual Birth and Death statistics for 92
CW-nhagak District. (1920 to 1928) THE EFFECT OF EDUCATION UPON THE LIFE OF
THE ALASKAN ESKIMO
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
'!he Problem Involved.: The purpose of this dissertation is to give the results of an investigation to detennine what effects Erlucation has had arrl is having up.:m the life of the
Alaskan Esk.i.no.
Definition of Tenns Used: In this study "education" is used to designate the influence exerted by representatives of the white race and white civilization up.:m the Esk.i.no. The irrlividuals who have consciously or unconsciously engagErl in this educative process uay m generally classifiErl as teachers, missionaries, doctors, traders, fishennen, trappers, and miners.
r-Ethod of Investigation: In order to detennine the arrount, method, arrl value of various changes which have taken place as a result of education, a cx:;mpari50n is uade of primi tive arrl rroiern corrlitions arrong the Eskirro of Alaska with Page 2
supplenentary descriptions of the rrost important transitional stages of devel~t.
Sources of Data: '!he rraterial for this dissertation has been taken fran the follCMing sources: Reports of the Smith sonian Institution en EthnoIDg'ical Investigations by various arctic exp:rlitions aIOClI1g primitive tribes of Esk..i.no; reports by irrlividuals conducting investigations under the auspices of the Canadian and Danish governrrents for the purpose of obtain ing infonnation concerning the habits, custans, and living
conditions annng the Esk.i.nD; rep:lrts of the United states Bureau of Education on the progress of the ~k of that de parbnent in regard to its educational endeavors, its IOOdical service, and its occupational training ammg the Eskim:l of
Alaska; and experience gained fran four years residence and travel anong the Eskirro en the p:ut of the author while in the teaching service of the Bureau of lliucation.
Limitations of the study: 'Ihis discussion is limited to the Esk.i.rro of Alaska for the follCMing reasons: A thorough discussion of all Eskim:l v.ould involve too mmy problE!TlS to re adequately dealt with in a study of this type; other divisions
of the Eskim:l have a cultural developrent so different that it deserves separate discussion; and the ~k of the Bureau of
Eilucation, which has been ene of the rrost irnpJrtant influences in the developrent of the Esk.i.nD, has been restricted to the Page 3
Alaskan Eski.nn.
:I!rqx)rtance of the Stlrly: Although reports of several explorers incllrle valuable information regarding the Esk.ino of
Alaska, search has been rrade and IX) stlrly has been found sha.ring the developrent arrl changes which have taken place under the advantages and disadvantages of the various educa tional influences. Every year the United States, through the rredium of the Bureau of Education in Alaska, sperrls large sums of noney in the prarotion of OOneficial projects arrl in the suppression of those of hannfu1 effect in an effort to improve
the living canclitions of the Eski.rro in Alaska. several mis sionary ~ieties in the United States are also engagErl in an effort to accanplish these similar objects through their rep resentatives in Alaska. These farces, together with the in fluence of traders, trappers, miners, arrl fishenren, have effected changes in the life of the Eski.rro which have required centuries to develop to the point sh:c:Mn in other civilizations.
'Ibis dissertation is an effort to detennine what these changes have been, their causes, arrl the advantages arrl disadvantages to the Eskirro, with suggestions as to the other valuable changes which might be rtEde in the future. I
CHAPTER II
RACIAL TRAITS OF THE ESKIMO ~ distinct types of a.lx>rigines are krlatm to have
inhabited North America, the Irrlian arrl the Eskilro. 'TIle
Irrli.an who fonnerly occupied the rrajor portion of the
continent have been forced to affinjon rrost of their
territory for the use of the white nan. 'TIle Eskilro still
inhabit the west.en1, northern, arrl east.en1 p::>rtions of North
Anerica fran Bristol Bay in Alaska to the southern p:rrt of
Labrador as they did before the cx:m:ing of the white man.
'TIle majority of these people inhabit a narrow strip of
territory along the coast. A few may be found as far as two
hundred miles fran the CIJaSt along the larger rivers, while
others have scattered villages on the shores of a few large
lakes and isl.aIrls.
Although primitive Eskirro culture was quite similar am::mg
all tribes,1 nany variations have developed as a result of
contact with civilization. The Eskirro of Greenlarrl have
1. Stefansson, V., My Life with the Eskilro, p. 196 Page 5 adopted civilization lUlder the guidance of the Danish governrrent. 2 'lhose who inhabit the coast and islarrls of
Canada have progresserl but little except in scattered villages urrler the direction of missionaries. 3 During the last forty years the Esk.irro of Alaska have been subjected to educational influences fran many sources.
One of the best rrethods of detennining the effects of an influence is to cx:rnpare objects or irxlividuals which have been influenced with those which have not. In order to
canpare Esk.irro for the purpose of sharing the effects of educational influence UFOn than, ~ rray nake use of tribal divisions. A brief description of the Esk.i.rro may serve to introduce the reader to the rrain ooject of discussion in this dissertation.
Expeditions to study corx.litions am:JI1g the Esk.i.rro have learned much concerning their primitive living corrlitions.
The Annual RePJrt of the Bureau of Ethnology of the smithsonian Institution, 1887-1888, oonsists rrainly of the account of John Murdoch, Naturalist and Observer, of the
Int:enlational Polar Expedition to Port Barrow during the period fran 1881 to 1883. '!his rePJrt and a similar one by the smithsonian Institution, published in Part I of the
2. Hall, C. F., Arctic Researches and Life ArrDng the Esk.i.rro, p. 51 3. Rasmussen, Knud, Across Arctic Arrerica. Page 6 rep:lrt for the year 1896-1897, which describes early oorrlitions am:mg the Esk.i.roc> fran the Kuskoquim River to
Norton Sound are offererl as authority to support. staterents of personal d:>servations on the part of the author relative to so-called "primitive states or oorrlitions. II
During the latter half of the nineteenth centu.l:y, the distribution of Esk.:ino tribes along the coast of Alaska was as follows (see rrap on p:lge 7): Fran Point Barrow' eastward
approximately half way to the Mackenzie River, and fran Point Barrow' ~tward and southward half way to cape
Lislxmrne, the territory was occupied by Utkiavigmiut and snaller related tribes; fran Point Clarence, the r-Blemute; fran Port Clarence to Golovin Bay, the Kaveramiut; fran
Golovin Bay to the rrouth of the Yukon, the Unalik; fran the rrouth of the Yukon to Paiamuit, the Ikoganiut; fran the routh of the Yukon to the routh of the Kuskokwim, the
Magemiut (otherwise kna.m as the Kusilvakamiut); fran the routh of the Kuskoquim for ~ hundred miles up the river, the Kuskoquogamiut; fran the rrouth of the Kuskoquim to
Nushagak on Bristol Bay, nany snaIl villages of the same general tribe as the natives of the Kuskoquim but having separate narres for ea.ch village.
Sane exceptions to this classification are those natives at cape Prince of Wales, Port Clarence, am. King Island, kna.m as Kinugmiut, am. the people of st. Laurence Island Page 7
DISTRIBUTION OF BSKIMO TRIBES
IN ALASKA ARC T I/~ ·0 C I: AN. I I I I ,I / I I I I
I , F"~ ,,' "
" "
'''''~C
.' ST. ~ciE I. ~
bI! ~
""' ~
\"A
eJ)~
t'lS ~ ~ c;\ Page 8
and the Diarede Islands.
General staterrents a:mcerning the physical characteris tics of any race are likely to be untrue when applied to certain irrlividuals of the race. It is p:::lssible, however, to describe the characteristics rrost camonly fOl..lI'rl which enable me to distinguish me race fran another and to assign an irrlividual to the race to which he probably belongs.
'The Esk.i.mJ are a ITEd.iurn- sized p;!Ople although extrerres may be fOl..lI'rl arrong the M3lemute who often reach 5 feet 10 inches in height with weight of 180 p:::lunds, and arocmg the
M3.gemiut who rarely exceed 5 feet 5 inches in height or 140 p:::lunds in weight. Practically all Eskirro h3.ve a bru.vnish sldn, dark eyes, dark hair with a terrlency to straightness and coarseness, broad and flat faces, flat roses, high cheek rones, large rrouths with full lips, and b:rlies that are remarkably free fran hair. I have seen sane notable exceptions to all of these characteristics, but they were ootable and roticeable because they were exceptions.
lvbst of the adults, especially the \ttU1lel1, app::ar to be much older than they really are. A waran of thirty is generally already stooped and misshaPen tecause of the t:OOr p:::lsture atterrlant to her habits of carrying babies m her back and sitting on the floor to sew and to tan skins. Her Page 9 harrls arrl face are roughena:1 arrl sea.rre:1 by the alrrost
pe.rp:tual winds of a rigorous cl:inate. All of the older
people, except those who are exceptionally obese, have an
intricate network of facial wrinkles. Inflamnation of the eyes is prevalent arrong the i.rrlividuals past middle age. It
is difficult to detennine whether this condition is a racial
characteristic or is due to expJSUre to the cold wirrls and
bright reflection fran the snow. One of the rrost remarkable
characteristics of the wcrnen is the exceptional flexibility
of the b:xiy and limbs. This trait is daronstrated in the
ease with which they habitually extend the legs flat to the
floor without berrling the knees while sitting and in the
dexterity with which they raIDVe their babies fran their
backs by lowering them spirally around the b:xiy. Both rren arrl wcrnen are well errl~ with nmscular
strength and P1ysical errlurance, e.g., they often travel 20
to 30 miles a day on foot with large p;l.cks on their backs.
Seal hLmters frequently p3.ddle their kayaks through rough
seas for twenty-four hours without sleep while a fox hunter
rray follo;.; a single fox trail ronstantly for Thu days. H~er, in spite of the hardihood evidenced in his daily
life, the Eskimo is especially susceptible to diseases
introduced by the white rran. 'ilie CXllllOll belief that the
Eskimo is less vulnerable to cold than white rren has no
evidence to SUIJiX)rt it. Page 10
D..1ring the t.iIre previous to occupation of Alaska by the
United States, the different tribes rarained within certain general l:::o1.lOOaries. This was made inevitable by the lack of trafl.SIX)rtation arrl cx:mnunication facilities, by feoos arrl petty quarrels CNer fracture of tribal 1:atxJos, arrl by the lack of a reI1tral protective force. United States oontrol with its law enforcarent, education, arrl efficient facili ties for cx:mm.mication ha.s overeune nany of these tribal differences to a great extent.
By establishing schaJls in all of the larger villages fran Point Barrow on the rrost northerly PJint of Alaska to
Kanakanak on Bristol Bay, the United States Bureau of
Education has furnished a unifying force for the various
Eski.m;) tribes in an unprecedented rranner. By means of the two irrlustrial schaJls (there is a third one atterrled by
In:li.ans) located at White MJlll1tain 00 tvDrton Sound arrl at
Kanakanak where the [lOst pranising pupils fran each of the
SPaller schools are able to d:>tain special training, rep resentatives of all the Eskino tribes are brought 1:o:]ether rraking f:Ossible an intenningling of tribes which is oondu cive to tolerance arrl rerroval of preju:lice. The United
States M3.il service is another invaluable rreans of praroting friendly relations arrl erasing tribal boU1'XJ.ary lines.
Reirrleer fairs and church oonferences are also an incentive Page 11 to travel and exchange of ideas. 'Ihus, p::>ints of cx:mtaet and unifying forces of inestimable value have been estab lished in recent years.
One of the ootstanding examples of tribal fusion has occurred at Unalakleet on Norton Sourrl. This village was fornerly occupied by natives of the Unalik. tribe. During the last thirty years considerable migration fran the
IX>rthern tribes has brought so rrany of the Kaveramiut and
Malemute into this village that the Unalik are nc:1W in the minority. Urrler primitive conditions these tribes ~e enemies. Although all three languages are still sp::>k.en, so much intenrarriage has already taken place that practically all irrlividuals have relatives in all three tribes. A similar miscegenation which is taking place arrong the natives of the Yukon and Kuskoquim rivers serves as another example of the tribal fusion which is occurring urrler the unifying influence of education. 'The value of such inter rrarriage between tribes as q:>p::>sed to inbreeding in the same tribe is still in dispute arrong biologists, but the cultural and econanic value is quite evident.
SUMMARY OF QmPI'ER I
RACIAL 'IRAI'IS
1. The cultural develq::rrent of the m:rlern Eskirro has
Page 12 foll~ separate and distinct charmels urrler the influence of the Ianish, Canadian, and Arrerican governments.
2. certain distinguishing physical traits are COlIlOIl arrong all tribes of Alaskan Eski.rto.
3. Various educational influences have effect.Ed changes in tribal relationships by destroying tribal warfare, and establishing rrore efficient met.hcrls of camnmicaticn, trade, and travel. CHAPTER III
COMPARISON OF PRIMITIVE AND MODERN FOODS
In the preceding chapter on racial traits, an effort was made to introduce the reader to the Esk:i..rro himself. In order to show the radical d1ange which has taken place in the dietary habits of the Eski.Iro under the influence of the white man I s efforts to e:iucate him, it will tE necessary to
ITake a canp3Iison of primitive and rrcdern fcx::xis and met:hcds of preprring, thero.
Before a::rning into rontact with the white man, the diet of these people consisted alrrost entirely of meat and fish.
The prq:ortionate arrount of any article of fcxxl in the diet depended, to a large extent, up::m the supply available. The
ITOst plentiful article of fcxxl along the ooast was the flesh of the hair-seal. In aOOition to its meat, which is still used and valued highly, this animal furnished oil and blubber. In order to obtain a supply of this valuable fat, the Esk.i.rTo living along the shores of lakes and rivers were forced to make annual trips to the coast. S<:Jre were able to prrchase oil with caritx:>u skins or wooden utensils brought Page 14 fran the interior, while others remained on the coast long eJX)ugh to hunt seals for themselves.
The walrus, white whale, and ll:x:Mhead" whale were also value::i for their rreat and bluOOer' although the latter species of whale was rarely, if ever, f01..1Xrl except along the oorthern coast. Although the flesh of the whale and walrus is exceedingly tough and coarse-grainOO in cnnpa.rison to that of the seal, the thick skin of the whale (rnuktuk) was, and still is, o:>nsidere::i to re a great delicacy arrong all
Eskimo.
Fish was the principal article of diet arrong the Eskirro of the rivers and lakes and was also utilized to a large extent by the coast-dwellers. As sane kind of fish rray re f01..1Xrl in the rivers and along the coast of Alaska at alnDst any time of the year, it frequently happened that this fonn of fcx:x3. was the only means of rraintaining life during long periods of near-famine when other foods were not ct>tainable.
Crabs were found at sate places along the coast and were considered to re a great delicacy. The shells of the crabs
were used as decorative objects in the houses after the rreat had ~ remJved.
Great numbers of ducks, geese, swans, cranes, and rrany k..i.rrls of smaller wild fONI were taken for fcx:x3. during the spring and fall migrations. If the game was exceptionally fat, sate of the oil would re sa.ved for use in t.i.Ires of
Page 15 scarcity. During the nesting season which foll~ the spring migration, the eggs of all of the wild fCMI were eagerly sought. Since ro discrimination was shcMn ooncern ing the stage of an egg's developrent, few were ever wasted.
'lhe tenn "strictly fresh" held little, if any, charm for the primitive Eskino when applied to any kind of food.
According to the test.i.m:my of old EskiIro who had in turn quoted their p:rrents, the rrountain ranges and foothills along the
1902. CMing to the occupation of st. Michael arrl Unalakleet on Norton Sound in 1833 arrl the oonsequent distrihltion of fire anus to the EskiIro of tbat regioo, the extinction of the cariJ:x:>u came rmch sooner than in territory where fire anus were rot received until the p.rrchase of Alaska by the
United states. Practically all of the food value to l::e obtained fran the carilx>u was utilized by the EskiIro. Every scrap of meat was carefully scrap:!d fran the tones while the bones thernselves were broken open to obtain the marrow. As rmch of the reserve food supply of the animal was stored in the rnarrcM, this form of food was especially rich arrl rourishing arrl, oonsequently, high!y prized. During t.iJres of famine, the skins of carilx>u were mixed with oil arrl u.sej Page 16 as fCXJd. The vital organs, intestines, stanach, and stanach contents \'Krre also used for fCXJd 1.IDder oonditions of plenti ful fCXJd supply fran other sources -- which shows that this form of fCXJd was eaten fran moice and rot fran necessity.
All of the small land. anirrals such as rabbits, squir rels, rranrots, and porcupines have been hlmted by roth primitive and nroern Eskirro for fCXJd, as well as the water anirrals such as the beavers and muskrats. Bears furnished excellent fcx:rl when ways and m=ans oould be devised to kill them, while wolves, wolverines, foxes, and lynxes were killed and eaten in times of scarcity of other fcx:rls.
The rrany kinds of berries which g:rcM on the tundra and along the banks of rivers were always eagerly sought as a
TIEanS of varying the rronotony of the flesh diet. Bu.lbous roots of grass grOOng near and in the lakes, as well as certain ];Ort.ions of the stems and leaves were also eaten in large quantities during the spring and surrrner when they
\'Krre available. Wi llow buds and terrler sprouts \'Krre SC'IlE t.ilres eaten when other vegetation could not be had to suppleuent the flesh diet.
several important changes have taken place in the dietetic habits of the Eskirro as a result of efforts on the r.art of white rren to educate him in the ways of the white man I s civilization. Practically every Eskirro village south of Point Barrow on the coast of Alaska rY:M has access to Page 17 sore trading (X>St where rrost of the staple articles of fcx::rl, which are included in the diet of the white rran, nay be purchased. The first fcx::rls obtained fran the whaling vessels were generally of the IIimperishableII type, such as tea, coffee, flour, corn rreal, sugar, rrolasses, and. rice.
As the trading p:')sts became rrore nurrerous and. a liking far such fcx::rls increased, it became rrore and. rrore necessary for the Eskirro to devote nore of his time to lnrnting in order to supply the traders with fur in payrrent far the whiteman I s fcx::rl products. Thus it nay be seen that the changes in the fcx::rl habits of the Eskirro are closely related to the changes in occupation.
The rrost i.mpJrtant dlange in the dietetic habits of the
Eskirro has been due to the developnent of the carming industJ:y. Owing to the difficulty of 1:J:'ansIx>rtation and. the heavy losses involved, few traders were willing to iITlpJrt fresh fruits and. vegetables far the pill1X)se of trade with the natives. But when scientific rnethcrls of canning fcx::rls had been perfected, no Sf.lE!Cial care was needed except to prevent freezing. Because of the impracticability of canning, together with the exceptional fcx::rl value involved, oranges, apples, and. p:')tatoes are shipped to Alaska fresh.
Through dJservation, it was discovered that the best-liked
fcx::rls were oranges and. ca.rrly. The choice be~ these two ~uld deperrl up:>n the relative size of the articles. (A Page 18 large orange \t,lJuld be chosen in preference to a small piece of can:1y, while a large piece of can:1y \toUUld be dlosen instead of a small orange.)
Canned milk is used rrore widely and in greater quanti ties than any other canned foexi. Its use was introduceCl as an adjtIDct to ooffee drinking and as a rreans for shortening the nursing pericrl for small children. In irnitation of the white rren, the Esk..im::> has gradually increased his oonsump tion of milk through using it as a beverage and as an ingredient in preparation of other foods. Canned taratoes are naN used to sane extent in making soups by the Eskirro living in the rrore advanceCl villages. The importance of spinach in the diet of the white man has not yet been realized by the Esk.i.rro except in a very few cases. They object to rrost canned foods on the ground that the price is usually too high to justify the purchase of so IlUlch water.
Although sane of the traders realize that the success of their business deperrls to a large extent up:>n the purchasing pa.Yer of the Esk.irro, which in turn deperrls upon his health and ability to w.Jrk, o:mpa.ratively few traders take advan tage of the splerxlid OPlX)rtunity which is theirs to offer the Esk.irro the white rren IS nost health-giving foods.
One of the best methcx:ls of helping the Esk.irro to obtain gocd. wholesane foexi at reasonable prices is by the estab lisl.1rrent of properly organized and properly managed ooopera Page 19 tively managed stores. '!his method has been utilized to gcx:rl advantage in several villages by the Bureau of Educa tion with teachers as supervisors, am. by missionary societies with missionaries as supervisors. These cnopera tive stores are rrost useful as 'Well as II'Ost successful in villages which have no privately operated stores in the
vicinity to offer canpetition am. divide the interest of the a::mnunity in s~ of the cx:x:>perative enterprise.
'!he adoption of certain of the white nanIS fccrls by the
Eskirro necessitated the adoption of sane of the white nan t s methods of preparing these fcxxls. The adoption of new rreans of preparing rew fcxxls also had sane influence upon the rranner in which sane of the native fcxxls were prepared.
The SUi.thsonian Institution I s report of 1887-1888 regarding the Point BarrcM Eskirro corrororates my firrlings regarding primitive methods of preparing and eating fcxxls anong the Eskirro of seward Peninsula, Norton Sound, Yukon
River, and Kuskoquirn River.
All kinds of rreat were generally oooked by roiling in a generoo.s quantity of water. If the bloc.d of the anim3.l was available, it was used to thicken the water to fonn soup or broth which was drunk. hot l:efore eating the meat. The practice of turying surplus rreat in the frozen subsoil in times of plenty during 51.lIlTlY2r rronths resulted in the con sumption of mmy meals of half-rotten rreat during stonny Page 20 winter rronths when fresh meat was not to te found. 'n1ere is no evidence to irrlicate that hannfu1 results accrued fran this practice. On the other hand, the testirrony of several
Esk.i.m:> in widely separated villages, to the effect that irrlividuals have died during the last ten years fran the effects of eating seal neat of animals washed up:>n the beach several days after they had been killed at sea, shcMs this to te a dangerous practice.
If an ani.rral was killed near a pmnanent camp during the
S1..1Illfer, the neat was cut into strips an::] dried for winter
use. As all rreat killed during the winter nonths imnediate ly l.Jecaroo frozen, no other ~thcrl of preservation was neces sary during this period. Very old Esk.i.rro rren an::] v.unen say that raw meat taken directly fran the animal was eaten only under circumstances which rrade CXXlking difficult or impossi ble. Dried meat was not considered to te inferior to CXXlked neat at any t.irre, and it was especially adapted to use while travelling as it is nmch lighter than fresh meat an::] does mt necessitatel::uilding a fire. Frozen meat was also eaten for variety an::] to save the trouble of fire l::uilding.
Fish was eaten toiled, dried, frozen, and raw in much the sarre rranner in which meat was eaten except that larger quantities were oonsumed in the raw state. Esk.i.m:> children frequently eat a small species of fish called needlefish in such a rranner that the fish is killed during the process of Page 21 mastication. The people of the lower Kuskoquim (Kuskoquaga
miut) dug large oottle-shaped holes into the frozen glacial muck along the tanks of the rivers during the late ~.
The openings to these holes were only aOOut three feet in diameter in order to facilitate closing than with a piece of frozen sod for a lid. Fran the top dcMnward, the holes would enlarge to five feet in diameter anj six feet deep.
'Ihese holes were filled with salrron during the rainy nonth of september when it was i.rnpJssible to dry them. Before
"the freeze-up" in october or Novanber, this carefully buried fish would becx:rre partially putrefied. This semiputrefied sal.mJn "tiprruk." was formerly used as a regular
article of diet anj was considered to be a great delicacy if only king salrron heads ~ buried instead of the whole sal.mJn. Its use is nr:JW confined to feeding dogs except in t.i.It'es of scarcity when Eski.Iro must choose between that and nothing.
Another fonn of primitive fcxx:] which is falling into disuse is a canbination of herring eggs anj the seaweed to which they cling. This fcxx:], which was wten raw, furnished a fonn of roughage in a diet that was markedly deficient in this element. '!he bu.1b:>us roots of rertain kinds of grass were saret.i.It'es obtained for roughage during the 51.llTIrer by robbing the underground storehouse of field mice which had hoarded the roots for winter use. Page 22
The fcx::rl which held first place in the estimation of the
EskiIro under primitive ronditions, and which retains ITUlch of its chann for the nodern members of that race, consisted of berries, caritou fat, seal oil and SD.CM. Due to the high place held by this foed in the estimation of the Eskim::>, it has been given the English name "Eskirro ice cream." In
Eskirro it is "akootuk." At present the hard, white fat of the reirrleer instead of the fat of the cari..tou is used in rraking this delicacy.
One of the rrost recent developnents which has resulted in changing the foed habits of the Eski..Iro is gardening.
Unfortunately, the unfavorable climatic and sci1 ronditions of many localities prevent the profitable cultivation of such o:mron garden vegetables as nay 1:E prcrluced in many villages on Norton Sound, Yukon River, Kuskoquim River, arrl
Bristol Bay. The vegetables a:tlllouly raised in ESkirro gardens are: potatoes, tu!nips, rutabagas, carrots,
eatDages, lettuce, and radishes. other vegetables which can be raised are: spinach, chard, peas, celery, caulifl~, onions, and baets. The Eskirro oonfine their efforts to raising the vegetables in the first list because of the greater yield in foed value in c:anpariscn to the aITOlmt of sp:3.ce required for grCMing. Methcx:is used in cultivating
Eskirro gardens will 1:E thoroughly discussed in the chapter on OCcup:3.tions arrl Implenents. Page 23
The rapid developrent of the reindeer irrlustry am:ng the Alaskan Eskirro has given reindeer rreat a place of enornvus importance in the diet of these PeOple. ~ver, since the reirrleer is in reality a variety of small daresticated caril::ou, the meat is so similar as to prOOuce little if any change in regard to rrethods used in preparing it. Since the intrcductioo of reindeer into Alaska has produced an econanic rnther than a dietetic dlange in the life of the Eski.m::>, the subject will be discussed in the chapter 00 Occupations and Irrplemmts.
SUMMARY OF CHAPlER III
FOJD
1. The fcx:rl of the primitive Eskirro consisted largely of the flesh of sea and larrl aniITals and fish. This diet was varied at ti.rres with berries, roots, tubers, and certain kirrls of grass.
2. Sane of the white rran I s foods such as flour, o::rrn meal, sugar, tea, and roffee have supplanted a large portion of the flesh foods. Sane kinds of fruits (roth fresh and dried) and canne:1 milk have recently becxIne PJpular as foods in some localities.
3. Flesh and fish are eaten OJOked, dried, frozen, half-rotten, and raw. Foods intrcduced by the white rran are Page 24 generally prepared. in one of the ways used by the white rren.
4. Gardening, which is cnly in its infancy, as an irrlustry is already a:mtrihlting enonrously to the f Eskirro of Alaska. 5. '!he reirrleer industry which was int:rcrluarl into Alaska by the Bureau of lliucation in 1894 has already becane an ~t source of f COMPARISON OF PRIMITIVE AND MODERN CLOTHING Chapter III dealt with the rranner in which the Esk..i.Iro solves his fcxrl problems. Another of the obstacles encOlmtered by the primitive Eskirro in the occupation of Alaska was the ICM temperature which exmronly prevailed there during the winter rronths. A IIDst important step in avercaning this obstacle was the constru.ction of clothing fran the skins of ani.rrals anCl birds. The kind of skin to be used was detennined. in IIDst cases by the kinds of ani.rrals or birds which were rrost ab.md.ant and IIDSt suitable for the kirrl of gannent to be constru.cted. The IIDst .irnp:.lrtant garment resembled a loose cloak in general I:Elttern. The important differences were that it had no opening in the front, which is (llIIIOIUy closed by rnttons on a cloak, and that a hood was attached to serve as a covering for the head. 'nris garment which is called a "parkall or "parky" was put on by pulling it aver the head in the same marmer that a rrodern athletic jersey is p..1t on by a foot-ball player. Many kinds of skins were used for the constru.ction of Page 26 p:rrkas. Cari.b:Ju skins could be obtained in great variety of wannth and thickness according to the size of the animal and the time of year when it was killed. The youngest fawns have the thinnest skins with soft downy hair. These were used to clothe the very young children to pennit freed.an of rrotion which would be ~sible in the heavy winter skins. The skins of fawn and yearlings were cx:msidered to be best for rraking prrkas for adults. The best time for taking these skins depended up:m the severity of the clilrate which varies OJnSiderably in different localities. As the temperature is much l~ in the interior of Alaska during the winter rronths than it is 00 the cnast in the same latitlrle, the natives living along the rivers and lakes required much heavier skins for clothing than those who inhabited the roast. The fur of the sperrrophile (tsik tsik), which is a small species of ground squirrel, was used extensively for p:rrkas by all of the tribes inhabiting the nain1arrl. Gannents made fran such fur canbined all the qualities of wannth, lightness, beauty, durability, and flexibility. A1though a squirrel gannent was not as wann as one of cariOOu skin, ~ squirrel ganrents could be worn simultaneously to prcrluce wannth without the cumbersane stiffness of the caribou skin garrrent. Anong the r-Blerrnlte of Kotzel:ue Sound, the IlKobJ.k squirrelll or IItsik tsikpuklt Page 27 was used to make very harrl.scrre as well as serviceable parkas. Skins of the arctic hare were used for parkas to sore extent on the mainland. Although these ga.rnents were wann, they were not very durable on aCCX>lIDt of the extreme thinness of the skin. The relative scarcity of other fur bearing animals rrade their extensive use as the main naterial for parkas impractical. For all of these parkas, the fur of the ~lverine and. the ~lf was IlDst o:.:mronly used as trimning around the hocd as a means of protecting the face and as decxrration. Wolverine was always in datarrl because of its F€CUliar ability to prevent the fonnation of ice around the face fran the IlDisture in the breath. The scarcity of fur-bearing animals on their is1.an:ls and. the plentiful supply of ducks a:::rnbine:i to force the Eski.rro of the Diarede Islarrls to utilize skins of the latter for prrkas. These feather parkas were very wann, and would shed the rain. Their faults were that they were very fragile, they soon shed their feathers, and. they were likely to be inhabited with bird parasites which would adopt the wearer of the parka as their new host instead of the duck. Waterproof parkas were nade fran seal or walrus intestine which was split longit1rlinally and. ~ in a spiral manner. These garrrents were worn by roth sexes in rainy -weather, by the roon while on the sea in their l::xJats, and. by the wcm=n while travelling. Page 28 All other parkas of rren and. wanen differ in style, and. the general style in different localities also differs sanE:!What. '.fue ga.nrent ~ by the men was cut even along the rottan, while that ~ by the wcmen had a flap in front and. one behind. '.fue flap reached to the knees or a little ~ and. had rounded edges. The opening between the flaps reached to just belON the hips on either side. The parkas of the rren arrong the Kuskaquaganiut reached to the knees or l~, while those ~ by the northern tribes were cut in such a rranner that the rottan reached the mioole of the thigh. The wanen of all tribes invariably decorated their parkas rrore than those of the rren. The hood of the ~I s ga.nrent was enlarged to accx::rrm::da.te the head of the infant which was cx:mronly carried 1JIX>n the back. This feature was imi.tated in the dress of the girls whose ga.nnents were all ITBde in miniature of those of their rrothers. Although the rretha:l of decoration of clothing varied in detail in dif ferent tribes, the general tattern was ranarkably constant. Lcosely fitting urrlergarrrents consisting of pantaloons and. shirt were a:mronly ~ in primi.tive times by roth rren and. wanen. This urrlerclothing was generally rrade fran short-haired cariJ::ou skins with the hair ~ next to the skin. Outer pantaloons of hair-seal or caril:ou skins were ~ during cold ~ther. The wcmen often canbined pantaloons and. toots into one ganrent while the men stuffed Page 29 the oottans of the pantaloons into knee roots. Many varieties of roots ~ forrrerly used to fit the changeable weather oorrlitions. Carilx>u skin and seal skin with hair en servoo for l:oot naterial in the winter and with hair raroved for surrrrer roots. Socks of grass or short haired caritx:>u skin were worn inside the roots with a grass rrat for added protection for the sole of the foot. The sole of the l:oot was generally of seal skin although cariJ:xm skin was .sc:rretirres used as a substitute. In order to protect the seams fran wear, the soles were turned up all around and ~ to the upper with "crimping" at the heel and toe to retain the cup shape of the sole. The difference in the sewing dene by the we:tTe11 in various tribes is rrost evident in the ronstruction of l:oots. The sewing of the King Island natives is markedly superior in respect to neatness and effectiveness, while that of the Maganiut and Kuskoquagamiut is extremely slovenly and crude. These features are rrost evident in the roots rrade of dried fish skin which are used extensively by the Iko:]arni.ut as well as by the Maganiut and the Kuskoquagamiut. Mittens and gloves, which were necessary for out-of door occupations during the winter rronths, were nade fran carilx>u skin, dog skin, wolf, and seal skin and were worn with the hair either in or cut. Mittens were often nade large enough to be used as socks in emergencies when the Page 30 feet becarre wet while on the trail in cold weather. A new gannent in an EskiIro family living under primi tive corrlitions was not taken lightly, for it represented the CXlTIbined efforts of roth prrents for a oonsiderable length of ti.Ire to effect its CClIpletion. After the ani.rral was killed by the father or larger brother, the skin was taken off an:1 dried. '!he next process was to tan the stiff skin by a scraping process lIDtil it l:ecame soft an:1 pliable. Stone knives were then used to cut the skins to the proper pattern. Milly different pieces were often fitted into the pattern to econanize on the material. Although the carfrou skins required rmlch nore time for the tanning process, they were much rrore easily sewed. together than the eighty or ninety squirrel skins required for an adult's parka. Although the same general process of handling skins is in use oc:M that was used one hundred years ago, the change fran stone scrapers to iron ones, fran stone knives to iron knives and scissors, fran tone needles and awls to steel needles that need no awls, has reduced the ti.Ire and lal:or involved and resulted in the prcrluction of rmlch improved clothing fran the starrlp:>int of utility an:1 appearance. Not ally has the EskiIoo retained the use of fur ganrents, rot he has also taught the white man to use fur garrrents of the same pattern as his CMn. Experiments with many styles of coats an:1 jackets have always ended in Page 31 reversioo to the parka as the best outside garrrent. Many white people prefer the Lapland style of root, which is rrade of rein:1eer legs for tops anJ either legs or head skin for soles, for use in extremely enId WE!ather; rot the Eskirro "mukluk" with rein:1eer-leg tops and sm:::>oth sealskin soles are the universally adopted footwear for average winter weather for both Eskirro anJ white people. Many white people prefer the old Eskirro style of using grass for insoles, while wany Eskirro have adopted the use of felt insoles in their toots. Felt is rrore oonveniently harrlled and lasts longer; grass is canparatively inexpensive and is wanner. sane people canbine the advantages by using roth at mce. Although SCIre k.irrls of sealskin roots are sup);X)sed to be superior to oor nJbber roots 00 account of their light weight, the rubber toots are better fran the stanJPJint of durability• M:my Eskirro rx:M WE!ar nJbber roots because they do not wish to give sealskin toots the care which is ne::::essary to keep them waterprcxJf, while rrany white rren wear sealskin toots because they YA:)uld rather pay to have them cared for than to WE!ar the heavier nJbber meso Rubber toots are less likely to leak if used in water for long periods of tirre, rot they also cause excessive perspiration and consequent weakening of the tissues which are not encountered by those who wear the seal roots. several pairs of rranufactured canvas gloves are used Page 32 every year by each Eski..Iro above school age. Cotton and \lKX)len socks and stockings are v.urn until the heel wears through, and then the hole is turned arou.rrl on the top of the foot. When another hole a~s, the side portions are utilized in the sarre rranner. The sock. or stocking is then cut off just above the four holes, the opening thus formed is sewed shut on a sewing rrachine, and the garment is ready for further use. Cotton underclothing is ~m by ITOst of the Eski..Iro during the winter rronths, rot it is often discarded during the surm:rr. M::lst of this urrlerclothing is prrchased fran the trader ready-ma.de, rot sore of the poorer families make sa:re underclothing fran flour and meal sacks. M:my men and toys wear overalls for trousers the year around, while sa:re of the rrore successful hunters are able to afford Y.O:)len garrrents. Waren and girls also wear overalls while fishing, driving dcgs, or picking b=rries. Cotton dresses are prrchased fran the trading posts or ma.de by the ~ with the help of their sewing rrachines. The poorer ~, who cannot afford a ma.chine of their CMI1, frequently use one belonging to sane neighl::xJr or relative. Individuals of all ages and sexes wear what is k.ncMn as an "outside parka" (kashpuk). This gannent is of the sarre pattern. as the fur parka except that it is ma.de larger in all dimensions. It is rrade of drilling, gingham, or calico, Page 33 and is either worn over the fur parka as a protection fran snow, rain, dirt, and wear, or it is worn without the fur parka as a general purpJse ganoont. Although the men usually wear kashp..lks of khaki oolor, they often have a white one for use while hunting on the ice or snt::M in order to be less a:mspicuous against the white background. The waren and girls prefer the fabrics containing the Trost e1a1:orate designs and the brightest colors for rraking their kashpuks. One of the less important dlanges in ronnection with clothing is concerned with the rret.ho:l and materials used in adornrrent. The efforts of primitive Eskirro to derorate their clothing often resulted in strange and intricate canbinatians, and rattenlS. The chief rreans of variation was to canbine several kirrl.s of fur of different length, oolor, and texture into the same garment. Q.ti. te frequently other kirrl.s of material such as black fish skin, red whale-stana.ch and brightly oolored sinew ~e used to VKlrk designs along the seams be~ different kirrl.s of fur. The old custan of cx:mbining squirrel skins and white cariJ::ou skin is still in vo:JUe except that the reindeer furnishes an excellent substitute for the caribou. WOlf and wolverine are used around. the hcx:x:1 for trinrning, and little strips or tails of wolverine are sewed in bmches on the breast, on the back, and on the shoulders. Many canplicated Page 34 designs are wrought into trimning to ba worn arourx:1 the tottan or inserted on the shoulders. The \toUneI1 no longer wear their parkas cut into the double apron -- one bafore and one behind. All \toUneI11 s parkas are OCM cut even arOLnld the tottan to rratch their ready-nade dresses. '!he only parkas left of the apron style belong to the very old ladies who are loathe to part with this old custan of their ancestors. Bright oolored beads and yarn are OCM used to a large extent instead of the red strips of whale-staMch to add oolor to the trimning of toots and parkas. The best trimning for the tottans of parkas and the tops of fur toots is OCM rrade fran black. and white calf skin, instead of cari...tx:>u or reirrleer I as it has short glossy hair which is rrore attractive than either of the latter articles and is so durable that it can ba used on several different parkas or toots before it is necessary to discard it. A curious rocde of ornarrentation which rray be seen only arrong the little girls of the K~gamiut is the practice of attaching the brass wheels of alarm clocks and watches in oonspicuous places on their toots and parkas. The srraller varieties of wheels are also in great derrarrl for use as earrings in a:mbination with blue and red beads. The use of rocdern glass beads in the fonn of necklaces and earrings has a:mpletely supplanted the practice of facial Page 35 tatex:>ing and the wearing of stone and ivory labrets in the lips which was fonnerly a universal practice arrong all Alaskan Esk..i.rros. '!he use of beads does not, however, extend to the rren who have abandoned labrets and tatex:>ing without substituting any new omarrent except the necktie of the white nan. He apparently tries to nake arneOOs for his loss of ~ fonns of decoration by selecting the brightest oolors for his cne renaining head ornament. Although education of the EskimJ in the ways of the white rran is taking place in an exceedingly rapid rranner, he is still far behind. rrroern civilization in rrany respects. This fact is illustrated in an assemblage of Esk.i.Iro parents and children gathered texJether in a church or school to CElebrate the holiday of Thanksgiving or Chrisbras with the children saying their "pieces,n singing songs, and taking prrt in plays and tableaux in much the sarre rranner that white children in the "States" do. The discrepmcy appears in their clothing. Girls of all ages appear in dresses in the exact miniature of their rrother's dresses as was the old Esk.i.Iro custan. If the rrother was a pupil in the boarding school of a benevolent missionary society, her clothing is of the style that was worn by the missionary's wife when she left seattle. If the rrother tries to dep:rrt: fran the b:%iten p:ith and fashion a DeW' suit for her ~lve year old bayI he rray appear on the platform Page 36 to say his "piece" in a cx::mbination suit with the knee pants buttoned to the shirt. At cne Chrisbras progLarn, three ooys and ~ girls appeared in suits and dresses in which pink was the daninant rolor with prrple for trirrrning. ~ of these children were fran one family and three fran another. The rrothers, who were sisters, cxmsidered this display of color to be an exceptional triumph over the other rrothers who had rot tam fortunate enough to obtain a reduction in the price of material by' buying in large lots. Although the peculiar nanner in which the white rran' s clothing is often used and misused by' the Eskirro is indicative of the incx:rnpleteness of the process of education in this respect, the fact tbat he uses such clothing as well as he does reflects cxmsiderable credit upon his educators. Not only has he learned to wear white man's clothing, but in rrany places where the Bureau of Education has had schools for a few years, he has learned to keep it clean. One of the points which receives great empha.sis in these schools is tbat of cleanliness in respect to the l:x:rly and the clothing which is ~ ~n it. Where facilities are lacking in the hane, the schools are often used for !:Hth-houses and wash-houses after school or on saturdays. r-bst clothing ~ by the I1EIl is p.rrchased ready-rrade fran the trading post or ordered fran a mail-order house Page 37 fran the "outside. II SaTe of the clothing for the wcrren is p.rrchased. ready-rrade, rot a greater p:ntion is rrade by the wcrren themselves. By giving one day of the week to instruction in darestic science am ~-~king, the Bureau of Education schools are aca:rnplishing results of a most utilitarian nature in the life of the Eskim::>. 'Ihe training which many girls received in these schCXJls in the most efficient rrethods of rraking am caring for the cloth ing of themselves am their families is doing much to over a:me the harxiicap of their isolation. 'Ihe next generation of children will not be harxiicapped by clothing poorly adapted to their needs in respect to rraterial, design, and color, since their mothers are the girls of the present generation who are I1CM being educat.eC1 in the Bureau of Ei:lucation schools to deal with the clothing needs of a family. A clothing hrlget as ~ked out in me of the sewing classes of Eskimo girls at QJ.inhagak, Alaska detennined that the clothing (except fur) nec:essary for an Esk.i.mJ family of six for one year is approximately $235 or eight foxes in Esk.i.mJ noney. Urrler nonral oonditions, the experrliture of this arrount for clothing is PJssible for any irrlustrious family. Page 38 ~y OF CHAPI'ER IV CLOl'lIrnG 1. The same animals are used. by the rrodern Eskirro as were used by the primitive Eskilro for rraking clothing with the exception of the substitution of reirrleer for the wild carilxm. 2. The rrethods used in rreking primitive clothing have changed. but little, but the primitive implerrents have nearly all teen abarrloned for the rrore efficient iroplerrents of the white rran. 3. The styles of the fur clothing such as are still worn by the rrodern Eskirro are quite similar to the primitive styles. The use of rrany of the gannents ~rn by the primitive Eskirro, ~ver, has teen abarrloned. for many of the garments of the white rran, roth style and rraterial. The whiteman I s wool and cotton gannents are cheaper and rrore serviceable than the old-style fur gannents. 4. The Eskirro is often unwise in his selection and use of the various garments p.rrchased fran stores and mail order houses. This corrlition is rapidly improving \.l.Jrler the educational influence exerted by teachers, nurses, and missionaries. CHAPTER V COMPARISON OF PRIMITIVE AND MODERN HABITATIONS The rigorous climate of Alaska which necessitated a peculiar type of clothing also Iffide it necessary for the Esk..iIro to h3.ve a variety of dwellings to fit d1a.nges in weather conditions. '!he habitations of the primitive Esk..iIro were of three types: penranent underground dwellings for winter use, tenporary dwellings of STl.CM for winter use, and t.emrorary surnrer dwellings -- usually in the faun of skin tents. Changes in p3.tterns, rraterials, and rrethods of construc tion of habitations have been ITDst rapid am radical in the villages in which missionaries and schools have been located.. 'Ihe value of such changes in the living corrlitions of the Esk.i.no rray be shown through a conparison of primitive corrlitions, or corrlitions where schools have only recently been establishe::1, with a::mditions in the villages in which schools or missions have been operated. for at least twenty-five years. Practically all primitive Esk.i.no live::1 in SCt1W2 p2ITf1a Page 40 nently located village during the winter rronths am many of them had urrlerground dwellings of their am called "igloos.It Those families which did not o.m an igloo generally lived in the same house with relatives. The work of constructing an igloo saretimes fell entirely to the family which was to cccupy it, rot this did not occur unless the builders were in disfavor for a breach of tri.h:tl t.ab:xJ. Generally an "igloo-:raising" was a kind of social event participa.ted in by the whole village. The first step in the ronstruction of an igloo arrong the Utkiavigmiut consisted in leveling the ground for the floor. This p:rrt of the work often necessitated a considerable arrount of excavation as the villages were frequently located on the cliffs along the beach or arocmg the hillocks a short distance fran the shore. The walls were fanned by erecting vertical timbers in such a rranner that the errls were between three am four feet high, while the sides sloped up to form an angle for the ridge-pole which was always placed slightly to the rear of the middle of the floor space. This arrangarent allawecl the windCM to be placed sanewhere near the center of the roof. When the rouse was occupied, the win::kM opening was general1y covered with a translucent memb:rane made of seal intestine sewed to;:rether in the same rranner as is used in the Page 41 construction of the water-proof parkas. When the house was vacant in winter, the q;ening was oovered with a \lwUXien rover. In surcrner it was left open to prevent the interior fran b=caning overly damp and musty. The timbers for the rcx:>f were supported at the top by a stout ridge-fOle and at the l~ ejge by the short upright timbers of the wall. The cracks were then filled with grass or IlOSS to prevent the soil fran falling into the interior of the dwelling. An urrlerground passage a1x:>ut 25 feet in length served the double purposes of entrance and kitchen. Since this tunnel was rarely over 4 feet in height and 3 feet in width, it was necessary to rraintain a stcoping fX)Si tion while tra versing it. The C(X)]dng and storage space was created by slightly widening the passage at various fOints. After cx:mpletion of the \lwUXien frarnev.urk, the structure was cx:mpletely covered with sed and soil except for the w:i.rrlCM in the rcx:>f and the hole at the entrance. The winter igloos of the Malemiut of Kotzeb..1e Sound and the Unalik of Norton Sound were constructed upon the same general plan as those of the Utkiavigarniut rot were different in sore respects. The igloos were rrore in the fonn of "cellars," since a oonsiderable arrount of excavation was done in order to have the floor a1x:>ut four feet relCM the level of the grc>1.U"rl. Posts of driftv.a:xi fran the beach were erected at strategic points in the Page 42 floor space to SUPJ.:Ort the \«KXXlen fra.rrework. The walls were slanting inward to rest 1JtX)n several l::eams which were in turn supported by the upright };XJsts. The entrance was wilt in the fonn of a storm-shed on one side of the igloo proper. cne descended by a \«KXXlen ladder or by earthen steps frcrn the storm-shed directly into the main roan. In this respect the igloos of the Utkiavigmiut were just CJHX)site frcrn those of the M3.lemute and the Unalik. Since there was but little roan for cooking or storage in the storm-shed entrance, the cooking was done on an cpen fire under the wirdow in the rcxJf which oould be opened to serve as a StOke hole or chimney. Since it was also a a:mron practice to use spruce roughs for floor rovering and for bedding, this alSton of having a fire in the middle of the roan frequently resulted in destruction of the igloo by sp:rrks frcrn the fire igniting the dry spruce needles. The Eskirro of the Yukon and the Kuskoquim country used the same rrethcrl of ronstructing igloos as the M3.lemute except that they did not excavate for the floor. This was due in prrt to the cxmdition of the soil which was often so damp and frozen that an underground igloo would be imprac tical. The Eskirro inhabiting the delta regions of these two rivers were also frequently harrlicapped by the lack of suitable timber to ronstruct strong and durable igloos. Page 43 A universal feature of all large Esk.iIro villages was the camnmity muse (kashim). This building was am structed in the sarre manner as the winter house except that it was rruch larger. The actual size deperrled in rrost cases upon the population of the village. Since this building served as shelter for all amnunity gatherings and as workshop arrl sleeping quarters for rrany of the men, it was witlxmt a question the rrost important structure in the village. Altlxmgh few if any log cabins have been built by Eskirro without the influence of the white rran, it has not always necessarily followed. that log cabins always spring up in Eskirro villages with the white rran I s house as an example. In order to inhabit a log cabin in the winter, it is necessary to have not only the logs to build the house itself, rot it is also inq:lerative that me have an ample supply of wcxXl (or sore other fuel) to heat the interior. The village of H Since the c:x:Jean current flows northward fran this village 1. A picture of the cnrle dwellings of this village is given intheNational~phic,vol. 53, Jan. 1928, p. 127. Page 44 past the rrouth of the Yukon, none of the wocrl which cares d~ that great river every year ever a:J'Ces south of its ~ accord except by sane freak action of the wind and tide. Prnctically all that doos a:rne is neede:3 for building and for implements so that very little is left for fuel. Until the fuel problem is solved, the natives of Hooper Bay will continue to live in their urrlergrourrl igloos. The missionaries and teachers at the village of Quinhagak near the rrouth of the Kuskoquim River have taught the Eskirro to b.rild cabins fran logs and fran lumber which is obtaine:3 fran villages farther up the river or is shipped fran seattle. These houses are heated with snall sheet-iron stoves which b..1m willows for fuel. The willows grCM along the snall river which flows past the village. Because of the incessant cutting which has taken place in the last few years, the nearest willows over ~ inches in di.arreter are 'f'JCM six miles fran the village. In the very near future, this village rrust either find a new fuel supply or go reck to living in igloos which require less fuel for heating p.rrposes. Many villages along the Yukon and Kuskoquirn rivers have a pernanent fuel supply in the starrling timber which lines the banks of those rivers for miles. In order to preserve this natural forest, which is one of Alaska 1 S richest resources, the Bureau of fl:fu.cation schools give oonsiderable Page 45 attention to the sttrly of forestry conservation. As long as the forests along the rivers remlln, the vast mnnber of trees which are inurrlated every spring by the change in the river's oourse will oontinue to be roTIle doNn on its current to be cast upm sore sea beach in the fonn of driftwa:xl. When these forests are destroyed, not cnly those who inhabit the river villages will suffer, rot the coast dwellers will also be deprived of this valuable bJilding anJ. fuel supply. sane villages have access to both starrling spruce timber along a river anJ. driftwa:xl along the sea beach. Such a village is Unalakleet on Norton Soun:i at the rrouth of the Unalakleet River. The exceptionally desirable features of rrany kirrls have resulted in migration of Eskirro fran roth directions along the roast to settle at this Faint. All of the 230 inhabitants of this village live in cabins. r-bst of these cabins are of 109's, while scme are of 1QCJs oovered with lumber. sane of the cabins still have renfs of sed, rot the rrajority of them are renfed with rorrugated sheet iron or shingles. All of these houses have glass wirrlows in the ordinary sized wirrlCM fram9s. Many have their walls covered with a ccmbination of oil cloth anJ. paper which can be tacked to the lumber of the wall (no me has plaster walls), while two of the rrost energetic workers have p.rrchased enough "beaver l:03.rd'' fran the trader to oover Page 46 the interiors of their cabins. l-Xlst of the houses have only one rcan. This rcan is large or snall according to the size of the family which occupies it. SaTe cabins are as snall as 12 I X 15' X 6', while the largest ene-roan cabin in this village is 18 I X 24' X 8'. 8ate of the rrost recently Wilt cabins have ~ or three roans of snaIl dimensions. Even the srrallest of the cabins has a stann shed or vestibule through which one must p:1SS in order to enter the house. This space is still used as a place of t.errqx>rary storage to such an extent that it is frequently necessary for one to nove .snc:wshoes, dog hanless, or rockets refore gaining an entrance. The renarkable progress of this village in respect to rret.hcxls and materials used in ronstructing their pe.rnanent dwellings is not the result of an accidental imitation. It has been accanplished only through the constant and oon tinued effort on the p:ut of Bureau of Education- teachers and missionaries who have roope.rated to improve the living o:n:iitions at this place. This village is rot cited as an example of ~ection. There is sti11 ITn.1ch roan for irnproverrent. It is, however, ~ example of what education has done in effecting valuable changes in Eskirro habitations. If other villages have not advanced so rapidly, the reason rray often re found in lack of natural resources. In order to overcare this Page 47 difficulty, the Bureau of Education has offered assistance to the Eski.rro by which he nay establish a village upon a rrore desireable site. The village of Noatak, which is 80 miles rorth of KotzebJ.e on the Noatak River, is located upon an admirable site which was established in 1908 in the follc:Mi.ng rranner. 'I\.1o tribes, which fo:rrrer1y lived one at the upper and one at the lCMer ern of the river, were IIDved fran their old lcx:ations where they were suffering hardship, to this new OOlll1try which is rich in game, fish, and timber. The King Island Eskim:J were also offered the opfX)rt:unity of migrating with the help of the governrrent, rot they preferred to stay on their barren, rocky island and to live in their wal.r:us-hide houses where they have an abJrrlance of seal and walrus, rather than to risk living elsewhere 'l.lIrler oorrlitions to which they were not accustared. The snow igloo, which is a::rmonly used aIIDng the Eskim:J of rorthern Canada as a winter dwelling, was Jma,.m to the Eskim:J of Alaska cnly as a t.enTforary shelter while travelling or as a storE~house. Since this form of dwelling was rot used extensively except in places where v.o:x:1 was not plentiful, it is reasonable to assum:= that it was used because of necessity and rot b=cause of any inherent advantages of snow houses over urrlergrourrl houses. Page 48 '" UIxm rare occasions, the urrlergrourrl igl a SlilUTET house. This sanetimes happened if the igloo was located. upoo high grourrl in such a manner that it ~ not becane flcxxJ.ed during the SIJllI'Cer rains or if there was no ll'aterial with which to wake a surrrrer house. Most families rrove:1 out of their winter igl The presence of the last-named factor usually ITEaflt that the rroving-time of a large village would re fran early April to the latter part of May. If the noving teak place during the early season, much of the household gocrls was transfX>rted by dcx]team, while those who rrove:1 last did their hauling by l:oat. Although 1:ranspJrtation by l:oat involved less 1atx:>r, it also ITEaflt that a part of the sealing season would re lost and the seal catch consequently smaller. The ordinary surrrner house ~s a tent of seal or carilx)U skins stretched over fX>les. These tents varied in sha~ and size to suit the needs of the cceupants. t-bst tents were conical or dane-shaped, while others were rrerely the Page 49 skin boats turned up-sid~ONn with a prop urrler one side , to afford an entrance. An advantage of the inverted b:::et tent was the ease with which it oould be rroved fran one tx>int on the o:ast to another in case the ~ became dissatisfioo with any particular location. The twenty-foot skin b:::ets (calloo llumiaksl1 ) of the King Islanders are used in this fashion upan the reach during the sunmer in Nate. These large skin b:::ets of the King IslaOOers are the cnly ones of this ki..rrl which are still used to any great extent. Owing to the scarcity and expense of the skins, the use of these boats has been supplante:i in nost places by the use of ~en b:::ets of the various kinds used by white rten. The skin tents are just as rare as the skin boats. They have been abandonoo for a=mva.s tents which are dleaper, lighter, rrore durable, and rrore pleasant to live in. Many of the tents are of the ready-rrade variety which are erected. with an upright at each errl to supp:llt the ridge- tx>le. others are rrade fran various kinds of canvas and drilling by the VUTEIl with the help of their sewing rrachines. The advantage in rraking one's 0Nn tent is that a large tent may be made for the sanE price that a snaIl one may be purchased ready-rrade. This is accanplishoo by using very light material. The Eskirro does not seem to realize that the better grade of rraterial obtainoo in a nore Page 50 expensive tent w:mld nean a much longer life for the tent and a great saving in the time and lal:or involved in ronstructing two or three poor ones. While travelling along the cnast and rivers of Alaska, ... one frequently sees a f~ wocrlen frarres such as w:mld te represented by a child in his drawing of a muse. These are constructed by the Eskim:> at the sites of their surmer fishing camps to serve as framework for their tents. Boards are placed around the oottan of the frame touching the ground and reaching alx>ut a fCX)t aOOve it. '!his arranganent serves the double purpose of keeping out the ITOsquitoes and acting as a substitute for tent stakes. SC:1Te of the ITOre energetic natives fit their tents with screen dears for cunvenience and as adJ.ed protection against the rrosquitoes. others erect a small tent of ITOsquito retting or ITUlSlin aver their beds at night to ward off the attacks of swanns of these pests which infest practically every part of Alaska during the surmer rronths. Urrler primitive corrlitions, the on!y protection to te had against the ITOsquito was to cover the lxrly canpletely with skins or to remain in the dense smoke fran afire of green or wet wocrl. It is difficult for cne to realize the value of the ITOsquito net to the Eski.Iro without having had personal experience in fighting a rorde of lTDSquitoeS without protection for the face. The canvas tent, Page 51 permanent tent frame, screen door, arrl nosquito net have all been adopted by the Eskirro as a result of his asscciatiOl with the white nan. M:my fonns of Eski.rro dwellings fran the rrnst rn::dern to the rrost primitive ru::M exist in sane part of Alaska. The .. Ole article which is found in all winter rouses arrl in rrany SUIl'Irer ha.lses is the stove. A tx'p..Uar kind of stove ru::M in use in rrany fishing camps in SllIl'\')2r' arrl in trappers I arrl rei.rrleer herders I camps in winter is made fran one or rrore five-gallon gasoline or kerosene cans with a stove pipe rrade in proportion arrl of the same rraterial. Bebam this rrost simple type of stove arrl the great, nickel-plated, cast-i.rcn range of the Eskirro who keeps a "roadhouse" for rrai1 carriers arrl travelers, there is an enlless variety of sizes, shapes, arrl materials used in the newly-acquired art of stove-rnaking. M:my ingeniously constructed devices have resulted fran experi.rrentation on the part of the Eskirro, rut the recent changes which have been so iInj;:ortant in respect to heat, light, ventilation, arrl shelter have all develOPed as a result of rattern.s :received by him through the inst.rurrentality of the white nan. Page 52 SUMMARY OF CHAPI'ER V ESKlM) HABITATlOOS 1. Limitatians as to building material am adequate heating devices forced primitive Eskim:> to live in an urrlerground ha1se in winter and a skin tent in surrroer. 2. The srt:::M igloo was never used as a ~t dwelling am is used at present only in ane.rgencies. 3. 'ilirough the introduction of Tlf?W materials and metlxxls of building by the white rran, the Eski..rro has been able to adept the white nan's type of habitations. 4. Not only the ha1se of the Eskirro has been improved through his Erluc:ation by rranbers of a nore advanced civilizatic:n, rut rrany Tlf?W devices have also been adopted which rrake the Eskirro ' s rouse a rrore a:rnfortable place in which to live. CHAPTER VI OCCUPATIONS AND IMPLEMENTS Having rt:M discussed the foc::d., clothing, and dwellings of the Eskirro with cx::mparisons of primitive and m:::dern rreth:rls, it will :ce interesting to 00serve the relatively :irrq:ortant changes which have taken place in the Esk..inn's occupations and implerrents. The rrernbers of a single energetic Eskirro family living under primitive con:litions ~e able to perform all of the occupations and possessed all of the important irTplerrents knc:Mn to the tr~ of which the family was rrember. This is true of the m:::dern Eskirro with the exception of a few lreI1 who have specialized in the occupations of reindeer herding, trading, clerking for white traders, sled and boat tuilding, i very carving, and dcgtearn transportation. The majority have nerely acquired new methcrls and new irTplerrents while pursuing their former occupations of hunting and fishing. The aburrlanoe of many kirrls of fish along the coast and in the rivers and lakes of Alaska detennined centuries ago Page 54 that an irnp:>rtant occupation of the Eski.rro was to be fish ing. The developnent of efficient implements with which to take advantage of this rich fcx:x:1 supply was urrloubtedly of great i.rrpJrtance to the success of the Eskirro in naintaining himself urrler numerous adverse environrrw:mtal corrlitions. A rrost simple yet i.rrpJrtant implarent for fishing , consisted of a 1xJne or ivory hcok attache:] to a line of sinew or whaleh:>ne. A ca:nbination lure am sinker of ivory was inserted in the line fran ~ to four inches a1:x::>ve the hook. These hooks were used for fishing through holes in the ice or in tide-cracks. '!his method of fishing through the ice is still used extensively, tut the rraterials used for the rraking of hooks am lines are greatly change:]. Many hours were forrrerly required by a skilled workman to nak.e a 1xJne hook am a whalel::one line; whereas metal hooks are na.v quickly am cheaply fashione:] in rranual arts classes by a schcxJl 00y using wire or knitting needles, am a ball of string p.rrchased fran the store for a few cents will furnish eIX>ugh fishing lines to last a lifet:iIre. An Eskirro thus equipped can catch in an oour, through the river ice in October or November, eIX>ugh small fish calle:] taneod, to fill a OOshel basket. An unusually ambitious Eskirro saretimes uses ~ hooks with four prongs each; he often brings up three tancods at cnce. Page 55 Gill nets which were 1..al::x:lriously fashioned fran cariJxm sinew or whalebone were used by' the primitive Eskirro in fishing. The process of twisting the sinew or splitting and tying the whaleb:::>ne string often required several weeks of careful work, while the actual weaving of the net cx::>uld not be done by a skillful WE:'dver in less than a week. The labor and rraterial required for the construction of one net of this primitive type ~d be worth the rost of several rrodern nets of linen or rotten twine which v.uUd be rrany t.i.nEs as durable and efficient. The Eskirro who wish to econanize or who wish nets of a particular prO{:ortion still WE:'dve their ~ nets fran rotton or linen twine purchased fran the trader; others admit that ready-rrade nets are just as geed as they can WE:'dve for themselves and that a ready rrade net can be purchased alrrost as cheaply as the twine which is required to rrake one of the same size. When only primitive sinew and whalebone nets were used, a family was cx::>n.sidered fortunate which had two or three nets twelve or fifteen feet in length. If a family had only one net, it rould catch mly one or two kinds of fish. Because of this limitation, two families which had only one net apiece would agree to have nets of different size meshes. By this arrangenEnt, each family oould have a greater variety of fish fc.cd.. Since the different kinds of Page 56 fish "run" at different times of the year, roth the nets v.uuld rarely be in use at the same time, rot roth families v.uuld have fish when either net was in use. Now that nets are so cheap, the poorest family can afford to a.m tv.u or three nets while the rrost prosperous families saneti.rres have eight or ten -- or !TOre if they care to take the trouble to preserve the surplus fish thus caught. seines were made in the same manner as the gill nets, am. were used in many places along the coast am. in the lakes and rivers for catching fish in the surrmer. The gill nets could be used in winter by fastening the ends of the net to a line running under the ice be~ tv.u holes. In order to take the fish fran the net, it was necessary to p..lll the whole net through CIle of the holes. The net was reset by pulling upon the line which oonnected the tv.u holes under the ice. CMing to the great danger of losing the net, this methOO was used only in ti.rres of food scarcity. Because of the greater efficiency of the new methOOs and materials int.rOOuced by teachers am. missionaries, winter fishing with nets has been totally abandoned in many places. The old practice of Wilding a fish trap across a shallow place in a river is still in use, although wire netting is nt:::M generally used in oonstructing the dam am. trap instead of the old methOO of driving rarrow stakes of spruce into the rottan of the river. Even if the trap is Page 57 lost by being carried away in the ice in the spring, the increase in efficiency of the trap rrore than t:ays for the wire. Many of the Eskimo living along the Yukon and Kuskoquim Rivers have learned fran teachers, missionaries, am white fishenYan h::M to l:uild fish wheels. Since ale fish wheel frequently supplies as mmy, if not IIDre, fish than the CMner can preserve, the use of nets is less frequent by those who have adopted the use of this new device. '!he rrost a:::mron llEthOO. used by toth Eskimo and white rren for preserving fish caught during the 5UllIneI' is by drying. A very irrp::>rtant part of this process, and one which involves considerable lal:or, is that of cutting the fish in a rranner to facilitate drying. If this part of the ~k is pcx:lrly done, the fish is destroyed by decay or by the larvae of a fly which takes advantage of every oIJPjrtunity to lay eggs in cracks am crevices of fish or rTEat which are not exp:.>sed to the stmlight. Many different method.s are used in cutting fish for drying. '!he purfOse of all llEthcrls is to exp:.>se the greatest arrount of surface with the least am:JUl1t of lal:or. Because of the excessive arrolIDt of oil cx:mtained in the king sal.m:m, this fish is usually dried with snoke. Along the Yukon and Kuskoguim Rivers and along the cnast south of the Page 58 rrouth of the Yukon, ITDSt other kirrls of fish are dried with srroke because the SI..lITITer rronths are too rainy for efficient air drying. Because of the difficulty involved in making equipnent, the primitive Eskim:> caught and preserved but a srrall arrount of fish in a:mp:u-ison with the Eskim:> of today. r-Ddem retal hooks made in the schools are unquestionably retter than primitive cnes of lxme, sinew, and whaletone. TIle use of cotton and linen thread instead of sinew and whaletone for net and seine making has resulted in retter nets and seines for less l.aOOr. ~ efficient and cheaper fish traps are roN constructed fran wire netting than were fornerly made fran spruce staves. The fish wheel, the efficient device roN built by the Esk.i.Iro under the instruction of Board of Education teachers, was l.ll1k:ncMl to his primitive forebears. In nost large villages ardinal:y steel butcher knives are rnv used to sore extent in place of the old knives of stone. HcMever, many of the Esk.irro v.unen prefer to have their knives of mx1em material but in the old half-m::xm p:lttern. The half-rroon shaped knives are roN made by Eskim::> men fran old harrl-saw blades with the tools torrowed fran the Bureau of Etlucation workshop. With all of these new methcds and devices for catching and preserving fish, the Esk.iJro of today rot cnly stores up an ample supply of fish for himself, his family, and his dogs, but he also Page 59 sells sare to the trader, sane to winter travellers, anj sane to the rrail carriers to feed. their dogtearns. All of these irnprovanents have resulted fran the constant efforts of teachers and missionaries who have been striving to improve the living corrlitions of the EskiIro. Fran the middle of M3.y to the end of sept~, rrost of the rivers of Alaska are free fran ice. During this pericrl, the Eskirro sperrls rrost of his time in fishing anj storing fish, but as SCX)n as the ice covers the rivers, fishing becanes a secondary occupation anj hlmting becanes of pri.maJ:y importance. The srrall rough seal was in primitive t.i.rres, and sti11 is, the rrost important sea animal hlmted by all coast~lling Eski.m:>. It is especially valued for its flesh and oil while the skin is used in innumerable ways other than in clothing. Although the great bearded seal is less cnmon than the &Call rough seal, a single specimen is worth many srrall seals on account of its valuable hide, which is used for b:::lat ooverings, lxxJt soles, and lashing for sleds anj SI"lCMShoes. In order to hlmt seals with any degree of success, it was necessary for the primitive Eskirro to travel up:m the sea ice and up:m the water which separated the ice fields and floe ice. This was accanplished by the invention of a b:::lat for water travel and a sled for travel on the ice. Page 60 When either was not in use, it was placed upon the other and carried along. The sloo was of very simple construction with runners of light spruce driftwoOO sho:I with ivory or tone. As it was rarely over four feet long and twenty-four inches wide, it was easily carried on top of the bJat during water travel. Although the bJat was four ti.rres as long as the sloo, it could easily be hauloo by lashing the sloo under the mioo.le to rraintain proPer balance. The dimensions of this type of bJat, calloo a kayak, vary fran fourteen to eighteen feet in length, fran eighteen to twenty-seven inches in width, and fran twelve to eighteen inches in depth according to the custan of the tribe to which the amer belongoo. The general plan of a:mstruction resembloo that of a IIDdern canoe with the top cnveroo over and slightly arched to shoo waves and spray. The framework which was forrrerly rrede of driftwoOO and lashoo with SEXl.l skin thongs is I1Chl frequently a:mstructed fran select spruce lumber and lashoo together with cotton twine. The only opening in this bJat is the circular hole in the top, slightly l:E.ck of the center, for the occupant. The diameter of this hole is the same as the width of the bJat. l>bst of the O'Jast-dwellers still use five skins of the beardoo seal for covering their kayaks. A few of the O'Jast-dwellers and nearly all of the river people nON use heavy canvas for the cnvering. When Page 61 the canvas is pa.inted, the boat is water-proof arrl much lighter than the skin boat. In spite of these advantages, the older hooters of the coast prefer the skin boat. Their reason is that the canvas is rrore easily pierced by the ice than the seal skin; and, therefore, the canvas boat is often unsafe. No evidence has been found, l1.o.Yever, to shcM that rrore lives are lost in canvas boats than in skin boats. The rrost ardent supp:>rt.ers of the use of seal skin coverings admit that the greatest danger to life is fran lack of skill in han:Uing the boats and correctly interpreting weather irrlications and not fran fragile boat ooverings. The reluctance of rrany hunters to recngnize the superiority of canvas boat coverings does not carry over to the use of the m:rlern rifle. No m:rlern seal hunter ever attempts to hunt seals without a rifle, except in an EI"OOrgency. Whereas the primitive hunting was done with a harpoon as the main weapon, these harpoons are nCM used largely to prevent a seal fran ~ng lost after it has l:een shot with a rifle while swinnling. As soan as p:>ssible after a swimning seal is shot, the hooter strikes with the harpoon. When the harpoon strikes, the barbed p:>int is disengaged fran the end of the shaft rut ramins attached to a line which was wound around the shaft. If a seal sinks or is rrerely wounded, the line unwinds and the floating Page 62 shaft is picked up by tile hlUlter. (The use of an inflated seal skin which was fonnerly attached to the harpJon line to prevent the escape of tile seal has f'lDN been generally abandcned, for the seal which is killed or seriously wourrled with a rifle has little opportunity for escape.) '!he hlUlter then winds in the line with the seal attached. If tile seal is small, he may place it on top of the kayak, rot if it is a large bearded seal, he must tow it in the water to shore or to an ice cake where it can be skinned and cut into pieces snall eoough to go inside the kayak. with m.::rlem steel rotcher knives, skirming and cutting the seal into pieces takes rot a short time The walrus is hunted in IIUlch the same rranner as the seal except that the skin lxxits (umiaks) used are eighteen to bNenty-five feet in length, five to six feet in width, three to four feet in depth, and had no top oovering. CMing to the greater size of tilese lxxits, several rren are required to operate one of them. The harpx>ns and lines are also necessarily heavier and stronger to rreet the strength of the walrus. Because of tile great weight of the walrus, the skinning and cutting always takes place upon the ice unless rrotor lxxits are available for t:.eMing them to shore. The increase in hair seal hunting as a result of the Page 63 dem:uxls of white people for clothing has not been great erx::>ugh to effect any great change in the life of the Eskirro. Although the walrus is hunted to a grea.ter extent than formerly for the ivory tusks, it is difficult to detennine whether the number of animals killed annually has increased, since the walrus is not so ea.gerly sought at present as a source of fcxx1. NcM that the Eskirro has incorJ,Xlrated so nany of the white nan I s grain and vegetable fcxx1s into his diet, it is no longer necessary to cx:msllIl'Va such large quantities of garoo. Many simple trapping devices such as the "bent tree snareI I and the "figure four" dea.d fall were used by the primitive Eskirro for catching small fur-bearing an.in'dls to furnish trimning for their clothing. Since ITOst of these devices have been widely used by other primitive hunting peoples, the Eskirro deserves little, if any, credit for their invention. H~ver, at least one peculiar device, used for catching wolves and p:>lar bears and which was deperrlent upon lOW' t.emp=ratures for its operation, originated arrong this people. It oonsisted of a stout rOO. of whalelx:lI1e aOOut two feet long and one-half inch broad with a sharp p:>int at ea.ch end. This rOO. was first bent into the form of a "Zit or into a helical shape like a clock spring. It was then wrapped in a piece of whale or seal Page 64 blul::her am tied into a cx:JrJp:ict mass with a piece of sinew. After the blubber had frozen solid fran ~sure to 1..cM temperatures, the sinew was illltied. Several of these balls v.uuld be dropped where \ hunter h3..d only to follo;..T the tracks a short distance to fUrl the dead v.ulf or bear. Sare of these rcx:1s ~d be lost by being carrioo away by foxes which ate the blubber bit by bit without injury to themselves, but those eaten by a v.ulf or bear oould be I'ea)vered and used again. Practically all of these primitive trapping devices have TICM been ab:urlaned since the Esk.i.rr'o h3..s been instnlcted in the use of the steel trap and the rifle. The laws which h3..ve been passed for the protection of the valuable fur-bearing ani.nals and the waterfo;..Tl were enactro to prevent the a:xnplete destnlction of these valuable natural resources. By means of carmunity meetings held in the Bureau of Education schcxJl hrildings, the teachers and gar Esk.iIro that it is to his benefit to obey laws protecting ani.nals during breeding season and when the fur is not prirre. There are a few individuals arrong the Esk.iIro who object to these laws U};XJI1 the grourrls that such laws Page 65 interfere with their rights as aborigines, but the rrajority of the htmters cx:rnply with the laws unless they are irrluced by unscrupulous traders to hunt or trap out of season. While the fur trade has retained its impJrtance as an occupation developed by the white traders arrong the Eskirco, another irrlustry has not teen so fortunate. For twenty years the prrsuit of the "l:nYhead" whale in the vicinity of Point BarrCM brought enJnrous profits to l:::oth white traders arrl Eskirco htmters. With the invention of a manufactured substitute, the whalemne lost its value arrl mmting whales for whaletone was no longer profitable. Although the Esk.:im::> still runts the whale for its food value, whale hunting is no longer impJrtant as a rrajor occupation. Less than cne hundred. years ago, according to the test.irrony of several old Eski.rro, the caribou was the rrost valuable and rrost IU.lIY1erOUS of all the animals mmted; consequently, it was so relentlessly arrl intensively hunted that it disappeared fran the CX)Clst region entirely. Although the United states governrrent assl..IlT'ed aJIltrol of Alaska teo late to save the cari.l:::ou by passing protective laws, it did the next best thing by educating the Esk.irro in the rrethods of caring for reirrleer. Through the efforts of Sheldon Jackson, the first Ccmnissioner of Education for Alaska, 1280 reirrleer were i..rnp)rted fran Page 66 Siberia to Alaska. at goverTllT6lt expense between 1892 am. 1902. To teach the reindeer industry to the Esk.i.m:> people, al:xJut fifty Lapps fran Norway were induced to migrate to Alaska. Esk.i.m:> youths learned the reincleer business by serving four years apprenticeship urrler instruction by a Lapp. 'Ibese apprentices received deer in p:l.yneI1t for their services. At the en:) of the four years, the graduated apprentice in turn took Eskirro apprentices. Having fulfilled their cnntract, the Lapps have turned their attention to raising herds of their CMn am, in rrany cases, have be The 1280 deer i.lTIpJrted thirty years ago have increased to 321 ,116 according to the latest survey in 1928. Eskirro own 240,000 of these deer. A herd oonna.lly doubles every three years. In sections of the country where there are natural terriers of rivers and rrountains such as form the bourrlaries of the Unalakleet range, the only necessary experrliture of time and energy is that required for the annual marking. Feeding gratis Up::>Il the plentiful turrlra rross and requiring only the shelter afforded by their wann cn3.ts, the deer produce a clear profit of 33 per cent armually. In rrost sections of the cx:Jast where several herds are UFQn contiguous ranges having no natural l::::arriers, it is Page 67 necessary to keep herders with the deer to prevent them fran straying. This ad::'ls to the expense of deer raising, but it also affords an oprortunity for the training of the young neIl in the rrethcxis of deer handling which might be neglected if constant herding were not necessary. If all herds are not ronstantly watched, they must at least be "rourrled up" fran the hills once a year to be COlU1ted and to have the UflItarked deer properly appxt.ioned arocmg the various amers. One of the first stations established by the Bureau of Education for training Eskirro in proper methcxis of caring for reindeer was at Eaton, which was located eight miles fran the CXlast on the Unalakleet River. The reindeer herd which ultirrately developed fran the establishment of this station later becam:! the valuable property of the inhabitants of the village of Unalakleet at the ITOUth of the river. Of the seventy-five a.mers of this herd of deer there are sixty-three Esk.irro, six Laplarrlers, and four white PeOple. The Bureau of Education and the Swedish Mission also am deer in the herd. The rrethod of rrarking and counting this herd is that which was devise:] by Mr. Laurence Palmer of the United States Biological SUrvey. Since all 00rds under government supervision now use this system, a description of a Page 68 "marking" at Unalakleet would illustrate the general prooedure of this iIrp:lrtant P'lase of reirrleer husb:mdry. IUring the last ~ of Jillle, 1927, four Esk.i.mJ, t:Y.o Lapps, and six herding dcgs left Unalakleet to start the annual round-up of 13, 000 deer, which were scattered over a nountain range 55 miles long. 'Ihree men with dCXJs \oleIlt southward along the roast to the GolSOV'ia River, while the other rren and dcgs \oleIlt eastward along the Unalakleet River to its trihltary, the Shirosky River. At these f:X)ints, the t:Y.o se~ted into sraller groups oonsisting of one rran and one dCXJ. All groups then regan to drive all the deer they oould firrl t.oward the renter of the range. Fifteen days after the herders left the village, an Eskirro weary and dirty fran tramping over treacherous "nigger heads" and sucking swamps, arrived to inform the villagers that the round-up was o::rnpleted and that the herd v.uuld arrive at the reirrleer camp the next day. Imrediately the village was thrown into the happy confusion of the annual excdus to the reirrleer camp. Although tile site of the oorral was only five miles do.-m the roast fran the village, the eight or ten days spent there were welcared as a kirrl of picnic. The whole CEITlping outfit, dogs, children, and supplies oould usually be noved in one trip in the family kayak. An incredible amJlIDt of cargo can be drawn forth fran these small l:xJa.ts like things out of a magician's hat. Tent, Page 69 stove, bedding, clothing, nets, b..md.les of dried sal..rron, three or four children and as nany dog"s cx:me forth rragically fran the center op;ming. Al:x:>ut cne thousand deer were sep:rrated fran the rrain herd as the first day's rrarking allot:rrent. At this season of the year the deer were shed:ling the velvet which l'um.g in waving festoons fran their antlers. Frightened and uncertain, they were driven unprotestingly along the beach be~ the sea and the corral and by means of a strip of turlap were shunted in at the wide gate. Then started a frantic milling which deer handlers have fourrl to be always counter-clockwise, or "against the sun." Soon the grass and the tundra fl~s which had grONn in the corral since last rrarking time were ground to atans and a great tawny cloud of dust arose like a rerrage concealing the deer fran those who peered through the cracks in the oorral wall. ~ern oorral architeeture has been devised as an aid to the rather recently adopted rrethcrl of percentage rrarking of the deer. That is, the percentage of femlies bearing fawns is a::roputed and each deer CMI1eI' is granted an increase aIIOilllting to that percentage of his fenale deer. Until recently, the deer were caught by a lasso, and the fawns were given the same eannark as the fenale with which they seared to be running. The oorral was a simple circular Page 70 enclosure of drift lCXJs or of brush if lCXJs were not available. The reindeer, being a stupid and gullible creature, can easily be oorralled because he will not try to jump through what he CE.IlI1Ot see through. 'rhe rrost efficient type of oorral is CCITIp.)sed of two large circular pens of equal size oonnected by two STaller pens arrl a na.rrcM chute. The oorrals vary in size sarewhat rot are generally 1:llilt to aco:::mrodate the number of deer which can be "worked" in one day. 'rhe Unalakleet oorral can accx::mrodate a1:x>ut fifteen hundred deer. The two large pens are each 75 yards in diarreterj one of the srraller pens is 50 feet arrl the other is 25 feet in diameter. The chute is a narrcM passage 10 feet long arrl -just wide enough to admit the wide-branched antlers. The end of the chute adjacent to the larger pen is provided with a heavy sliding door oontaining a wicket. With ~ dozen nen helping, nine to ~lve hurrlred deer were easily rrarked daily at Unalakleet. The total herd of thirteen thousand deer were dispatched in ten days of v.urking fran ten to fourteen hours a day. The oontinuous daylight rrade v.urk p:>5sible at any hour of the ~ty-four. After a1:x>ut an mur of milling in the oorral, the deer became quiet enough to allow the rrarking to begin. Opening the door between the large pen, oontaining the deer, arrl the srraller one adjacent, a1:x>ut one hundred of the animals were Page 71 separated and driven into the smaller pen by means of IIDJch shouting, flapping of arms, and stretching of bJrlap. This was called 11 seining,n probably because the long strip of bJrlap was rnmoewered sanewhat like a seine. AOOut ten of the one hurrlred were then praroted to the next smaller pen by a nan assigned to the job. Another helper "shooedll the deer one at a tine into the chute where its long antlers tick-tacked along the poles of the <:blique walls until it plunged into the last large pen. On a small raiseCl platform near the end of the chute stood two ITen. One of them swiped its side with a paint brush as it dashed by, and the other noted the ear-narks and shouted his cbservations to the three lxx:>kkeepers who sat at a crude plank desk. near by. The p3.int was to prevent counting the same deer twiee should it warrler tack to the t.ll1rtaI'ked portion of the herd. If the deer were an unm:::rrked fawn or yearling, it was seized by the antlers and by a swift twist t:hrcMn to the ground. If the deer happened to l:.e a proud, strong, young bull, two or three rren were often required to sutdue his tucking and plunging. When the deer was <:nee <:n the ground, a narker gratbed an ear and waited with poiseCl knife for the instruction of the lxx:>kkeeper. The au:lience interestedly listened to the shouts of the caller and bookkeeper, and each deer aIDer remarked with It was often the hour of very long shadCMS just before the great ball of the sun dipped belON' the horizon for its one hour of hiding when the last of the day's allobnent of deer ran through the chute. Hardly anyone retired, ~er, until the last deer were released fran their prison in the corral for everyone was fascinated. by the picture of the deer with their antlers silhouetted against the gray backgrourrl of the Bering Sea as they hastened away to freedan in the hills until the next roundup. Reirrleer, shortly after their introduction into Alaska, were used extensively for transtxrrtation, rot they have of late years been a1.rIost entirely superseded by d09' teams. Deer were generally driven to Lapland style sleighs called "pulkas" which are shaped like one-half of a canoe which has been cut in n..o crosswise. Unlike dcg'S, deer are driven with a line held by the driver who sits in the sled; d09's are a::.ntrolled by the <.Xll'l'Mnds of the driver who stan:is on the runners at the back of the sled. For freighting PJXfXJses, deer and sleds are saretimes hitched in long caravans of alternate deer and sleds, all connected by ropes. Only one driver sitting in the first sled is Page 73 necessary to control all the deer. For going d~ a steep hi11, the deer are often hitched tehind the sleds. The speaj of these varies, of oourse, with the size of the load hauled, rut on the average they travel at aOOut the same speed as a dogt.earn -- six to ten miles an hour. The deer are rrore efficient than dogs where there is no trail -- as in the case of prospectors striking off into the illlcharted wilderness. fureover, deer have the advantage of being able to firrl a meal of ItOSS at ItOst anywhere the traveller cares to rrake camp, whereas the dog l11L1St be fed on dry fish carried on the sled. The great drawback to the use of deer for trans:fX)rtation is the fact that the deer fall easy prey to the rralemute dogs in every village. ~st pm;ons who have had experience in driving deer have fourrl that this one disadvantage ou~ighs all the other advantages. M3.ny travellers have had their sled deer killed by savage dogs arrl have had to then o:m.tinue with dogtearns. The Eskino, being prirrarily hilllters and fishers, did not at first realize the extraordinary advantages of being reirrleer ~ers. A few famines have, ~ver, cpened their eyes. Deer were the one available source of fcx:rl which prevented. the annihilation by famine of the Point B:irrcM natives in 1897, of the Kotzeroe natives in 1901, and of the Page 74 Q.l.igillinguk natives in 1916. Reirrleer are undoubtedly the Eskimo's rrost valuable txlssession since they are an ever ready source of roth fccrl a.rrl clothing. Deer at present sell for ten dollars per head or fifteen cents per pound in Alaska. The average deer weighs 150 lb. dressed. The Alaska Division of the Bureau of lliucation is doing all in its p:Mer to develop a rrarket for reirrleer meat in the United States. The lTOtorship "Boxer, n belonging to this Bureau, carries a cargo of reirrleer meat back to seattle every time it rrakes a trip to mrthern Alaska. HoNever, the refrigeration a.rrl transportation facilities are still inadequate. When these difficulties are overa:me (perhaps, partly by the establishrrent of canneries), there is no reason why the Esk..i.rrD should mt rrake a fortune in reirrleer. Although fishing and hunting are still the mst impor tant cccupa.tions of the EskiIro, sane minor cccupa.tions have been intnrluced. through the efforts of the Bureau of Educa tion teachers a.rrl the missionaries. By giving instruction in rocdern. methods of caring for a garden a.rrl by furnishing free seeds, the Bureau of Education is encouraging the developrent of an industry of great value, which was entirely new to the Esk..i.rrD. Not every village has soil and clirratic conditions suitable for these agricultural under takings, rut there are nany places where gardens thrive rerrarkably well. The Yukon a.rrl Kuskoquim villages as well Page 75 as rrost of the CXla.St settlarents south of None have sane gardens l..IIX1er cultivation. The rrost ootstarrling progress has teen made at Unalakleet on Norton Sourrl urrler the super vision of the missionaries and the goverrnnent teachers and at Holy Cross urrler the supeIVision of the French catholic missionaries. At Unalakleet, every family has a garden -- usually neatly fenced. Each year the plot of grol..IIX1 urrler cultivation is enlarged a little; the ~k of breaking new ground oovered with tough sod, as it is, ~d be! lIDst discouraging if the native had rot learned by observing the missionaries and teachers that the yield ~d be! worth the effort. There is cne l..al::or-saving device used extensively in preparing "f'J6N ground. Turnips or p::>tatoes planted bE!tween blocks of sod break up the sod with their roots and at the sarre time yield a fair-sized crop. Potatoes are the chief garden pnrluct ~use they yield rrore fcx:d value per square foot of grourrl than anything else raised. A plot fifty feet square in a ronnal season will yield twenty-five bushels. The large p::>tato crops were the rrotivation for excavating oollars beneath nany Eskimo houses. Any surplus p::>tatoes are sold to the trader at ten dollars per crate of cne hundred PJl..IIX1s. The village of Unalakleet gains a considerable profit by also funrishing Page 76 the potatoes for the Burea.u of Education Industrial School at White M:Jtmtain. Preprrations for the garden are started in April. Seedlings are raised in wirrlow roxes and small hothouses heated by coal oil lamps or stoves. The SOCM is shovelled off the garden plot alxmt the first of M3.y to enable the ground to thaw nore quickly, and by the micXlle of June the plant slips are transplanted to the outdoors and seeds of the quicker rraturing plants are sowed directly into the garden. By the end of June, there is an abu:rrlance of lettuce, radishes, and onions spurred to quick rraturity by the alnost perpetual Sillllight. Peas, beets, cauliflc::1wYer , spinach, carrots, turnips, and rutabagas are edible by the last of July; cabbage and potatoes are not harvested until frost threatens in September. At Holy Cross the Catholic school and orrX1ana.ge have becane self-sup(X)rting through their agricultural and dairy enterprises. The z-bravian missionaries at Q..rinhagak have brought soil to their coast village fran several miles up the river for gardening turIX>ses and in the last ~ years they and the Esk..irro of their village have been exp:rr-i.rrenting with gardens in the rich soil of shallow lake be:is which were drained for the purpose. Many villages which are located ~n sites which are not suitable for gardening can profit by having gardens at a distance of Page 77 several miles fran the village. The primitive Esk.irrD ~e not natural fanners and many are not ru::M especially interested in this new occupation. Neither were they reirrleer herders, but nany of them row own arrl care for large herds. The task of converting a race of hlUlters and fishennen into a race of herders and farmers is not to be canpletely accanplished in one generation, but the results already obtained .by the missionaries give ample proof that the work has not been futile. A considerable number of Eski.rro have adopted one or fOClre of several miscellaneous occupations which have developed through q;:l];X)rbmities offered by the white nan. Ivory carving affords old nen, who can no fOClre p:rrticipate in the strenuous occupations, a rreans of livelihocrl. Younger nen, when ext.rerrely inclem:mt weather forces them to stay irrlcors, also resort to ivory carving as a lucrative pa.sti.rre. The constantly increasing number of souvenir seeking tourists to Alaska afford a ready market for these ivory prOOucts. These caIVerS do not originate many new patterns but they be Thus the instruction given in drawing classes in the Bureau of lliucation schools is p,lt to practical use by the Esk.irrD Page 78 in toth plarming arrl deaxating his ivory prOOucts. Many of the rren are quite adept at using the whitemanIS tools in wcx::rlworking. SCIre of them prefer this type of occupation to all others and have cxrnpletely forsaken hunting arrl fishing to be carpenters. There is usually at least me nan in each village who does this type of work. He rrakes boats, sleds, SIlCMShoes, arrl often bJilds houses for toth EskiJro and white people. SCIre of the !tOre skillful carpenters becane quite wealthy for Eskirro. Many of this class invest their surplus earnings in reindeer in order to be indeperrl.ent in their old age. Although i vary carving arrl tasket \e3.ving is done to a large extent by the older generation of Eskirro, the children who are rchJ in the Bureau of Education schools are learning the use of rrethods arrl implarents which will enable them to do better carving and \e3.ving in a nnre efficient rranner. Many of those schools also give training in mechanics which familiarize the toys with the working principles of gasoline engines of a type ccmronly used on srrall schooners, while practically all schools train roys in the use of carpenter I s tools. SCIre l::xJys in the schools are able to make sleds and l::oats with nodern rrethods and tools which arouse the admiration of their fathers who can do no better after a lifetirre of practice with their old rn=thods and implements. It saretimes happens in isolate:] localities that a few Page 79 weeks or even b«:> or three nonths may elapse between the deprrture of teachers and the arrival of their successors. The enthusiastic greeting with which the Eski.rro meet the new teachers after having rxme for a time is ample proof that the work of the Bureau of Etlucation is reoognized by them as having a beneficial influence. SlM>1ARY OF aIAPrER VI cx::nJPATIONS AND IMPLEMENTS 1. The adoption of cotton and linen twine for nets and lines, wire for hooks, and wire netting for traps, the fish wheel for catching fish, and steel knives for cutting them, has en:Jrnously increased the ability of the Esk.irro to rrake his living fran fishing. 2. The adqJtion of improved rrethods and implarents for hunting has meant not only an increase in fcxXi supply, but it has enabled the Esk.irro to p..rrchase with fur the nany articles CCII1OClI11y considered by the whiteman to be necessities which he would otherwise be unable to obtain. 3. The enforC€'flEI1t of game laws in Alaska. serves a double purpose; it protects fur-bearing animals fran extinction and teaches the Eski.mJ the rreaning and purpose of obeying laws. 4. The reirdeer irrlustry intrcrluced by the Bureau of Page 80 Education has given the Eskilro a substitute for the vanishing caril:ou and a rreans of rraking himself eoonanically irrlependent. 5. The developing of gardening arrong the Eskilro of certain localities has furnished a valuable rreans of variation in an otherwise m:motonous diet. 6. Sore occupations which have developed in response to opportunity created by the adoption of a sanewhat civilized rro:ie of life are ivory ccu:ving, basket weaving, carpentry, transpJrtation, and trading. The Eskirro drild, in a rranner which rrakes him rrore canpetent to engage in these and similar occupations, has been trained in the Bureau of £ducation schools. CHAPTER VII PRIMITIVE AND MODERN HEALTH CONDITIONS The process of changing a race of rx::madic barbarians to orderly self-s~rting citizens in tv.\) or three genera tions is me involving roth advantages and disadvantages of rrany kirrls. The corrlitions relative to food, clothing, arrl habitations under which the primitive Esk.ino lived Y.e"e of such a rigorous nature that only the fittest were able to survive. Those individuals who were rrost fit under primitive corrlitions were, however, not necessarily IIDst fit for a highly civilized mode of life. Centuries of existence uPJn a diet consisting alrrost entirely of neat arrl fish has produced a race which is well adapted to the use of that type of food. With the inevit able advance of civilization, this diet has been dlanged furrl3rrentally. TI1e caribou which were fonnerly relied upon as a valuable source of food are gone fran his hunting ground arrl the Eskirro is not always able to procure reirrleer as a substitute. M:my of them have had no cpfX)rtunity to Page 82 serve as reindeer apprentices or have not been wise enough to take the Clpp)rtunity when offered and are nr:M too p::lOr to purchase reindeer. This corrlition has forcerl a change in diet. The trappers who are able to p.rrchase fcx:xi with fur, purchase the ki.rrl of fcx:xi which is offered in the store. Through the efforts of teachers and IIDrSeS, sane of the Esk.irro have learned the relative value of different forms of the white IrBnIS fcx:xis, but the rrajority of them still renain in ignorance of fcx:xi values and choose on the basis of taste entirely. With pleasing taste as a criterion, IlOSt EskirTo select white flour, granulated sugar, tea, and roffee as a rre.in rourse with candy and chewing gum for dessert. During periods when fish and rreat are scarce, these articles form the major PJrtion of the diet. The flour is generally made into inch-thick. r:ancak.es which defy digestion and sugar is used in large quantities. A study of the teeth of Esk.irro who died tefore the use of these denaturEd fcx:xis were used extensively revealed many perfect sets and rone with caries. A study of the teeth of seventy-five E'.skimJ children in one school and forty-eight in another showed that rrore than fifty per cent had defective teeth due to decay. In reSp:>I1Se to a letter of inquiry regarding the effect of sane of the white rran I s fcx:xis uJ;X)fl the Esk.irro, the follCMing staterrent was received Page 83 fran Dr. Hrdlicka of the Snithsonian Institute: ". • • they (white people) have introduced white nanIS foc:d such as sugar, carmed gc:ods, syrup, baking pc:M:ler, flour, etc., as a result of the use of which the Esk.:im::> are ncM suffering considerably fran tex>th decay, which was practically t.111kncMn before the introduction of these foods." The efforts of teachers and nurses in encouraging the Esk.:im::> to substitute wh:::>le wheat flour and whole rom rreal for white flour and to purchase sare milk, oranges, and dry fruit instead of such large quantities of sugar, candy, ooffee, and tea are helping to oorrect sare of the TTOst carrron dietetic errors. That rralnutrition is often responsible for the lCM resistance of the Esk..irro to tuberculosis has been sho.vn by the rrarked improvarEnt and frequent cure of patients a£flieted with this disease who have received proper care and foc:d in government rospitals. The testi.roclny of Eskino not in hospitals who have notErl marked improvarEnt in faulty digestion and in general physical corrlition a£ter rraking the dietetic changes suggested by nurses and teachers is arrple proof that the present dietetic habits of the Eskino are often faulty and that their rorrection will improve health ronditions. A degree of cleanliness which was :i.Inp)ssible when practically all the clothing was of fur has ncM cane a1:xJut Page 84 through the adoption of rotton arrl ~len apprrel. One of the rrost important duties of the Bureau of Education teachers arrl nurses is the teaching of personal cleanliness. The striking rontrast re~ the neat appearance of the children in the schc:nls ani the slovenly, unkempt appearance of the people living in isolated districts where there are no schools is invariably one of the rrost vivid impressions received by persons investigating 1iving a:mditions arcong the EskiIro. The value which inheres in a change fran filth to cleanliness neEds no supp.::>rt !ere. This d1ange was rrade possible by the substitution of washable gannent naterial for fur which rould rot re laundered without damage to the gannent. The change fran the primitive igloo to the rro::]ern log cabin has created a fuel problem which, in sore localities, has nade the Eskirro so conservative of heat as to seriously restrict ventilation. This can hardly re said to re a change for the worse, l1a.vever, for the primitive igloo was often as poorly ventilated as the rro::]ern cabin. If the igloo was heated with b::dy heat cnly, there was hardly any ventilation; if a lamp or fire was used for heat ani cooking, the hole in the roof was q;>ened to a1lCM the STOke to escape. It was quite often the case that enough of the srroke remained in the igloo to seriously obstruct both vision arrl breathing. Page 85 Stoves are I1.OW in alrrost universal use arrong the Eski.Iro for heating their cabins and for oookingj inciden tally, they are a means of ventilation. The custan of tightly closing the cabin I s every opening at night after the fire goes out is a pernicious one which is CUlllOll arrong Eski.rro and white people alike during ~iOOs of exceedingly low temperature, arrl is not a fault of the change fran the iglco to the cabin. As long as white people in PJSitions of restxJnsibility furnish such a pear example this habit can hardly be expected to be changed arrong the Eski.Iro. SC:Il"e of the houses are ventilated at night during the ooldest wea ther without any resulting ill effect. Bedding wann enough for the ooldest weather and cheap enough for the poorest Eski.Iro nay be nade fran reindeer skins with a washable cloth oovering. Consequently the only excuse left for poor venti lation of sleeping quarters are ignorance and }Jrejudice. Another improverrent of the cabin over the iglco is that of the lighting facilities which h3.ve an i.mp:lrtant influence utxJn health. SUnlight, an invaluable aid to the cure of tuberculosis which is prevalent arocmg the Eski.Iro, was rarely able to penetrate the glean of the iglco during the long winter rronths. If the Sill1 did shine -- there were rrany days when no sun oould be seen -- its feeble rays created only a crep.1Scular light within the iglco after piercing the one Page 86 seal-gut windON in the roof. All the log cabins of Eskirro tcx:iay have at least me and often several capacious glass windCMS facing the south to take advantage of all PJSsible sunlight during the short winter days. The natives are often helped in planning their houses by the teachers and missionaries. At Quinhagak near the IIOuth of the Kuskokwim River, the ~ravian Mission helps the natives in their building by furnishing lumber at rost fran the mission saw mill at Bethel or by purchasing lumber, nails, windCMS, and sheet-iron roofing fran seattle and selling it to them at rost. Owing to the scarcity of wcx:d for fuel at this station, a project is now under ronsidera tion whereby the Mission may purchase coal fran seattle to l:e sold to the Eski.m.::l at rost. The successful cperation of this plan would urrloubtedly l:e a valuable step in the solu tion of this very i.rrp:rrtant problem of the Esk..irro of that locality. The exact extent to which primitive Esk..irro were subject to disease is difficult to determine. It is certain, lxTwever, that he has received several unwelcane gifts fran the white man in the farm of disease. In the same letter which has been quoted oonceming fcx:xis, Dr. Hrdlicka says, " ••• the white people have introduced aloohol, also syphilis, smllpox, and other rontagious diseases to the Eskirro. It Page 87 TABLE I BIRTH AND DEATH RATE AMONG ESKIMO, INDIAN, AND MIXED BLOODS. (1924 to 1921) NOTE: Table I is rnt in this ropy rot was in the original as sutmitte::l to the University. A p:ige of text regarding the health of the Eskirro is also missing i.rrmadiately follCMing Table I. Page 88 TABLE II: TOTAL BIRTHS AND DEATHS IN ALASKA 4 Un :- 1m 11919 : 1920 : 1~~ 2200 • 21~:5 • I 2100 • • • • • • 2000 I • l'l • • 1900 I I • • 1800 • 7 • • 1'700 I • • 1800 • • I : I• 1~00 I • • .' 1400 ·• I • • lS00 r I • • 1200 • 1100 J • • I lO12.rJ •t 1000 i • I .~ ~,. I ~""oQg? : ~~~~~ 900 ,~ • ~~..Jta. -;'5'5) II• " • 801 • ... " II '8'56 ../ / II i'~I ,,,,. '00 ~ I ~870 II t 800 / • · ~ I I '" &00 It I • ---- -Births ------Deaths 4. This table, which was copied fran the Armual Rep:)rt of the Governor of Alaska for 1928, shcMs that the birth rate for toth whites and natives of Alaska norrrally exceeds the death rate. The influenza epidemic was resp:m.sible for the enorrrous increase in the death rate for 1918. Page 89 TABLE I II: ANNUAL BIRTH AND DEATH STATISTICS FOR UNALAKLEET FROM 1894 to 1927 Year Births Ye~.r Deaths ~94 4 1894 1 1895 19 1895 3 1896 8 1896 6 1897 9 1897 9 1898 2 1898 19 1899 6 1899 7 1900 1 1900 1 1901 1? 1901 0 1902 2- 1902 0 1903 3 19,)3 5 1904 1 19,)4 1 1905 4 1905 1 1906 7 1906 4 1907 11 1907 !4 1908 10 1908 1::. 1909 6 1909 11 19.10 3 1910 .7 1911 13 1911 -1 191~ 13 1912 8 1913 1? 1913 7 1914 11 1914 6 19J ~ 17 1915 8 1916 10 1916 3 19) "1 13 1917 12 1918 4 1918 3 l~lg 9 1 t:l'.9 6 19~0 9 1920 .l0 9' ..... 1921 1921 '" 1922 9 1922 9 1923 8 1923 2 192 tl 12 1924 4 Fl~'5 1~ 19r.'5 4 19~~ 8 1q~6 5 1927 12 1927 3 '1'ota1 274 Total m Net increase 57 in 33 years; average annual rate of increase 1.56. Average birth rate 8.13; average death rate 6.57. '!be author CClt'piled this table fran records of Rev. E. B. Larsson of the swedish Mission at Unalakleet in Alaska. Page 90 The number of births for the years 1888 to 1893 inclusive at unalakleet were 4, 4, 2, 10, 6, and 11. As no record was kept of the deaths during this perioo., these births are not included in the table. Because of the strict quarantine which was enforcej in this village by the nurse and the teachers, there was no increase in deaths during the influenza epidemic of 1918 which, according to the statement of the Rev. August ArxJerson (who was a missionary on Norton Saurrl at that t.i.ITe), took a death toll of one hundred-fifty fran a total p?p.ll.ation of tv.o hurrlred in the village at cape Prince of Wales. He also stated that there is a grave near Nane in which the total IX>p.ll.a tion of a village of a.lx>ut two hundred Eski.rro are Wried; they were victims of influenza. Table Number II shoNing births and deaths of toth native and white p?p.ll.ation fran 1917 to 1927 shcMs the effect of this epidemic which decimated mmy Eskim:> villages and ccrnpletely annihilated others. During the year 1907, there was an epidemic in Unalakleet which took the heaviest death toll of which there is an official record. '!he same disease, which was described by a Golovin missionary as an epidemic in his village in 1900, was tenned "lung fever." According to Rev. Adolph Stecker, a Moravian missionary, this sane epidemic took over half of the p?p.ll.ation of the Kuskoquim River district. According to the oldest inhabitants naN living in Page 91 Unalakleet, KligichtcMak, and Pastolik, there was an epideni.c alx>ut the year 1875 during which the three hundred inhabitants of Unalakleet all died with the exception of alx>ut a dozen :irrlividuals who had the disease and recovered and farr or five families which were at temJ::orary camps in the rrountains or along the beach. The natives of Pastolik. and KligichtcMak were al.rrost annihilated. Fran the descrip tion of the deep scars left upon the faces of the few survivors, the disease was evidently SllHllpox. The Eskirro think that this disease carne as a result of p..rrchasing a number of blankets fran the Russians who wished than hann. There is also an aCCotmt given by very old Esk.i.m:> of Unalakleet of a terrible epid6llic which occurred during the Russian occupation of that village (1833-1867). The Russian d them. Table IV gives the birth and death statistics for the years '920 to 1928 inclusive of all the villages on the one Page 92 TABLE IV: ANNUAL BIRTH AND DEATH STATISTICS FOR QUINHAGAK DISTRICT FROM 1920 TO 1928 I I I Total ;~e~rease or A • B k C I D I alncrea.ae. -..Ji- : d •I -b' : d : b : a : 'b I a : b : d: .d i 1 • I: I 26 l 1 1~20 6 15 6 5 271 I 1 1 I 7 •: 2 1' 8 '• 5I • : • I_ I I 8 1 4 • 5 8 I 4 i 15 : 6 I 39 : 23 1 16 1921 12 1 1 1 : 1 1 1 · • • t a • i 6 I • 5 ·I 27 : 21: 6 1922 12 7 • 4' • 5 A. : • 5 • I 1 1 I 1 • : 1 I • • - f I 1923 11 ~ i 4 3 5 i 7 • 3 : - 5 I 23 t 20: 3 1 1 1 1 1 I • .• • i i · 1924 -:'6 i 1 i 4 0 7 t 6 i 18 • 13 : 35 : 20: 15 I' I 1 S I • I • 1 : I t .. • · 1 n ?5 1 1 £ 0 1 . 5 • 6 i 17 I 7 : 23 t 15: 18 I 1 I 1 • I 1 1 I : i • t • 18 i 3 i 17 i 4 i 48 i 16: 3c: 1926 9 6 • 4 3 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 • t • I I • 1927 2 5 • 0 5 4 i 4 • 13 i 10 : 19 I 24: 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 • ! I I 7 : 1928 4 "1 6 1 .• 12 ' o 12 1 38 : 12: 26 -6: 1 I 1 1 1 • 1 • : · Tota.1 61 J 52 132 : 28 1 72 : 36 I 108 : 62: 278 : 168: - Net increase 110 ·A"repre~ents Eek ~·representB births "B" " Apokak ltd • " deaths ·C· • Quinhagak "n. • Go od NeWB Be.y ( Total population of all villages at present 664.) Thi s ta.ble was compi lcd by the author froe reeoe'de Yrnt by Rev. F. Drebert' or. the Moravian MisAion who 1s the mis9ionary in chArge of the Quinhagak district. Page 93 hundred miles of coastline near the IIDUth of the Kuskokwim River fran Eek to Geed. News Bay. There is a Bureau of Education schcol at each of these villages except Apokak. The missionary stationed at Quinhagak also IBYs frequent visits to these villages to conduct religious services and. to cooperate with the teachers in projects a:mcerning the welfare of the natives. In order to provide medical and sanitary relief for the Eskim::>, the Bureau of Education employed in its work during 1928 f i \Ie doctors, me dentist, and. fifteen nurses. The medical employees were distributed anong ten hospitals and. on a rredical toat which visits villages along the Yukon River for the p.J.rfX)se of giving medical attention. SlM>1ARY OF Cl1API'ER VII HEALTH 1. The substitution of sane of the white nan I s devitalized foc:rls for a large portion of the Eskim::>' s primitive diet has proved detr:irrental to his health. CMing .. to the efforts of sore of the Bureau of Education teachers, the Eskim::> is gradual!y becxrning educated to know the relative value of different i terns of the whiteman's fcx:rl. 2. The change fran fur to cotton and. v.a>len rraterial for certain articles of clothing has made it possible for Page 94 him to have a cleaner l::xJdy as well as cleaner clothing and cleanliness is oonducive to health. 3. By enrouraging the Esk..i.roo to bllld log cabins instead of igloos and by introducing the use of glass wirrlCMS, the teachers and missionaries have rontril::.uted to the improve:nent of health oonditions arrong the Esk..i.roo. 4. The white rran has given the Eskirro rrany diseases which shorten his life sp:u1 and cantril::.ute to his misery while he is alive. To rolIDteract this influence, the Bureau of E:lucation has brought the forces of education and rredical relief to his assistance in order to help him overcane not only diseases but also to eradicate rmny other unfavorable envirOI1lIEl1tal corrlitions to which he, in his ignorance, was helplessly subjected. CHAPTER VIII FROM THE ESKIMO LANGUAGE TO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Mention was rrade in the chapter en racial traits to the effect that the Eski.rro language is divided into many dia lects. Investigation has shown that although the principles governing gramnatical construction are quite similar arrong different tribes, many ~ of the vocab.l1ary are often quite different. On accx::nmt of the many tribal feuds and the fXX>r transp:rrtation facilities, the intercx::>urse betv.e:m different tribes was limited to a great deal of fighting and very little similarity in language was necessary, the unifonnity within the tribe was all that mattered. With the adoption of a civilized rrOOe of living, the Esk.i.rro is faced with many situations in which he firrls his language inadequate. As a rreans of oral c:x::rmtU11ications arrong irrlividuals who thoroughly urrlerstand it, the Eski.Iro language is no doubt efficient. Teachers, missionaries, and traders who kncM roth Eskirro and English have IT'ade state rrents to the effect that the rretho:i of m:x:lifying a mun or Page 96 a verb by the use of prefixes, suffixes, arrl often "infixes" as used in Eskirro is frequently nore efficient in the expression of an idea than the English; but the use of the Eskirro language in teaching in the Alaskan schools would involve problems, the seriousness of which would far out weigh the value of the Eski.Ioo language as a rrea.ns of oral expression. The mrin problem is foun.J. in the wide variation of dialects arn:mg the different tribes. This v.uuld rrake a system of unifonn text.l:xxJks i.mtnssible. fue aJst of having different tooks for different tribes v.uuld make the system too expensive to re practical. It would also re very difficult to get efficient teachers who could teach in the dialect without years of special language training. One of the rrost i.mtnrtant argurrents against teaching in Eskirro is that there is no literature to study in that language, arrl if teaching were in Eski.rro, both the English literature of the past arrl the current rragazine publications would re incxmprehensible to the Eski.rro. fue rnly attempt to p.Jblish anything in the Eskirro language in Alaska. has been made by the [\obravian missiona ries arrong the Kuskcquagamiut. This mission has representa tives stationed at Bethel arrl Qrinhagak arrl an orphanage supJ;X)rting forty Eskirro children about eighteen miles north of Bethel. In order to facilitate the singing of hymns in Page 97 religious services held in these arrl neighOOring villages, over cne hundred English hyrms mve teen translated into the Kuskoquagamiut dialect. ~st of these hyrms have teen 1xl1..II"rl into tooklet form to be u.serl by the natives. several l::ooks of the New Testament have also teen translated into Eski.roc> for the use of the native Sunday School teachers. Copies of the hynm 1xx::>ks arrl testaments were presented to one of the Malaniut interpreters who could read, write arrl speak Eng lish quite well, arrl who could read his o,.m dialect written with English letters. M3.ny of the Kuskoquagarniut words ~e unintelligible to him, arrl rrany rrore ~d have been rrean ingless h3.d he not been able to guess at their rreaning fran being familiar with sare of the songs arrl bible verses. This translation has teen of oonsiderable use to the missionaries in their religious work. In reality, h.cwever, the ability to read the Esk.i.rro dialect written with English letters arrl pronounce:1 aa::nrding to English nlles of pronunciation, is deperrlent upon the instruction in phonetics received in the Bureau of Education schools. Those who are able to read the Esk.iroc> best are generally those who have had the rrost training in school arrl vice versa. M3.ny of the Esk.i.rros who mve had several years in school are able to read arrl write letters in their Esk..irro dialect by using English {±1onetics. Page 98 The instruction of the Board of Et'lucatian schools is rorxiucted entirely in English. M:>st of the children knc:M little, if any, English when they enter school; since the teachers do not tea.ch in Esk.i.roc>, the drildren lea.nl English by the direct rrethod. A great deal of English is soon acquired by the beginners by hearing the other drildren recite and by observing the relationship between the tea.cher's questions and the older drild' s responses. Names of cx:mron articles are leanled through garres. For example, sane tea.chers rrake excellent use of CHtalog and magazine pictures in teaching English. The first child to say the name of the object represented by the picture is all~ to hold the picture temporarily. Considerable canpetitian arises in trying to "see who can get the IIOst." 'Ihe wiImer usually gets a little reward such as three or four raisins. Alxmt the second or third ~ after entering school, the child begins to study the Beacon Phonetic chart contain ing the IIOst simple English words pronounced Plonetically. Within the saroo week they are able to start in the Beaoon Primer which rontains IIOStly pictures and a few easy des criptive sentences. CMing to the lack of previous k:r1aYledge of English, the progress of Esk.im.J drildren is ITU.1ch SlONer than that made by half-breed children who lea.nl English fran their fathers. The subjects of reading, spelling, wriling, arithmetic, Page 99 hygiene, gecgraphy, history, nature sttrly, and IIDJ.Sic are stu:lied fran text books as soon as the child learns enough English to urrlerstarrl than. Since this period is consider ably delaYed in The primary p..1rpOSe of the school during the first four years is to develop ability to sreak, read, and write English. M.1sic study often serves a double purp:>se through aiding in the developrent of vocabulary. Hygiene and samtation are anphasized fran the day of entrance so that the child is often well acquainted with the vocabulary of this subject before he begins the study of a hygiene text txx>k. Although a thorough knowledge of English is not necessary, it is quite valuable in teaching Manual Training and D:::nestic Science because it enables the pupil to under starrl directions and to take advantage of advice. AlIrost every Bureau of Education school h3.s a snall library. Sane of the books deal with rrethcds and principles of instruction and are rarely perused by anyone except teachers. The IM.jority of the txx>ks are easy fiction with animal stories predaninating. scme libraries have the Boy Scout and Page 100 Campfire Girl series. These lxdcs are eagerly read by l:xJys and girls al:x:>ve twelve years of age and nany of them are read by adults who received training in the school either while they were children or in the night school which is scmat.irres conducted by the Board of Education teacher. A few adults in the rrore advanced villages roN subscribe for the cheaper magazines such as the "Ladies Hare Journal" and IIPictoria1 Review." others frequently oorrow magazines subscribed for by the teachers, missionaries, traders, and mail carriers. The "Popular ZvEchani.cs, I' I'Popular SCience r-bnthly, II and "Scientific American" magazines were often scrutinized. far nore carefully by the Eskirlu ooys and rren than by the teacher or missionary who subscribed for them. These rragazines };X)Ssess utilitarian as well as recreational value since nany suggestions concenring mechanical devices are p.lt into practice in l:oat, sled., and rouse-wilding, and in the operation of gasoline engines for boats. The value of being able to speak any language can hardly be realized. by one who has never had the experience of being in a group of P=!Ople who are ronversing freely in a language which he does not understand. Language appears even rrore i..ITIt:ortant if the person so situated attempts to express himself to the irrlividuals of the group without being able to convey any of the ideas which he tries to express. This corrlition which has occurred. so frequently Page 101 with rrany Eskirro and white people in Alaska is gradually being eradicated by the teaching of the English language in the Bureau of Fducatioo schcx:>ls in Alaska. Because of the high esteem in which the Eskirro h.Jlds his CMI1 language, rrost parents speak only Eski.no to their children even though the parents are able to converse in English. The parents who have teen educated in the Bureau of OOucation schools realize the value of training in English and alrrost invariably are interested in having their children rrake rapid progress in schoJl work. These parents sanetirnes assist the child in solving various problems which arise in connection with his schoJl work. The rrost cumon example of this type of assistance is helping the child . rrerrorize his part in a h.Jliday program. All p:rrents are prou:l of their children if they do well U[X)l1 such occasions. The developlel1t of the desire anong p:rrents to have their children educated in the whiteman f s ways has fur nished a ~ful notive for having the d1i.ldren learn the English language in the Bureau of Education schcx:>ls. With the kInwledge of hc:M to speak, read and write the English language c:ares many other ki.n::is of kr'laNledge which are useful to the EskirTO in acquiring the best things which the white man' s culture has to offer. Page 102 SUW1ARY OF CHAPI'ER VIII IMGJAGE 1. Urrler primitive oorrlitions, the many dialects of the Eskino language furnished an adequate neans of oral expression. 2. Milly situations arise urrler the present civilized m:rle of life in which reading and writing are necessary attainments. 3. Owing to the presence of rnany serious obstacles in teaching in the Eskino language in the schools of Alaska, it is necessary for Eskino children to l.e3.rn English in these sch(X)ls. 4. Through the realization of the value of the rnany advantages to re att.ainErl by reing able to speak, read, and write English, many Eskino p:lI'eilts co-operate with the teachers in an effort to educate their children. CHAPTER IX FROM SHAMANISM TO CHRISTIANITY Though the missionaries in Alaska mve oooperated with the teachers in many of the school and village irnprovem:mt projects, the rrain d:>jective of the missionary ms always been to convert the Esk.i.mJ to Christianity and to persuade him to atarrlon the practice of the rites and custans of his old religioo. The religion of the primitive Esk.ino was based up:m the assumption that all phenarena are controlled by spirits which are, in turn, oontrolled by the shamans. CMing to the conception that the spirits could be governed and directed by the various d1a.nns and fonnulae known to the shamans, there was no need of anything like prayer or supplication in their religion. Since every village had at least one and SCl'I'etimes several shamans, there was often ronsiderable variation of <::pinion upon religious rratters. There was little unifonnity or clearness in regard to ideas al:x:>ut a future life. There was no conception of a heaven Page 104 or hell in a future life. 'lbe spirit of a deceased person was thought to rarain in the hCAlSe for a few days after death and then to retire to the grave where it waited for the birth of the next child in the village. If several deaths occurred before the birth of a drild, the parents oould chcx:>se anyone or several of the group of hareless to be the guardian spirit of the drild. If several drildren were bJrn between the occurrence of one death and the next, each of the children received the same spirit for his guardian. 'Ihe Eskirro did not bother to explain hc:M the soul of one rran oould inhabit the txxlies of a dozen different drildren or how a dozen different spirits oould abide pea.ceably in the kx.Jdy of one drild. This idea of reincarnation which often remains dimly present in the mirrls of the rrroern Esk.i.Iro is responsible to a large extent for the reluctance with which Esk.i..foc) };E.reI1ts punish their children. It was thought by the primitive Esk.i..foc) tha.t the child needed the prot?ction of a guardian spirit to help him to avoid disaster, which might easily befall a drild, until his CMI1 personal spirit was capable of taking care of itself. If the parent should punish the child, the guardian spirit v.uuld proOObly be offerrled and desert it. It was not certain what v.uuld becc:xre of the guardian spirit if such desertion should take place, but Page 105 the child would urrloubtedly fall an easy prey to disease and death. When the child .became ten or twelve years of age, it was cemronly suP{X)Sed that the child's CMl1. personal spirit had gained sufficient experience to do without a guardian spirit. The parents then considered it safe to begin to p.mish the child, b..1t generally the habit of obeying the child I 5 whims was so strongly established that it was seldon broken. CMing to the performance of rrany so-called miracles under their very eyes, there were few, if any, skeptics, arrong the primitive Esk..im:>. They rot cnIy believed in b..1t expected miracles. Any fortune or misfortune which oould befall an Esk..im:> rould be explained on the basis of spirit participition in human affairs. Although SCIre events were camonly thought to happen at the instigation of una:>ntrolled spirits, the major portion of the miracles v.ere believed to occur under the direction of the sham3.ns. While every sharC'an had at least one familiar spirit under CXIl1trol to assist in the performance of miracles, the ITOSt fXJWerlul ones often had a gnall aJ:mY of spirits which were round by charms, formulae, and amulets to do his bidding. When a pcMerful shaman becaIre so old that he was unable to hlmt and fish, he rould sell sane spirits to younger men who wished to beccm2 proficient in the art of Page 106 wizardry• The amJlU1t of foed. or irnpl€i'l'eflts given in p:l.yrrEIlt for a spirit deperrled utXID the scarcity of foed. and the fanE of the sham3.n. The perforrrance of the various miracles differ to sane extent in different localities, rot there were sane miracles which ~ a::mronly practiced by all the great shamans. Such feats as raising the dead, walking on the water, and remaining urrler the water for several murs were accanplished anly with great difficulty and had 00en witnessed by very few spectators. But there was cne miracle which was universally vouched for -- the spirit flight. SCrneti.rres the sharran rrade a miraculous visit to sane distant place, such as to another village, to the rottan of the sea, or to the IfOO11. In stonny weather, the shaman often made a trip to the rroan. If his spirits were strong enJugh to gain entrance to the house of the p::YNerful sharran who lived on the rroan, the visitor was able to discover what tal::x::os had 00en broken to offend the spirits and cause the stonny weather. It was sanetimes found that sane sharran in another village had caused all of the trouble in order to avenge sane offense by a menber of the afflicted village. The trip to the ItIxm oould be rrade in ~ ways. One way allOn1ed the sham3.n to go in his physical tedYi the other way released the spirit by neans of a trance. The Page 107 latter method oould be in the daylight l::efore spectators while the fanner required absolute darkness and the blirrlfolding of everyone present. Information reoeived upon such trips was supposed to l::e entirely reliable; ~, at other times the sham:m was subject to error. Since a "wise nan" was "ene who knew a large number of ta.lxx:ls, 111 the shaman was careful to oollect and invent as much of this knoNledge as pJssible. It was generally conceded, however, that ro shaman oould know all of the charms am. tal:xxJs and if his efforts to exorcise an evil spirit failed, the failure oould l::e attrihlted to the operation of sane chann over which he had no power. D..1e to the fact that the shaman was the principal figure of the primitive Eski.rro religion and also because his ~ition was a lucrative ene, this dignitary was the chief obstacle to the adoption of Christianity by the Eskimo. If the shaman adqJted the new religion, rrany of his followers would follCM his example. During three years of observation of o:m::litions arrong the Eskirro at Unalakleet, where the Swedish Mission was 1. Stefansson, V., ~ Life With the Eskirro, p. 412. established in 1886, and one year at Quinhagak, where the Page 108 r-bravian Mission was established in 1903, considerable infonnation was accumulated concerning the religious life of the natives residing in these two villages. 'Ib what extent the old religious ideas are retained is often difficult to determine recause of the reticence with which the Eskilto neets the attibrle of ridicule and skepticism ccmronly held by white people in regard to the old fonn of religion. In the villages of Unalakleet and Quinhagak, practically the entire native population atteOOs every service held in the church. The missionaries have taught the Christian religion in these services in much the sane narmer in which such services are oonducted in the churches of the sarre denaninations for white people. The stories of the Bible are taught in regular sernons and in SUnday school lessons with the Emphasis U];X)l1 the application of Christian noral principles to everyday life. As a result of the adoption of this teaching, the "do's" and "don' tslf of Christianity have been substituted for the t;al:x)()s of the primitive religion and the missionary has taken the place of the sharren as a religious advisor for the amnunity. The missionaries and teachers often collaborate in giving programs in the dlurch or school up:m such occasions as Chrisbnas, Thanksgiving, New Year' s, and Mother I s I:ay. The singing of hymns which is an imp:>rtant tart of every Page 109 church service furnishes a great deal of enjoyrrent to rrost Esk.irro who attend church services. The churches at Unalakleet, Quinhagak, arrl Bethel have choirs which are able to rerrler anthems arrl cantatas in a creditable nanner. AIthough sane of the choir roombers try to rrarorize their };Erts, the najority of them are able to read music with considerable speed arrl accuracy. The early training in music which is received in the Bureau of Education schools generally gives the fourrlation in music reading which is further developed by the church choir rehearsals held once every week. during the winter except for the b«> or three weeks :ircroodi.ately preceding special pr03rams when there is choir practice every evening. Travellers arrl tourists hearing sane of the programs given by these choirs always m.:rrvel at the ability of the natives to prOOuce good music. At Unalakleet all children over twelve years of age enter the class conducted by the missionary in preparation for a:nfirnation. The rrembers of the class are taught the creed of the church arrl an attempt is made to instill in them a reverence for the teachings of the Bible. According to the test.iIrony of traders who have observed the effect of several different missionaries u};On the natives of the sarre village, the rrost beneficial changes have been brought aOOut rot fran fonral teaching rot as a Page 110 result of clean living and high nnral stamards as practiced in the lives of the missionaries themselves. It has also been observed tbat the Eski.rro has little respect for the adrronitions and advice of a missionary who does not cx:>rrluct his own affairs in everyday life accx:>rding to the principles which he asks them to follON. SUMMARY OF CHAPI'ER IX RELIGION 1. The religion of the primitive Eskirro was based ur:on the presunption tbat all P1enarena are controlled by spirits which are the servants of shamans. 2. The theory of reincarnation was p3.rtially accepted in the idea tbat every child had a guardian spirit which resided in the l::xx1y of the d1.ild simultaneously with the spirit of the child. 3. The sham:m was the ITEdiator :te~ the Eski.rro and the spirits am was supp:>sed to :te able to control the spirits either for gocx1 or evil. 4. The missionaries have supplanted the sham:m am with this dlange came the teaching of the tatoos of Christianity to take the place of the old talx:x::>s. 5. AIthough rrany of the dlanges in the religious beliefs of the Eski.rro have been acccmplished through the Page 111 preaching am. the tea.ching dane by the missionaries, the rrost i.rntxrrtant factor in the persuasion of the Eskirro to practice the priniciples of Christianity has been in the lives of the missionaries themselves. CHAPTER X PRIMITIVE AND MODERN SOCIAL RELATIONS '!he social relations of the primitive Eski.rro as well as the religious cererronies were in the rrain restricte:1 to activities within the tribe. One of the fun:iarnental reasons for this restriction was the lack of adequate means of travel, transpJrtation, and cxmmmication with which to span the rrany rni les of IUggEd. uninhabited territory which often sep:rrated the different tribes. This isolation of tribes erected further barriers by pennitting the develOfIlleTlt of differences in language and a feeling of antagonism t.a./ard all "strangers." Since there was no rentral goverrJl'e1t to give protection or to bring criminals to justice, very few primitive Eskim:> were willing to try to carry on trade with strange tribes for fear that they would be killEd. arrl their trading stock cxmfiscated. Snall t:arties of tnmters were saretimes attackEd. arrl killEd. for daring to h1IDt within the territory clai..rred. by another tribe. If all the Page 113 members of the htmting party were not killed, the survivors ~d inform their am tribe of the rrassacre and a tribal few \YOUld be rom which might result in the total extinction of me of the warring factions. SUCh feuds very II frequently existed l:etween the EskiIro who inhabited the cx:;lCl.5t and the Irrlians wh:> were located along the rivers and lakes of the interior. Many stories are told by old rren and \o1QreI1 of Una.1akleet atout the war raids which were carried on be~ thanselves and the In::lians of the Yukon River. A few miles belON what is nr::M Kaltag, the Irrlians would enter a tributary of the Yukon. By m=ans of their light canoes, they could ascerrl this river to a fX)int near its source. There they would take the canoes up:m their backs and carry than across a fX)rtage to the headwaters of the Unalakleet River where they ~d :re-anbark to descend this river for an attack utxn the Eskirro living at the rrouth. The Indians usually selected an isolated fishing camp consisting of three or four families as their objective. Their surprise attack usually took place at night. All of the Eskirro rrales and old \o1QreI1 were killed, while the young \o1QreI1 were frequently taken as p3.rt of the sr::oils along with the best of the fur, weafX)ns, and implerrents. several camps were sareti..In:!s plundered in succession in this rranner during a single predatory raid. There were t.i.rres, hl::1wever, when an Page 114 Eski.rro sentinel would discover the approach of an Irrlian raiding prrty in time to warn the peq>le of several camps who Y.UU1d surround the raiding party and slaughter them. It is claimed by the Eskimo that the Irrlians were usually the aggressors in the Iratter of raids, but that occasioo ally Esk.irro t:cx:>k the offensive in order to avenge wrongs. There are also many examples of loog continued. wars retween tw::> trires of Esk.irro. The Kinugamiut of Cape Prince of Wales were constantly in fear of raids fran the Chukchees of the Siberian coast. HoNever, the Prince of Wales natives were often the aggressors in naking attacks across the Bering Strait. Mr. Clark M. Garber, a forrrer governrrent teacher at Cape Prince of Wales, stated that the Eskimo at that place erected piles of stones UIXID the cliffs al:ove their village in such a nanner as to resemble hunan reings. This was to give the attacking Chukchees the impression that they were deteet:.ro and that the village had uore deferrlants than it really had. Bitter tribal feuds often arose fran family quarrels. For example, a family fran a village 00 the west side of the Kuskoquim River was visiting a family in a village up:m the east side of the river. Each of the families had a srrall :toy. While these :toys were playing tojether, the son of the host accidentally threw a dart into the eye of the Page 115 other child. When the father of the injured child disoovered that his roy's sight was destroyed in ene eye, he derrmrled permission to destroy an eye of the child who threw the dart. The host, wishing to te fair, cx::mnanded his son to subnit to this rrethod of settlE!IEIlt. The enraged visitor was not satisfied, however, with taking "an eye for an eye" rot destroyed roth eyes of his host I s child. The host then ronsidered himself justified in taking the life of the guest for his violent act. The dea.d man's wife then returned to her am village with her son and a story of outrage and murder against her son and hustarrl. Up::m hearing the story of the \fKI1en, the people of the west side village i.mnerliately gathered a large war p:rrt:y which attacked and massacred a large I;Ortion of the east side village. By arw..sing the sympathy of other east side villages, the reTUlant of the attacked village fonred a war party which reversed the process of massacre. In this Iffil1I1er, the fem grew until all the Eski.rro villages along the east side of the Kuskoquim were at war with the villages en the west side as far as Nelson Islarrl. Beginning with the p.rrchase of Alaska by the United states in 1867 and the ronsequent establishrrent of schools and missions to help the Esk..im:J solve his problems, the fems arrong rrost tribes were alx>lished. In cnly a few instances has it been necessary for the United states Page 116 rrarshals to imprison Eski.no who insist utxn maintaining the fews. A sul:xlivision of the tribe is the village. CMing to the various unifying influences within the tribe, there was much rrore travel, trade, and a::mmmication retween villages of the sarre tribe than retween villages of different tribes. Every pennanent village had a a:mtnmity-oouse called a "kashim" a.rourrl which social life centered. The kashim was h..ri.lt in the same mmner as the urrlergrotmd igloo residence rot on a larger scale. The actual size of the cxmrn.mi.ty-muse deperrled utX>I1 rot cnly the size of the village, rot also upon the hospitality of its members. It was often the o..lStan for several villages to assist in a "kashim-raising" as a means of expressing the frierrlship which existed retween the villages. Every wmter one or nore villages of a certain locality would invite its neighl:nring villages to a dance and feast called a "potlatch. II This celebration often lasted a week. Each visitor was requested to bring a present for which he would receive a present in return. During such festivals, it was often necesscuy for the shaman to divide the PJSition of honor with a "head man" who was usually selected tecause of his unusual pro.Yess in athletic feats, Page 117 hunting, and warfare. The lion I S share of the presents generally fell to the shaman, the "head man," and to various persons who were notable for their exploits. These p::>tlatches afforded a great deal of recreation and served as a means of maintaining frierrlly relations in a group of villages, rot they also worked a hardship 00 the village which gave the feast by consuming rrost of the food supply. Many famines ha.ve been the direct result of the p::>tlatch feasting. The custan of ha.ving festivals is still c:x:mron am:mg rrany tribes, rot CMing to missionaries I objections to any fonn of dancing many of the villages have disoontinued the practice. Besides being used for the p::>tlatch, the kashim furnished the stage uIXm which many of the shaman I s miracles were enacted in the presence of the whole village. In order to accx:mrodate the cra-.ti, shelves were often constructed a.1:ove the ordinary seat which was lJuilt around the wall. The children usually occupied these improvised shelves. The shaman and his rites ha.ve '[)ON disappeared fran nost villages but the kashim is still used as a workshop and general rreeting place for the rren as was the custan in primitive t.irres. The tassing of the p::>tlatch ha.s not resulted in the discontinuance of inter-village convocations. Even rrore Page 118 villages now take part in the anrrual reindeer fairs and church oonferences which are held under supervision of the teachers and missionaries. The fairs not only furnish whc>lesane recreation in the fonn of canpetitive spJrts, rot they also serve as a stimulus for the developrent of the rrany }:hases of the reindeer irrlustry such as herding and driving for rren and ganrent-making for the waren. The family as a sul:x:livision of the village organization urrler primitive car:rl.itions was a very unstable unit. M3.rriage was usually arranged by the groan's p:rre.nts whc> asked for the consent of the bride's p:rre.nts as the first step in the cerern::my. If the bride's p:rre.nts gave a favorable reply, the groan brought a new outfit of clothing for the bride and when she had arrayed herself in it the cererrony was cernpleted. Since the young people rarely had a muse or any utensils of their avn, they usually stayed with the parents whc> rrost needed their help. Polygamy was permissible rot was rot generally practiced except by the rrore wealthy hunters whc> by their exceptional prcMess were able to support rrore than me wife. Where there was rrore than one wife, the first wife had autlority over those whc> came later. Divorce was easy to obtain by a hustand on the grourrls of "nagging" and by the wife on the grounds of ron-sUptX>rt.. Page 119 The sham:m settled the case. Where families were disrupted in this rranner, either party was free to rrarry again iJTTrejiately. If there were children, they usually ~t with the rother or to either or roth of the grarrlp:rrents. A husOOrrl usually dealt with a wife's infidelity by beating her first and then dealing with the rrale offerrler as he saw fit. ~ver, a host frequently loaned his wife to mnored visitors, and close frienis exchanged wives for short pericds of t.irre as a symtol of their frierrlship. These practices, together with rrarriage between cousins, ccmplicated the problem of relationships rey0n:3 solutirn. Unmarried ~sons of either sex ~e free to participate in sexual relations without the disapproval of the a::mnunity• If offspring resulted under such circumstances, they were usually eagerly adapted by childless couples in order to escape disgrace by not having saooone to rePresent them in a festival called the "feast for the dead." In this festival, the spirits were supp:1sed to retunl to receive gifts of focrl and clothing Prepared for them by their descerrlants. IA1ring famine, which saret.irres occurra:l during the winter, drildren were not so ~lcx.me. They were often carried out on the tundra and allowed. to die fran exposure. If the famine became very serious, all fenale children urrler six or eight years of age were put to death. Page 120 Cannibalism, hcMever, is not kna.m to have been practiced arrong Alaskan Eskirro. Since the establishment of the laws of the United states in Alaska, many of the old social relations cx::>nnected with primitive family life have been aban::looed. Marriage arrong Eskino is ncM subject to laws of the Territory, and divorce is rnt as a:JTI'OC)Il as it formerly was. sanetiIres when a ample want to be married but are too far fran a United states Ccmnissioner to get a license i.rrmadiately, the missionary perfonns a cererrony without a license and adrronishes the oouple to get a license as scnn as possible. Cousin marriage is less cxmron, and the trading and loaning of wives has ceased altogether - except in isolated localities where such practices can be a:mcealed fran government officials. Young rrarried cx>uples still frequently live with their in-laws until they can afford a muse of their aID. In spite of the efforts of the missionaries to arolish the celebration of the "feast of the dead, II this festival is still celebrated in sane places. Since the danger of serious famine has largely been overcrrre by the advent of the reindeer, the custan of adopting children has becane rrore popular than ever. With the passing of famine has also p:issed the practice of infanticide. Page 121 An illegitimate child and its rrother are not yet stic:JMtized by Esk.i.rro pililic opinion, rot missionaries usually try to force rrarriage in such cases. Since the beginning of the v-urk of the Bureau of Education in Alaska in 1890 under the direction of Sheldon Jackson, there has been a ronstant and continued effort on the part of the employees in this service to assist the Eskimo to becane a socially efficient i.rrlividual. In spite of the nurrerous difficulties involved in an endeavor to adapt a rrimitive people to rrodern sccial conditions, IIDlch has already been aca:mplished. Every schcx:>lhouse is a a:::mnunity center where the people can meet to present their problems for open discussion. 'Ibe teachers are engaged rot ally in the instruction of academc subjects rot in helping with advice and suggestions in the solution of the problems which daily confront the Eskim.::>. For the protection of the village as a whole and as a means of assisting those irrlividuals who are not capable of rraking o=rtain decisions for thenselves, rrany villages ncM have a council ex:tnpOSed of a group of Eskim.::> rren elected by the population of the village. Through the oooperation of the teacher and the council, a constitution and bylaws are adopted by which rrany of the problems of the village are solved. The adoption of the village council plan helps not Page 122 only the solution of iITnallate cx:mmmi.ty problems b.J.t also in the developnent of knowledge, urrlerstanding, and respect for the laws of the territory as a whole. st.Mo1ARY OF rnAPl'ER X PRIMITIVE AND M:lDERN scaAL RErATIOOS 1. Owing to the lack of a centralizErl government and adequate means of travel, transportaticn, and cx::mnunication, there was little ooherence and a great deal of hatred arrong primitive EskiIro tribes. 2. Through the unifying force of the UnitErl States GoverI'lItent as representErl in the educational influence of the schcx:>ls and the enforcerrent of law, the tribal wars have ceased and trade has taken their place. 3. Since the adcption of the Christian religion conflicts with many rites connected with the village "JX)tlatch, II this form of inter-village activity is gradually dying out to 1:e replaced by reirrleer fairs and church conventions spJnsored by anployees of the Bureau of Education and missionaries. 4. The dlaos which existErl in family relationships urrler primitive can:litions has been reorganized upon the plan generally approved by the laws of Alaska and by missionaries and teachers who have been influential in Page 123 effecting the change. s. D..1ring the last forty years the social relations of the Eski..rro have evolved fran those of hrrhrrism to those of a law-abiding a:mnunity such as would be cx:mronly acceptable in the United states. The rrost recent phase of this developnent has been in the creation of a village cxmncil of Eskirco to safeguard and advance the best interests of the cxmnunity. CHAPTER XI GENERAL SUMMARY The various educational influences which have been discussed in this study have eradicated rrany of the barriers be~n the tribes of the Alaskan Esk.i.rro through the establishrrent of nore efficient met.hcrls of ccmnunication, trade, and travel. (),.,ring to the extinction of the caril:ou along the coast, this anirral IX) longer furnishes the ab..Indant foed supply for the Eskino that it did urrler primitive coroitions. Other forms of foed used by primitive EsJd..Iro such as rotten fish, herring eggs on 58Cl.weed, and rcx:>ts have gradually fallen into disuse as the result of the substitution of sate of the fCXJds of the white rran in the diet of the nOOern EsJd..Iro. '!he IIDst .irnp:>rt.ant adlition to the diet of the Esk.irro has been reirrleer rnea.t which is TlCM used to a large extent as a substitute for the caril:ou rreat row tmavailable. ONing to the fact that gardening has been only recently Page 125 introduced, many Eskirro have not yet leazned the value and imp::>rtance of garden prcrlucts. HcMever, through the efforts of Bureau of Education teachers in explaining the relative nutritive value of different foods, the various garden products are rapidly gaining in IXlpularity anong the Eskimo. '!he Eski.mJ rn looger v.ears all fur clothing. Parkas, boots, caps and mittens are still rrade of fur, rot all other garroonts are rrade of ootton or WO)l. The fur ganrents are still rrade by hand in much the saroo style as was fonrerly used, rot the process is rmch easier because of the use of rrroern needles, thread, and knives. Many children I s and v.uren I s ga.rnents are rrade by hand also, but the men b.Iy practically all of their ganrents fran the store except those rrade of fur. The ignorance of .. store clothing" values, which was so ccmron during the Eskirro' s early rontact with the white nan, is fast disappearing through the schcol training in this branch of dOTEstic science. Through the introduction of new b.ll.lding rraterials and methods by teachers and missionaries, the Esk.i.rro in many villages have ahmdaned the undergrOl.md igloo and the skin tent for the log' cabin and canvas tents. The adoption of such devices as stoves, glass windows, wire screens, and rrosquito nets has rrade the new type of dwelling a nore Page 126 canfortable place to live in than the primitive rrcd.el. By teaching the Eskirro the use of new rrethods of using new materials and devices in the old occupations of hunting and fishing, the teachers, missionaries, and traders ha.ve enabled the Eskirro to procure a rrore aburrlant supply of food, clothing, and better habitations than was ~sible with the methcxls and materials fOl.Tferly used. The surplus fur and fish resulting fran improved rrethcxls and implements are also given in trade at the village store for many useful articles never ~sessed by the primitive Eskirro. The cccupation of reirrleer herding which was introduced by the Bureau of Education row offers a new field of activity by which the Eskirro may obtain an ahlrrlant supply of food and clothing. With the beginning of reindeer meat canneries and cold storage plants near a few of the larger herds, the surplus supply of reindeer is starting to fuxnish the Eskirro with rroney in exchange for his rreat • With this noney, he can p.rrchase fran rrail-ord.er houses many articles which are not usually found in the stock of a gra11 trading p:>st. The quantity of white nan I s food row available in rrany Alaskan trading posts has encx:>uraged the Esk.i.no to substitute "store food" for sane of his primitive fcx:rls. The Bureau of Education is constantly errleavoring to Page 127 educate the Eski..rro along dietetic lines. By the intrOOuction of rrodern rraterials and devices in his ~llings, tile Eski..rro is making his hare lIDre and rrore like that of the white nan. Ccntact with the white nan has given the Eski..rro nany diseases which he did not have un::ler primitive corrlitions. The Bureau of El:lucation is trying through its rredical employees and teachers to eradicate disease and teach the native to overcane the rrany unfavorable erwirorunental corrlitions which he has been unable to conquer. A serious d:>stacle to the cultural advancem:mt of the EskiJro is the inadequacy of his native language to meet the needs of a civilized mJde of life. This harrlicap is being avercare to a large extent by the ~k of the Bureau of Education schools in giving toth children and adults the training which they need in speaking, reading, and wriling the English language. Through the efforts of the various missionaries in Alaska, mmy EskiJro villages have rejected their old religious t:al:xx:>s and shamIDs and have becane rrembers of Christian churches. By enabling the natives to read the Bible and other religious literature, the schools have been a valuable adjunct to the ~k of the missionaries. Many of the social restrictions which existed for the primitive EskiJro have disa~ed through the educational Page 128 activities of teachers and missionaries. Where once there was a distinct line of danarcation retween EskiIro tribes, there is now so much intenningling arrl intennarriage as to alrrost o:mpletely erase all tri.b3.1 differences except those of dialect. Even the language barriers are slowly crumbling under the force of the cx:::mron knowledge of English learned largely in the Bureau of Education schools. '!he old scx:::ial life of the village which included feasts arrl dancing arrl miracle performmces of the shaman in the "kashim" have generally fallen into disrepute. The cxmrrunity life of the rred.ern Esk.iIro village is centered al:out the school and the church with rei.rrl.eer fairs, games arrl contests, church conventions, arrl carmunity singing. '!he old "kashim" is now used for a workshop and bath-house. One of the :imtxJrtant developrents which has originated recently in EskiIro cx:nmunities is the village oouncil which tries to safeguard and advance the best interests of the a:mmmity. A functioning EskimJ village OO'lIDCil is the product of an organized, law-abiding camrunity which has within a crrnp:rratively short time been changed fran a scx:::iety ruled by superstition and trickery. CHAPTER XII CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The rraterial oontained in the foregoing chapters war rants the follCMing conclusions: rnAPIER II 1. The unification of the Esk.i..mJ tribes of Alaska under the influence of education has l::een beneficial to the Eski..rro through the elimination of warfare and the establishrrent of greater freec1an in camnmication, trade, and travel. Q1API'ER III 1. The primitive fonn of diet was rrore healthful for the Eskim:::> than a diet o:rtp.)sed of sane of the denatured, devitalized fc:ois of the white man. 2. 'Ihrough education, the Eskim:::> is learning to improve his diet by addition of garden vegetables, reindeer ITEat, and whole grain prcducts. CHAPI'ER IV 1. The ~k of ITBking clothing has becane easier and Page 130 rrore efficient by the adoption of the white nanIS irnplerrents an:] materials. 2. By giving instnlction in the relative values of different k.irrls of "store clothing, II the teachers have enabled the Eskim::> to get greater value for their trade gocds. CHAPI'ER V 1. By teaching the Esk.irro to use nroem tools an:] wilding naterials, the teachers an:] missionaries have aided him in the constnlction of a better hare. 2. Through the ad~on of ItDdern heating an:] lighting devices, the Eski.rro has been able to nake his present hare better than the old igloo. 3. Although the nroern log cabin is superior to the igloo in nany respects, the use of the cabin, which is rrore difficult to heat, has in sane localities developed a fuel problem which has not yet been satisfactorily solved. CHAPI'ER VI 1. The education of the Eski.rro in the use of nroem rrethods, materials, an:] implerrents has benefited him by enabling him to catch rrore fish an:] fur-bearing animals with the proceeds of which he is able to p..rrchase an adequate supply of food, clothing, implerrents, and m:ans of recreation. Page 131 2. Teaching the Eski.rro to urrlerstarrl am obey the garre laws has benefited him by protecting the trapping irrlustry and has prevented the extinction of valuable fur-bearing animals. 3. One of the greatest gifts of the Bureau of Education to the Eski..rro has been the reirrleer which at present provides the necessities of life and pranises to bring large financial returns in the future. 4. By instructing the Eski.roc> in the ITEthods of gardening, an opportunity has been given to obtain health giving foods which will help to eradicate rrany of the now prevalent dietetic errors. 5. Tne training which the Eskimo drild receives in school is of great renefit to him in the p.rrsu.it of several new occupations in which he 'i't'Ould be unable to cnnpete successfully without the training which the schools give. CHAPI'ER VII 1. Education is the rrost iJnI;.ortant factor in enabling the Esk.irro to detennine which are and which are not healthful focds, clothing, am habitations. 2. '!he education of the Esk.irro regarding the nature of disea.se, its cause, its cure, am its prevention, is necessary to prevent his CMI1 annihilation and the creation of a rrenace of disease to the white PJpulation of Alaska. Page 132 rnAPI'ER VIII 1. Owing to the inadequacy of the Eskilro language urrler rrcdern school oorrlitions, it is necessary for the EskiIro to tE taught the English language. 2. The value of an education in English far surp3.sses that of an education in Eskilro because of the greater utilitarian value of English in various occupations and social relations and because of the greater recreational value cbtained through reading. 0iAPI'ER IX 1. If Christianity is a tEtter religion than the system of tatxns and superstitions of the primitive Eskilro, then the Eskilro has been b=nefited to the extent that Christian i ty is tEtter. 2. Regardless of the intrinsic value of the old and new religions, the Eskilro has been b=nefited by examples of clean and wholesane lives led by sane of the Alaskan missionaries. OIAPI'ER X 1. The establishment of a frien:ily relationship tEtween warring Eskilro tribes is a ccmnendable accanplishrrent of the teachers and missionaries of Alaska. 2. The substitution of wholesare inter-village activi Page 133 ties such as reirrleer fairs and religious oonferenoes is a marked improvanent aver the "{Xltlatches" which frequently resulted in a prolonged. perico of gluttony fol1~ by a famine in the village where the festival was held. 3. Taken as a whole, the social relations of the nn:lern EskiJro are up::m a rmch higher plane than existed arrong them during primitive tiIres. In general, it nay be said that the Bureau of Educa tion, the missionaries, and others have succeeded in two generations in effecting nany valuable dlanges in the life of the Esk.i.mJ, changes which have required many centuries to accx:mplish in the progress of our CMI1 civilization. ~CNS On the basis of the oonclusions given aOOve, the follONing rec:xxrnerrlations are offered: 1. That larger appropriations be rrade for the work of the Alaska Road Camdssion in order that the o:::niition of trails be improved and that ITDre shelter cabins be constructed be~ villages to facilitate winter travel and cx::rrmunication• 2. That ~ets be printed in the goveJ:TlIlent printing office for distribution anong the Bureau of Education school Page 134 libraries. Infonmtion concerning the follCMing subjects would be useful: a. Relative nutritive values of various foods and proper met:hc:rls of preprration. b. Relative values of various clothing rraterials and proper methods of clothing construction. c. Mathods of :txmse and J::x:)at ronstruction with instruction concerning the proper use of wa:rlworking tcols. d. Fire anns, traps, and proper I1Ethods of caring for pelts of fur-bearing ani..rrals. e. Reirrleer herding. f. Gardening. g. Prevention of disease and care of the sick. Infcu:nation contained in these pamphlets Y.lOU1d be of ernnrous value to the teachers in helping the Eskirro solve many of the problens of everyday life. 3. That larger appropriations be nade by Congress for the Alaska Division of the Bure:3.u of EXiucation in order that !lOre schools, teachers, hospitals, nurses, doctors, and dentists could be maintained for the work annng the natives of Alaska. 4. That larger appropriations be given for the work of the United states Biological Survey for the study of methods Page 135 of haJrlling reindeer and rreans of eliminating the parasites and diseases with which the reindeer are afflicted. 5. That experirrents be oonducted to disoover a cheap and efficient rrethod of oonverting the constant wirrls of the coastal regions into light, heat, and ~. 6. 'lliat the work of the Bureau of Education for the natives of Alaska be given rrore publicity in order to stimulate greater interest and greater su:pp:>rt. for its educational projects. Page 136 BIBLIOGRAPHY Boaz, Franz, The central Eski.no, Annual Repxt. of the Bureau of Ethnology for 1884-1885, p. 399-666, Gc>vernment printing office, Washington, 1886. Boaz, Franz, The Eskirro of Baffin Lam and Hudson Bay, Arrerican Museum of Natural History, Bulletin v. 15, pt. 1, New York, 1901, 126 p. Hawkes, E. W., Skeletal ~ts and Observations on the Point l3a.rrcM Eskirro, New Era Printing Canpany, - Lancaster, Pa., 1916, 125 p. Hall, C. F., Arctic Research and Life Arrong the Eskirro, Harper Bros., New York, 1864, 594 p. Huxley, Julian, Mice and ~, Harpers 156: 42-50, December, 1927, Harper Bros., New York. Krulish, Einis, Sanitary Corrlitions Am:mq the Eskirro, GoverI'Yoont Printing Office, Washington, 191 4, 13 p. Muir, John, The Cruise of the Corwin, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston and New York, 1917, 278 p. Murdock, John, Ethnolo;rical Results of the Point Barrow Expedition, (Ninth Annual Repxt. of the Bureau of Ethnology), Govemrrent Printing Office, Wasshington, 1892, 594 p. Nelson, E. W., Bird Banding, the Telltale of Migrations, National Geograpuc, v. 53, Washington, p. 127. Parks, G. A., Annual ReWrt of the Q)vernor of Alaska for 1928, GovemITEnt Printing Office, Washington. Page 137 Pilling, J. C., Bib1i~y of EskiIro Language, u. s. Bureau of Ethnology, Bulletin No.1, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1867, 116 p. Rasmussen, Knud, Across Arctic lvrerica, G. P. Putnam Sons, New York, 1927, 388 p. Stefansson, V., ~ Life Arrong the EskiIro, r-BcMillan Co., New York, 1922, 527 p. United States Bureau of iliucation Bulletin, Rep:?rt .Q!! the Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of AIaSka~ ""1912-1913, Bulletin, 191~No. 31, Government Printing Office, Washington, 62 p. United States Bureau of Ftlucation Bulletin, Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of 'AIi::tska---; 1917 1918, Bulletin 1919, No. 40, Government Printing Office, Washington, 77 p. Wells, Roger, Jr., and Kelly, Jchn, W., English to EskiIro and EskiIro to English Vocabulary, Circular of Information No.2, Washington, 1980.