MILITARY SOCIOLOGY MILITARY Author’s collection
Elmer Sinclair (at right with Teddy Quesnil in December 1940) served during the Second World War and the Korean War, where he worked the radios for the PPCLI during the Battle at Kapyong. DIFFERENT DRUMMERS: ABORIGINAL CULTURE AND THE CANADIAN ARMED FORCES, 1939-2002
by John MacFarlane and John Moses1
“If a man does not keep pace with his companions, pre-recruitment training courses in Yellowknife and Farnham perhaps it is because he hears a different that include cross-cultural and military awareness sessions. drummer. Let him step to the music which CF recruiters also receive “cultural awareness training he hears, however measured or far away.” that helps them to better associate with Aboriginal applicants and understand their needs.”5 Ð Henry David Thoreau2 The success of these programs, and those that will he idea of marching to a different drummer is be developed in the future, depends largely upon past necessarily largely alien to the military, as experiences. This article will present the perception of a great deal of conformity is essential for some Aboriginal veterans from 1939 to 2002 who adapted efficient military training and operations. to the Canadian military culture while retaining various Nevertheless, there are occasions when accom- degrees of their own Aboriginal heritage.6 The main source Tmodation for individuals or cultural groups with a different is a collection of 60 interviews with Aboriginal people pace is appropriate.3 from across Canada.7 These have been divided into three groups of 20: veterans of the Second World War; After varying degrees of segregation and assimilation those who served from 1946 to 1968; and post-unification policies during the early 20th Century, Canadian Forces (CF) members. These accounts of their experiences will focus attempts to recruit and retain Aboriginal peoples in the upon four themes: the motivation to join; the racial problems past 30 years have been based on mutual accommodation.4 encountered during military service and within Canadian The Northern Native Entry Program of 1971, expanded into the CF Aboriginal Entry Program in the late 1990s, is designed to help those with traditional values adapt Dr. John MacFarlane is a historian with the Directorate of History to becoming a CF member. It offers Aboriginal people and Heritage. John Moses is a historian with the Museum of Civilization.
Spring 2005 ● Canadian Military Journal 25 society; the unique characteristics and experiences that and the work demands were more suited to many Aboriginal appeared to help them assimilate and participate as recruits. Most importantly, the air force and the navy servicepersons; and how their military experiences affected demonstrated a marked reluctance to accept non- Caucasian their lives after national service. recruits. Nevertheless, the number of Aboriginal recruits was close to the Canadian average.18 This is not a history of Aboriginal peoples in the CF. Several excellent studies have presented the general themes “Why do you come and fight us?” Henry Beaudry, an of that history, including the relevant key policy discussions of Ojibway from the Sweetgrass Reserve in Saskatchewan, high-level decision-makers, and the individual Aboriginals remembers being asked this question by his German who won decorations for gallantry or who rose to high rank.8 captor in November 1944. The German had visited We hope to complement those works by studying how three Saskatchewan in the 1930s and could not understand generations of Aboriginal members of the Armed Forces why North American Indians, “the best fighters in the have perceived their experiences. None of the 60 people world,” would fight with European Canadians who “took all interviewed won the Victoria Cross or rose through the ranks your country.” Beaudry, who had been repeating that he to lead the army. But, together, they represent the attitudes to did not understand English, remained silent.19 the Canadian military that are circulating through Aboriginal communities today. The importance of understanding For others who have spoken on the subject, the influence these attitudes will become apparent when we see the number of community, family and particularly the father played an of young people whose decision to join the military was important role in their decision to join the military from 1939 influenced by their family and community. to 1945. Most came from families where the father and/or many close relatives had military experience, and they The Second World War: 1939-1945 felt encouraged to join by their community. Nine of the 20 interviewed indicated that their main reason for joining xperiences from the First World War greatly affected was that they were following members of their family or E Aboriginal enrolment in 1939. About 4000 Treaty community.20 Three emphasized that they were fighting for Indians signed up from 1914 to 1918, despite many an important cause and three were conscripted. Russell obstacles. These included Ottawa’s eventual policy not to Modeste, of the Cowichan tribe in Duncan, B.C., remembered accept Native volunteers, as “Germans might refuse that sympathy for staff members at his Residential School to extend to them the privileges of civilized warfare.”9 who had lost loved ones encouraged him to join.21 However, many had already enlisted, and the Militia, raising the Canadian Expeditionary Force units, remained either unaware of the prohibition or decided to ignore it. Aboriginal recruits enlisted for the same reasons other Canadians did Ð patriotism, adventure, or simply to earn a regular wage Ð but there was still a warrior ethos extant in certain bands, particularly those from the more remote regions of the country.10 Once overseas, there were problems adjusting to certain military practices, such as the distinction between commissioned officers and other ranks.11 However, familiarity with rifles and nature proved useful to Aboriginal Canadians, as it did to others from rural backgrounds.12 Returning Aboriginal veterans sought improvements to the Indian Act but were disappointed, and on the eve of the Second World War, Status Indians in Canada had a severely limited range of civil, political and legal rights.13
During the Second World War, approximately 3000 Indians living on reserves volunteered for service.14 This was an impressive number, considering their position in Canadian society, but it was less than the number who volunteered for duty during the First World War.15 In 1940, the war in Europe was not going in favour of the Allies, and Ottawa’s policies, particularly the decision to include Status Indians in the conscription for home defence act, hampered recruitment.16 According to historian N.F. Dreisziger, Canada, in 1939, “Canada did not possess the Author’s collection administrative machinery to involve in the war effort the portion of the Canadian population that was neither of The third head from the bottom is Jean-Baptiste Lainé, a Huron from British nor of French background.”17 Most served in the Loretteville, Québec, who fit in well while training at Wainright in infantry, where a lower educational standard was required September 1943. He went overseas with the Signal Corps.
26 Canadian Military Journal ● Spring 2005 eye: “I couldn’t do it. I got on the rifle range and I had both eyes open... I never learned to close one eye.” But he did qualify as a sharpshooter.26 As Canadian soldiers were helping liberate Holland and maintaining good relations with the local citizens was considered important, Lawrence Martin of Nipigon, Ontario, remembered staying with a family most interested in the Aboriginal culture. He kept in touch after the war and recently returned with a native group to perform a pipe ceremony.27
After the war, Sydney Gordon found the distance from his reserve in Punnichy, Saskatchewan, to the battlefields of Europe particularly great. Even before his fighting in Italy started in 1943, he had doubts about joining the army. Leaving Halifax, his friend woke him and said: “‘Come up on deck, I want to show you where we came from.’ We were deep in the water and I looked and I couldn’t MILITARY SOCIOLOGY MILITARY see where the heck I came from. I couldn’t see land. It was quite an experience.”28 George Myram of Edwin, Manitoba, remembers landing at Normandy on 6 June 1944 and “seeing the dead, the wounded and the suffering. I think that was the longest day of my life.” Charles Bird also landed at Juno Beach on D-Day and agrees that the experience was worse than he imaged Ð even after hearing 29
DND photo HS040062d02 by Corporal Shawn M. Kent, Formation Imaging Services, Halifax his father tell of the time he fought at Vimy Ridge. Nurse Irene Hoff from the Abenaki band of Odanak, Québec, Master Warrant Officer (MWO) Guy Mandeville, the Canadian Forces also had challenges adjusting and sad memories30 but, as Postal Unit (CFPU) Halifax Sergeant Major, in his traditional with four others of the 20, remained in the Canadian Army Métis dress. and, as with almost all those interviewed, was glad to have had the experience.31 Most were well received back Only two veterans suggested that they had been victims home, and four referred specifically to feeling that they of racism during the war, and that they had to work harder to received greater respect within their family, their community prove themselves. The great majority (14) remembered and the country.32 They had participated as equals, were that they and other Aboriginal people had been treated as appreciated and their confidence grew. Three others equals by their “brothers” through those very trying times. emphasized how useful their education and training had “We depended on each other,” several noted, and all that been for subsequent careers. mattered was that people did their job well. However, only one of these 14 considered that such equality extended Korea and Early Peacekeeping: 1946-1967 to civilian life after they returned to Canada.22 Howard Anderson notes: “It was the coming back that fter the Second World War, as after the First World was the hard part...That’s where the problem was. We AWar, when Aboriginal veterans returned home, could never be the same yet we were the same in the many led their communities in the search for improved army.”23 According to Sam Sinclair, in the post-war citizenship status and legal rights. Of particular importance period, “our people knew they were not [receiving] fair were the Parliamentary hearings on the Indian Act in treatment but they did not raise hell.” This remark applies 1946-1947.33 Although Treaty Indians would not acquire to the use of protests or sit-ins, such as those that now the right to vote until 1960, they once again answered the occur.24 Russell Modeste remembers being jailed upon call when the Korean War broke out in 1950,34 and many his return for possession of a liquor ticket, which was remained in the military to participate in the earliest rationed in Canada and forbidden to Indians. He and other peacekeeping operations. returning soldiers were issued the ticket upon disembarking the ship, but: “The Magistrate told me that ‘once you Among the recruits who served during this period, entered Canadian territorial waters you were now just the 11 who joined to fight had motives that most resembled another Indian! You have no special privileges and you those of the Second World War veterans, namely: have to abide by the law.’...You remember these things.”25 following others and defending a worthwhile cause.35 For Robert Carriere of Winnipeg, fighting communist Several of the 20 veterans remembered cultural aggression in Korea was more important than maintaining the characteristics that had helped them during their time traditional hostility towards the army that some members of overseas. Many referred to the use of firearms for hunting. his family had shared since his grandfather had fought Elmer Sinclair recalls his father teaching him to shoot with Louis Riel.36 However the influence of family members a rifle by looking along the barrel with both eyes open, remained great for most, including Harvey Tommy Holmes but his army instructor insisted that he close the disengaged Horlock from Toronto, whose uncle, Tommy Holmes, won
Spring 2005 ● Canadian Military Journal 27 the Victoria Cross during the by his Indian Agent to sign a disenfranchise form, “About 4000 Treaty First World War. “Having “and I would receive some money [from the] federal Indians signed up from most of my [relatives] serving Department of Indian Affairs...I didn’t know what in the army, it kind of drew me to do. There were no other Indian people around to 1914 to 1918, despite like a magnet.”37 Louis Schmidt turn to for advice.” So he approached his commanding many obstacles.” of Vancouver saw his brothers, officer, who tore up the form and advised: “‘Do not his sisters and his father sell your status.’ And I never did.”46 join the army, but he preferred the navy. “They had to do a lot of walking. I thought Some of the distinctions referred to as being by joining the navy I could see more.”38 helpful included adjusting to the environment. Bill Lafferty felt that the “long, long sunlight in the In addition to fighting wars and following the summer months,” and the “long and very, very dark” influences of family members, some referred to winter nights, accompanied by rapid changes in specific events that motivated them to join. Fred climate to which he was accustomed, enabled him Young of Winnipeg was moved by the work of the to function almost anywhere, and he had no trouble Army during the Winnipeg flood of 1950. “It was adapting to the Sinai Desert.47 very impressive to me, the way they rescued people [from] the second story windows. They were very In the case of Russell Piché of Calgary, an attempt inspirational.”39 Bill Lafferty of Fort Simpson, at map reading in Korea was not particularly Northwest Territories, credits the military presence successful. “I never was much on maps,” so when in his community for his decision to join the army. asked to locate a spot, he says: “I was having a heck He was 11 years old in 1942 when the American of a time.” The previous night, some of his group army arrived, building the airport and bringing had been discussing “how the North American Indian movies. “I remember seeing, around 1943 or so, a could find his way around in the bush better with a documentary on the bombing of Pearl Harbor...the compass or a map than the Caucasian,” and one military presence here, the Royal Canadian Engineers friend now commented that Piché, a Métis, must be and the Royal Canadian Corps of Signals, who only half lost.48 replaced the American. Army after the war...inspired me to become a soldier myself.” He also remembers Later questioned as to how they felt their military the huge cultural impact when, “for the first time in experiences had helped them, the Korean veterans my life, I saw Indians in movies...with white men firing replied in terms that were again similar to the flaming arrows at them.”40 Second World War veterans. Michael Sanipass suffered from memories of the horrors of war, while Russ Moses joined the Royal Canadian Navy in 1950 still acknowledging that his experience had been and remembers that the biggest cultural shock for positive, and had helped him deal with subsequent him was not trying to fit in as an Aboriginal person, issues. “I wanted to find out [about] life...and I think but as a Canadian in a service he considers was I did. I had quite an experience and I don’t “more British than it was Canadian.”41 This view think I want to experience [anything like that again!].”49 was also held by many non-Aboriginal Canadians. He Wes Whitford believes that the army helped him felt he would have been more comfortable in the air develop self-esteem and land better jobs despite force, where he found discipline “very much more the prejudice in Canadian society. “I was able to cope relaxed” and “more socially integrated” than the pretty well with the discipline...and it gave me more navy, where there was “a definite line between confidence I believe. I enjoyed it.”50 the officers and the ratings.” As with veterans from the Second World War, 14 of the 20 found that they had Other veterans of the period, many of whom are not been treated differently because of their Aboriginal still actively involved with veteran’s groups,51 also heritage.42 One who did find adjusting difficult was referred to acquiring greater respect and self-confidence, Joe John Sanipass. Coming from the relatively isolated particularly through discipline.52 Joe Meconse was community of Big Cove, New Brunswick, he was born on a trap-line and found it difficult to adjust not used to the strict discipline, morning inspections to the city in Winnipeg; the military helped him and shoe shining, and when he was leaving for prepare for his career as corrections officer by teaching Germany to unfamiliar songs and bagpipe music, him, “discipline, to be fair but be firm...I can say but he felt even more out of place. However, after he one thing about the military...I learned to survive. met a group of “natives from Saskatchewan... he just I learned what life is all about and my experience fit right in there,” and found it much easier to socialize in the military [helped me] to be a better person... with white friends.43 A part of me, the real me, they brought out.”53 Mary Wuttunee also remembers acquiring greater Again, once they were outside the military, confidence during her time in the air force. adjusting was more difficult.44 Victor Flett remembers “No one ever said ‘Mary you can’t work on [that well that his family lost the land that they had been machine]...’ It was: ‘Okay Mary, I’ll show you how promised.45 Stephen Simon recalls being encouraged to run this [machine].’”54
28 Canadian Military Journal ● Spring 2005 culture differed from Aboriginal culture in Canada by being much more assertive, leadership-driven and non-egalitarian.59 This may explain why it has been particularly difficult to attract Status Indians into the CF.60
A program of significant interest is the northern Canadian Rangers. From 1942 to 1945, the Pacific Coast Militia Rangers provided a coast-watching function in anticipation of possible Japanese landings. A similar program re-emerged in 1947, this time with an emphasis on the Canadian North and with new concerns generated by the Cold War. Since the late 1960s, the program has expanded and the local geographic and other traditional indigenous knowledge and expertise of Rangers operating out of the hamlets located along the various sea-lanes constituting the Northwest Passage will remain instrumental in providing early warning of any unauthorized incursions via MILITARY SOCIOLOGY MILITARY these routes. Rangers are enrolled as reservists, receiving annual drill, training, and other support from Regular Force personnel. They are tasked with providing early warning, territorial surveillance, ground search and rescue, and reconnaissance duties. The 3500-member Ranger program, to increase to 4800 by 2008, is largely comprised of Aboriginal Canadians who elect their own non-commissioned officers from among their membership, and, typically, appoint elders from within the community to act as advisors relative to any concerns of a spiritual or morale nature.61 Corena Letendre Saulteaux from Fairford, Manitoba, went to Cambodia in 1992-1993 and helped at the orphanage. “It was quite interesting because when I had left to go to Cambodia, my daughter For Abraham Metatawabin of Fort Albany, Ontario, was not a year old.” becoming a Ranger allowed him to put into practice much that his father, who had fought in the First World War, had taught him.62 Alec Tuckatuck, an Inuk from Post Unification: 1968-2002 Kuujjuarapik, Québec, adds that his decision to join was greatly influenced by the presence of the Canadian ince 1968, Native issues, such as land claims, punctuated and American air forces in his community, stationed Sby greater displays of militancy and assertiveness, there as part of the DEW line. When he was six years have received increased attention.55 The CF has made old, in the mid 1950s, “a whole bunch of white people attempts to increase the number of Aboriginal peoples arrived. The community was very small...we were still a in its ranks based on mutual accommodation.56 A Defence nomadic people in those days and the government started Aboriginal Advisory Group meets monthly to offer calling people to settle down here. We started having advice on workplace issues such as “barriers to [different] foods: oranges, grapes, apples...We used to go to recruiting, training, developing and promotion of the their lunch hall with a bag and they would fill that up with all Aboriginal people in the Department of National kinds of fruits...Big planes were arriving...with new things Defence.”57 The Northern Native Entry Program [television sets, snowmobiles, trucks] and the community had of 1971, expanded into the CF Aboriginal Entry to switch from [a traditional life] to community life.”63 Program in the late 1990s, offers Aboriginal peoples “the opportunity to explore military careers before Family and community still influenced Aboriginal making the commitment to join.” There has also been decisions to join the CF in this period, although less than the Bold Eagle Initiative, dating from 1991, established earlier. Some interviewed had strong family connections to to build self-confidence among Native youth through the military, including John McLeod, son of the Memorial militia training within a context of First Nations cultural (Silver) Cross Mother of 1972. However, there were just as awareness. There is the Sergeant Tommy Prince Initiative, many with no family members in the armed forces.64 designed to increase numbers of Aboriginal soldiers in the Also, while some noted community pride in traditional infantry, and in trades to which Aboriginal tradition, participation with the military, particularly with the Rangers, culture and often life experience make them particularly where the chance for specialized training and responsibility well suited.58 A recent CF publication emphasized the carries a certain amount of prestige, there were just as “challenge to reconcile the requirements of a military many who considered that their community had had no culture with the cultural diversity found in the society impact on their decision.65 The search for adventure was that the military represents and from which it draws its more popular, but the majority were attracted by the members.” The author then described how the military employment opportunities.66
Spring 2005 ● Canadian Military Journal 29 others, such as Dusty Bouthillette, have benefited from the recent Canadian Forces regulation permitting Aboriginal members to grow longer hair to communicate their cultural heritage. “Whenever something is said against my hair,” Earl Charters notes, “there are five others who speak in defence of my decision before I can say anything. It really has been a positive experience. My braids are finally long enough after three years growth.... I really wanted to emulate some of the best fancy and hoop dancers that wear braids.”72
Survival techniques also continued to be particularly valued among Aboriginal members. Alec Tuckatuck credits the Canadian Ranger program with developing such skills along the northern coast areas,73 and Vallee Saunders of Kuujjuaq, Québec, notes that such training was greatly appreciated in 1999 when he and other Rangers helped avalanche victims at Alec K. Tuckatuck of Kuujjuaraapik, Québec, during a training exercise in 2000. Kangiqsualujjuaq, Québec. The avalanche of 1 January 1999 killed nine and injured 70, from Although still in a minority, the numbers of those a population of less than 700 people. He remembers aware of racial discrimination have increased.67 Several “calling up his Rangers to be ready” and 11 of the remembered being discouraged from joining,68 but, once 14 Nunavik Patrols responded to the emergency. The people again, most were more comfortable in the CF than in society. at Kangiqsualujjuaq “were really glad to see us, to receive Ed Borchert served 30 years with the PPCLI, seeing fresh hands...most of them were really exhausted.”74 “both sides of the fence” as a company sergeant major, and then, after commissioning, as a major. He insists that in the With career motivations being the main reason for CF, “if you were an Aboriginal person, or if you were a black joining the CF, it is not surprising that many focus on person, or a purple person it didn’t matter. The only thing education and training as the most important areas in we ever cared about was were you doing your job.” which they have been helped.75 Also high on the list of At the same time, he has been involved with helping advantages of participation are feelings related to prestige Métis veterans lobby the government to recognize “some of and self-confidence Ð despite this rarely being mentioned the inequities that occurred after our soldiers left service.”69 as a motivation for joining. Gerard Joe from Conne River, Peter MacGregor of Kahnawake never experienced Newfoundland believes that if young people knew just how discrimination against Aboriginal peoples Ð some colleagues rewarding being in the military can be, there would be more would ask questions and he would “fill them in” – but he recruits. He credits the army with helping him develop a sensed that French-English tensions were more noticeable.70 whole new identity and teaching him how to be part of Jocelyn Paul of Wendake, Québec remembers feeling a team.76 Ukjese van Kampen of Whitehorse agrees that the uneasy during his first months with the R22R, during military provided an identity. “When I was growing up in the Oka Crisis, but adds that people “quickly realized the Yukon, I did not really have a sense of what type of that I was doing my job” and he got along very well First Nations [group I belonged to]. Later I became ashamed with his colleagues.71 that I had white blood in me, that I wasn’t a pure Indian...Then I went into the army. I now A unique characteristic that belonged to a tribe, 2RCR... We had regalia Earl Charters from Coldwater, B.C., “After the Second (uniforms), we had ritual, and we were proud to belong to the regiment. It was has found helpful to his participation in World War, as after the service life is his skill as a hoop dancer. as if I now had a sense of belonging. The hoop, he says, represents a spirit, or a First World War, when I was part of a tribe that had no doubts of group of spirits and the hoop dance Aboriginal veterans who they were.”77 “the harmonious co-existence of spirits returned home, many all dancing together to the beat of the In answer to the question of how the powwow drum. The drumbeat is led their communities recent CF efforts have helped attract or recognized as the heartbeat of Mother in the search for retain Aboriginal members, the feedback has been positive. Two did refer to Earth.” He has been asked on many improved citizenship occasions, in Canada and abroad, to problems and the need to provide more perform his ceremonial dance. Far from status and legal support. Victor Lyall, an Inuit from hiding his background to fit in, as some rights.” Labrador, remarked: “People coming had done in previous periods, Charters and from smaller communities might be a little
30 Canadian Military Journal ● Spring 2005 Conclusion
ver three periods from 1939 to 2002, many aspects Oof the Aboriginal perception of participation in the Armed Forces have changed, while others have remained constant. On the motivation for enlisting, those going to war in the early period were the only ones to volunteer that they were “following” friends or defending an important cause. Those joining in recent years emphasize adventure and employment. What has not changed is the strong influence of community members on their decision to join. None mentioned being attracted by recruiting campaigns, but the presence of the military, such as through parades and disaster relief operations, or through the proximity of certain bases, was a very strong influence in all periods. MILITARY SOCIOLOGY MILITARY The perception of racism in the military is more of a concern today, although it actually appears to have been more widespread during earlier periods. Throughout the century, the preference among Aboriginal people for greater equality among the ranks has persisted, making adaptation to the military a challenge. However, what has also continued is the view that they are treated better in the military than in Canadian society.
On the question of how their background helped participation, the more recent group was more likely DND photo ISD01-4149 to emphasize Aboriginal culture and to take pride in
Earl Charters in the Arabian Gulf on HMCS Winnipeg during their heritage. Certainly, earlier groups referred to Operation Augmentation, May 2001. advantages of their background for employment as snipers, as scouts, and during survival activities, but seemed to value being treated equally more than having more timid and quiet.” Although he appreciated the their distinctiveness recognized. What has not changed pre-enrolment training sessions, after the course, “there is the strong awareness of their culture as an advantage in was never contact from that department. Once you many situations. signed those papers and then went through there wasn’t any real check back done to see how you were doing.”78 Finally, replies as to how the Canadian military Frank Michon spent time in Alert and agreed on the need affected their lives have evolved from a focus on for closer follow-up. “They had two young Inuits working in adventure Ð often disturbing, life-changing wartime the kitchen...this was when they were trying to get young episodes Ð to the 1950s and 1960s focus on discipline, native people into the military. They were going about it to the post-1968 focus on training and education. the wrong way but they were trying...”79 However, many Through these very different experiences there has others praised the efforts of the CF, particularly in the North been continuity in the view that their time in the military with the Rangers program.80 In the West, Howard Anderson, was worthwhile and enjoyable.82 Grand Chief of the Saskatchewan First Nations Veterans, adds that the kids come out of the Bold Eagle Program “with their heads up in the air, and they are proud as hell.”81
NOTES
1. We thank Brereton Greenhous, Ken Reynolds and 4. Report, Cross-Cultural/Multicultural Associates 5. CFAEP information, at
Spring 2005 ● Canadian Military Journal 31 7. Interviews (conducted July 2001 Ð July 2002) are 21. DHH Interview, Elmer Sinclair. 25,640 had double identities. 1,101,960 individuals at the Directorate of History and Heritage (DHH) 22. Six replied that there was racism in Canada, declared Aboriginal origin or ancestry. of DND. Friendship centers, veterans’ groups and five that there was some discrimination. The percentage of Aboriginals in the CF informal contacts helped select interviewees who are 23. DHH Interview, Howard Anderson. was as follows: 1.5 per cent of the Regular perhaps not the Aboriginal people most involved 24. DHH Interview, Sam Sinclair. Force, 1.0 per cent of the Primary Reserves with the Canadian Forces, but are known in their 25. DHH Interview, Russell Modeste. and 1.3 per cent of the total, not including communities. Also, the number of 60 interviews is 26. DHH Interview, Elmer Sinclair. the Rangers. Within the 2001 Census, too small to be exhaustive but it provides an idea 27. DHH Interview, Lawrence Martin. 976,305 individuals identified themselves as of dominant perceptions. 28. DHH Interview, Sydney Gordon. Richard Parker Aboriginal peoples, or 3.3 per cent of the 8. Fred Gaffen, Forgotten Soldiers, (Penticton, BC: also fought in Italy as described in Thinking, population. This included 608,050 Indians Theytus Books, 1985); Janice Summerby, Native (Vancouver: Trafford, 2000). living on and off reserves; 292,310 Métis and Soldiers, Foreign Battlefields, (Ottawa: Veterans 29. DHH Interview, Charles Bird. 45,070 Inuits (30,080 had double identity). Affairs, 1993); John Moses, “Aboriginal 30. DHH Interviews, Irene Hoff and Roger Ouimet 1,319,890 individuals declared Aboriginal origin Participation in Canadian Military Service,” in The 31. Only Fernand Lainé described the experience as or ancestry. The percentage in the CF was: Army Doctrine and Training Bulletin, Vol. 3, No. 3, negative. His brother J.B. and Stuart Beauvais 2.3 per cent of the Regular Force, 1.8 per cent Fall 2000; Report of the Royal Commission on were also conscripted. of the Primary Reserves and 3.4 per cent of the Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) (Ottawa: Queen’s 32. Two exceptions were J.B. and Fernand Lainé. total, including the Rangers. Printer, 1997); Olive Dickason, Canada’s In addition to four referring to greater respect and 57. D Strat HR News, Vol. 2, 2003. The Advisory First Nations, (Toronto: McClelland, 1992), three to education, one mentioned discipline, one Group Officer is Ms. Brenda Cote. See Remembrances: Métis Veterans, (Regina: Gabriel that he became more responsible, and one that his also MacLaren and Davis, 2001, and D Strat Dumont Institute, 1997). R. Scott Sheffield, The eyes were opened to the world. HR RN 04/02, “The Canadian Forces as a career Red Man’s on the Warpath: The Image of the 33. RCAP, Vol. 12, Chapters 4.1 and 4.3, 4.5, 5.1 of Choice for Aboriginal Canadians. A Strategy “Indian” and the Second World War, (Vancouver: and 5.3. Gaffen, Forgotten Soldiers, pp.72, 79. for 2020.” UBC Press, 2004). 34. In 1951 there were 165,607 people identifying 58. See L. Beebe, “A Dream Come True,” Sentinel, 9. National Archives of Canada (NAC), RG24 themselves as Indians, or 1.2 per cent of the Vol. 27, No. 6, p. 22. Quotation is from DND Vol. 1221, File HQ 593-1-7, in Summerby, Native Canadian population. Summerby, Native Soldiers, internet site: CFAEP. Soldiers, p. 6. Many of them served in the pp. 31-33. 59. McCue, Strengthening Relationships, pp. 32-33. 107th and 114th Battalions. 35. Five Korean veterans referred to a cause, two to 60. Ibid., p. 28: There are more Status Aboriginal 10. James Dempsey, “Persistence of a Warrior Ethic following friends or family members and three to people in Canada, but the CF has only Among the Plains Indians,” in Alberta History, employment. One referred to adventure. Among 130 Status and 1170 non-Status Aboriginal Vol. 36, No. 1, Winter 1988. Gaffen, Forgotten the other nine recruits in this period, four referred members. Soldiers, p.15. to employment, three to adventure and one joined 61. There are five patrol groups: 1CRPG (58 patrols 11. Gaffen, Forgotten Soldiers, p. 15. Also L. James for a cause. in the Far North); 2CRPG (19 patrols in Northern Dempsey, Warriors of the King: Prairie Indians in 36. DHH Interview, Robert Carriere. Québec); 3CRPG (nine patrols in Northern World War I, (Regina: University of Regina, 1999). 37. DHH Interview, Harvey Horlock. Ontario); 4CRGP (27 patrols on the Pacific 12. Duncan Campbell Scott, “The Canadian Indians 38. DHH Interview, Louis Schmidt. Coast); and 5CRPG (28 patrols in Newfoundland and the Great World War,” in Canada in the Great 39. DHH Interview, Fred Young. and Labrador). World War, vol. 3: Guarding the Channel Ports, 40. DHH Interview, Bill Lafferty. 62. DHH Interview, A. Metatawabin. (Toronto: United, 1919), p. 285. 41. DHH Interview, Russ Moses. 63. DHH Interview, Alec Tuckatuck. 13. Gaffen, Forgotten Soldiers, pp. 35-7. 42. Among the Korean veterans, none replied yes, 64. Six had many relatives in the Armed Forces, 14. Indian enlistments by province (with total two remembered some racism and eight replied four had some members while 10 had none. native population in brackets): NS, 117 (2364); none at all. As for the others, three replied yes and 65. While only one felt discouraged by his NB, 203 (2047); PEI, 27 (266); QC, 316 (15,182); six none at all. community to join, ten felt no pressure and ON, 1324 (32,421); MB, 175 (15,892); SK, 443 43. DHH Interview, Joe John Sanipass. nine felt encouraged. (14,158); AB, 144 (12,754); BC, 334 (25,515); 44. Of the eleven Korean veterans, five perceived 66. Twelve of the 20 replied that they joined for the YK, 7 (1531); NWT, 0 (3816). Ibid. clear signs of racism in Canadian society, work, five for adventure, two for the prestige 15. Within the 1911 Census, 105,611 or 1.5 per cent of two some racism, and one none at all. Of the other and one for a cause. Canadians (7,206,643) were listed as Indian. In 1941 nine, the corresponding numbers were five, 67. Three replied yes, five that there was some racism it was 160,937 or 1.4 per cent of 11,506,655. one and one. and 10 that there was none. See also the report There were also 35,416 Métis. The Annual Report 45. DHH Interview, Victor Flett. by Cross-Cultural/Multicultural Associates Inc. for the Department of Indian Affairs, March 1919, 46. DHH Interview, Stephen Simon. “Canadian Forces Diversity Project: Baseline estimated 35 per cent of Indian males of military 47. DHH Interview, Lafferty. Study,” (February 1997), p. 2. DHH Interview, age had applied. 48. DHH Interview, Russell Piché. Mel Swann. 16. NAC, MG27IIIB14, General Laflèche papers Letter 49. DHH Interview, Michael Sanipass. 68. DHH Interviews: Alan Knockwood from from the Six Nations outlines grievances. RCAP, 50. DHH Interview, Wes Whitford. Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia. Also Coreena Letendre. Vol. 12, Chapter 4.1. 51. DHH Interviews, Len Desjarlais, Bob Ducharme, Ernest Nadjiwan. 17. N.F. Dreisziger, “The Rise of a Bureaucracy for Bob Rogers and Joe Mercredi. 69. DHH Interview, Ed Borchert. Multiculturalism: The Origins of the Nationalities 52. In reply as to how the military helped them, 70. DHH Interview, Peter MacGregor. Branch, 1939-1941,” in On Guard for Thee: War, both groups had three people focus on greater 71. DHH Interview, Jocelyn Paul. Ethnicity, and the Canadian State, 1939-1945, discipline. Two Korean veterans referred to 72. DHH Interview, Earl Charters. N. Hillmer, B. Kordan and L. Luciuk eds., education, one to respect, and one to confidence. 73. DHH Interview, Alec Tuckatuck. (Ottawa: Canadian Committee for the History of One of the other veterans referred to education, 74. DHH Interview, Vallee Saunders. the Second World War, 1988), p.1. Sheffield, The one to respect, two to confidence and one to 75. Six answered that training and education had Red Man’s on the Warpath. a better understanding of the world. been most helpful, while four referred to 18. Summerby, Native Soldiers, p. 20, RCAP, Vol. 12, 53. DHH, Interview Joe Meconse. greater respect, three to increased self-confidence Chapter 4.1. One interviewee, David Moses, served 54. DHH, Interview Mary Wuttunee. and three to discipline. in the air force. 55. Sally Weaver, Making Canadian Indian Policy: 76. DHH Interview, Gerard Joe. 19. DHH Interview, Henry Beaudry. The Hidden Agenda, 1968-1970, (Toronto: 77. DHH Interview, Ukjese van Kampen. 20. Of 20 interviewees, 11 replied that their father or University of Toronto Press, 1981). 78. DHH Interview, Victor Lyall. many relatives had served, four replied that some 56. Within the 1996 Canadian Census, 79. DHH Interview, Frank Michon. had served and five had no family connection. 799,010 individuals identified themselves as 80. DHH Interview, Solomon Curley. Eleven felt encouraged, two discouraged and seven Aboriginal peoples, or 2.8 per cent of 81. DHH Interview, Howard Anderson. had not been affected. Nine indicated that they were the 28,528,125 population. This included 82. The impressions of those agreeing to be following others. All answers were spontaneous Ð 529,040 Indians living on and off reserves; interviewed would be more favourable than no list of possibilities was suggested. 204,115 Métis and 40,220 Inuits, of which those who refused.
32 Canadian Military Journal ● Spring 2005