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Universidad Michoacana De San Nicolás De Hidalgo UNIVERSIDAD MICHOACANA DE SAN NICOLÁS DE HIDALGO INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACIONES HISTÓRICAS PROGRAMA DE MAESTRÍA EN HISTORIA COMANCHES Y LA GUERRA MÉXICO-ESTADOS UNIDOS TESIS QUE PARA OBTENER EL GRADO DE MAESTRO EN HISTORIA PRESENTA FELIPE ZAMORA BELLO DIRECTOR DE TESIS DR. MOISÉS GUZMÁN PÉREZ MORELIA, MICHOACÁN, AGOSTO 2020 1 PRESENTACIÓN En términos de la historia de la especie humana, las sociedades agrícolas sedentarias no dejan de ser un pequeño paréntesis en el recorrido. Son parte de experimento interesante e intrigante, pero sin mucho bagaje, que comenzaron a ganar notoriedad y preponderancia hace apenas unos miles de años, justo en los últimos instantes del Pleistoceno. En otras palabras, las sociedades agrícolas con sistemas estatales, representan estrictamente un ínfimo lapso de la existencia de la especie humana. Por su parte, el modo de vida cazador-recolector, predominante a lo largo del Pleistoceno por cerca de 2.5 millones de años, perduró en distintos lugares del planeta, manteniéndose pujante casi en la totalidad de nuestra actual época geológica, como una realidad histórica preponderante en inmensas regiones incluso hasta finales del siglo XIX. Desde consistir en el modo de vida primordial preeminente hace unos 12 000 años, hasta ceder paulatinamente a la primacía del conjunto de sociedades agrícolas y sedentarias hasta el día de hoy, los cazadores recolectores han sido sujetos históricos cuyo estudio conjuga muchas veces desconcierto e inquietud. Detengámonos un momento en ello, y no trivialicemos que nuestros paleo ancestros, pese a la ausencia de la ciencia moderna, la agricultura, la ganadería e internet, se las arreglaron por milenios para extender la saga de la humanidad hasta nuestros días. Una saga que, hasta hace unos 150 años, presentaba dos universos históricos y ecológicos en el norte del continente americano, marcado por la interacción de dos mundos diferentes, que sobrepasa la dicotomía indígena-europeo y colonizador-conquistado. Del devenir de distintos pueblos incrustados en una contraposición de sistemas ecológicos a nivel macro, cuya propiedad esencial consistía en las interacciones ocurridas entre sociedades nativas de cazadores-recolectores con aquellas sociedades sedentarias no jerárquicas también nativas, junto con aquellas sociedades euroamericanas producto de la irrupción europea. En la esfera cotidiana de estas historias, pueden apreciarse interacciones que provocaron fricción, alianza, rencillas, simpatía, venganza y reconciliación entre distintos grupos humanos; en cambio, en la esfera de larga duración, puede observarse el cambio radical producto del colapso del modo de vida cazador-recolector. ii Que los comanches estuviesen en medio del conflicto internacional entre México y Estados Unidos en 1846 no fue un accidente, pero sí una coyuntura paradójica en medio del desarrollo de la historia política, social y ecológica de la región conocida como las Grandes Planicies de Norteamérica. En términos políticos, la guerra estalló en momentos que primaba un conjunto considerable de comunidades con maneras de organización política informales, dentro de las que se llegaron a desarrollar gran variedad de estilos y estrategias de supervivencia. No obstante, a pesar de que el empleo de categorías etnográficas para distinguir esta diversidad de modos de organización humanas en el espacio de estudio, son útiles para delimitar y especificar vínculos entre distintas identidades, la dicotomía entre cazadores-recolectores y comuidades sedentarias estuvo lejos de ser invariable y tajante luego de aparición de los distintos actores euroamericanos a partir del siglo XVI. Esto es cierto si reparamos en el hecho de que tanto cazadores-recolectores llevaron a cabo conocimientos agrícolas mayormente relacionados con las sociedades agrícolas-sedentarias, como que estas llegaron a hacer parte de actividades que de forma convencional se atribuyen a las primeras. De esa forma, la interacción entre comanches, apaches, cheyenes, navajos, yutas, kiowas, mexicanos, americanos, hispanos, texanos, franceses y germanos representan algunas de las identidades de este espacio geográfico que, por otra parte, fueron de cuando en cuando cambiantes y permeables. En términos ecológicos, la guerra México-Estados Unidos, se desarrolló luego de que los comanches llevaran al menos un siglo de haber elegido la cacería, la transformación de los productos de bisonte y el comercio de caballos, en los ejes de su supervivencia. Más aún, la guerra de 1846 ocurrió dentro del periodo en que los comanches, tras haber alcanzado a su propio cénit bélico como guerreros de caballería, comenzaban a experimentar distintas crisis que comprometían su autonomía. Así mismo, el conflicto internacional se desarrolló durante los años en que la carrera tecnológica de armamento, que en su momento favoreció a los comanches y otros indios de las planicies, inclinó la balanza en favor de los norteamericanos, por lo que su escabrosa victoria contribuyó de forma definitiva a la eliminación del modo cazador-recolector como alternativa preponderante en las interacciones de los seres humanos con el entorno ecológico en Norteamérica. iii Así, en el primer capítulo nos acercamos a la historicidad de el grupo humano de cazadores-recolectores, Numunu como se nombraban así mismos sus integrantes, y denominados por las fuentes euroamericanas como comanches. La historia de los comanches, previo a la reservación, parte como un grupo derivado de otro más antiguo, los shoshones, y herederos de los cazadores-recolectores que habían habitado el norte del continente por milenios. En las Grandes Planicies, los indios nómadas de cazadores-recolectores habían compartido una macro región con las sociedades agrícola-sedentarias, conocidas por los europeos como Indios Pueblo, no obstante, que estos últimos permanecieran ajenos a las formas de organización agrarias propias de las civilizaciones mesoamericanas. Asimismo, se expone la estructura general de la sociedad comanche y cómo las condiciones histórico geográficas determinaron sus distintas maneras de adaptación. Se destacan algunas estrategias tomadas por los mismos, en base a determinados cambios socioculturales y medioambientales que afectaron las Grandes Planicies y que influyeron en la esencia comunitaria de la sociedad comanche, así como en su actuación cotidiana, desde lo que ocurría en la unidad elemental o ranchería, hasta en las relaciones diplomáticas interétnicas. Por tanto, el capítulo ofrece una descripción general de las esferas social, política, económica y militar del pueblo comanche, con la intención de sentar las bases que permitan comprender las posturas que asumieron años antes y durante la Guerra México- Estados Unidos. El segundo capítulo hace un recuento crítico de los diferentes acercamientos diplomáticos comanches con Nuevo México, Texas, estados del norte de México y Estados Unidos. De algunas de esas reuniones florecerían las bases para la firma de tratados de paz materializados en una cantidad significativa de acuerdos por escrito, no siempre ratificados por los poderes ejecutivo o legislativos, entre diferentes delegaciones comanches y representantes de los gobiernos hispano-mexicanos o anglo-estadounidenses. Los tratados tuvieron cierto valor para las autoridades euroamericanas locales y se presupone que así lo fue para determinados comanches sabedores de los convenios pactados. En ese sentido, el tratado de paz firmado en 1846 entre comanches y norteamericanos, parece indicar, si se estudia de manera aislada, que los miembros de la comanchería habrían aceptado una neutralidad en favor de Estados Unidos, y que México no había tenido ni la intención ni la iv oportunidad de establecer convenios semejantes con los indios de las planicies. Sin embargo, las evidencias documentales muestran lo contrario y ponen de manifiesto el reiterado esfuerzo mexicano por ganar la simpatía comanche, así como la fragilidad misma de los acuerdos al margen del gobierno euroamericano negociador. Finalmente, el tercer capítulo aborda el periodo específico de la Guerra México- Estados Unidos y los sucesos violentos ocurridos en el Camino a Santa Fe durante dicho conflicto internacional. El cuerpo documental consta de distintos materiales que denuncian el rompimiento de la neutralidad pactada entre comanches y norteamericanos sobre todo a partir de 1847. Se han estudiado las denuncias sobre robos y asesinatos para evaluar su autenticidad por medio del cotejo de información, con la intención de clasificar las distintas modalidades de ataque, frecuencia e intensidad de las mismas. Esto ha permitido hacer una estimación del grado de perjuicio causado a las caravanas comerciales, aquellas de abastecimiento y las formadas exclusivamente por elementos castrenses norteamericanos. Se busca que los resultados permitan estimar el grado de influencia que las acciones de los comanches y otros indios independientes tuvieron en el desarrollo general de la guerra y en la campaña de Stephen W. Kearny en particular. Dado que la campaña de conquista norteamericana consistió en uno de los acontecimientos principales que conformaron el proceso de expansión del modo de vida agrario sedentario en Norteamérica, el sistema ecológico ancestral de sociedades no estatales junto con los individuos que le integraban, comenzó a experimentar una serie de cambios, contradicciones y desafíos únicos en la historia del continente. Estos fenómenos, marcados por el cambio tecnológico que supuso la reintroducción del caballo y el contacto con la economía
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