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A-Jarzembowski.Vp:Corelventura Acta zoologica cracoviensia, 46(suppl.– Fossil Insects): 25-36, Kraków, 15 Oct., 2003 Palaeoentomology: towards the big picture Edmund A. JARZEMBOWSKI Received: 1 Feb., 2002 Accepted for publication: 1 June, 2002 JARZEMBOWSKI E. A. 2003. Palaeoentomology: towards the big picture. Acta zoologica cracoviensia, 46(suppl.– Fossil Insects): 25-36. Abstract. Insects (Superclass Hexapoda) are the most palaeodiverse as well as the most biodiverse organisms of all time but probably total under 20 million species. Familial/ge- neric data agree with an exponential growth model of the evolution of terrestrial life. Ordi- nal data is consistent with a logistic model but with a major perturbation superimposed (the Triassic extinction). The global taxonomic carrying capacity is about 31 for orders whereas familial and species data suggest power functions. Key events in the Phanerozoic insect record are briefly discussed. Key words: insects, fossils, palaeodiversity, biodiversity, evolutionary patterns. E. A. JARZEMBOWSKI, Maidstone Museum & Bentlif Art Gallery, St Faith’s St., Maid- stone, Kent, ME14 1LH and P.R.I.S., Reading University, UK. E-mail: [email protected] I. BIODIVERSITY AND PALAEODIVERSITY Insects comprise well over 50 percent of global species biodiversity (Figs 1, 2). The description of new insect species is more or less exponential (Fig. 3). In contrast, the recognition of new insect orders is in decline (Fig. 4: total). The description of new insect orders peaked in the nineteenth cen- tury. This was mainly due to the impact of various living orders being erected (Fig. 4: extant). It re- mains possible, however, that more fossil orders will be recognised in the future (Fig. 4: extinct). Some workers maintain that evolutionary change is best studied at the species level (WILLMANN 1997) but others consider that family databases are a good proxy (BENTON et al. 2000). At family level, insects are the most diverse group in the fossil record (BENTON 1993: fig. P.2). Trend lines based on family palaeodiversity suggest that insects total under 20 million species (JARZEMBOWSKI &ROSS 1993: Fig. 9; this paper, Fig. 10). This agrees with the current tendency by entomologists to estimate a total of less than the 50 or even 100 million species proposed during the heyday of Erwin- ian estimates. Acknowledgements.Iwish to thank Prof. M. BENTON (Bristol University) and Mr R. CORAM (Reading University) for some copies of papers consulted and Drs A. GOROK- HOV (Zoological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences), W. KRZEMIÑSKI (Natural History Mu- seum, Polish Academy of Sciences), C. LABANDEIRA (Dept. of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution), A. NEL (Entomology Laboratory, National Museum of Natural History, Paris) and D. SHCHERBAKOV (Arthropod Laboratory, Palaeontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences) for comments towards Fig. 10. This is P.R.I.S. contribution. E. A. JARZEMBOWSKI 26 Fig. 1. Global biodiversity based on known species (approximately 1.454 million). After CRANBROOK (1996), WILSON (1992). Fig. 2. Estimated global biodiversity (approximately 65.654 million). Based on references in Fig. 1. Fig. 3. Rate of description of insect species. After BENTON (2001). Palaeoentomology: towards the big picture 27 Table I Time ranges of insect orders 1. Protura SILVESTRI, 1907* – R 2. Collembola LUBBOCK, 1871* springtails D1-R 3. Diplura BÖRNER, 1904* two-pronged bristletails C2-R 4. Archaeognatha BÖRNER, 1904* bristletails D2?-R 5. Monura SHAROV, 1951* – C2-P 6. Zygentoma BÖRNER, 1904* silverfish C2-R Palaeodictyoptera GOLDENBERG, 1877* 7. – C2-P2 + Permothemistida SINITSHENKOVA, 1980. 8. Megasecoptera BRONGNIART, 1885* – C2-P 9. Diaphanopterodea HANDLIRSCH, 1919* – C2-P 10. Ephemeroptera HYATT &ARMS, 1890* mayflies C2-R 11. Protodonata BRONGNIART, 1893* ‘giant dragonflies’ C2-Tr3 12. Odonata FABRICIUS, 1793* dragonflies C2-R 13. ‘Protorthoptera’ HANDLIRSCH, 1906 – C1-Tr 14. Plecoptera BURMEISTER, 1838* stoneflies P1-R 15. Embioptera SHIPLEY, 1904* web-spinners P1-R 16. Phasmatodea BRUNNER, 1893* stick insects P2-R 17a. Orthoptera OLIVIER, 1789* crickets, grasshoppers, locusts C2-R 17b. Titanoptera SHAROV, 1968 – Tr 18. Grylloblattodea BRUES &MELANDER, 1915* – P1-R 19. Protelytroptera TILLYARD, 1931 – P 20. Dermaptera DE GEER, 1773* earwigs J1-R 21. Miomoptera MARTYNOV, 1927* – C2-J1 22. Blattodea BRUNNER, 1882* cockroaches C2-R 23. Isoptera BRULLÉ, 1832* termites K1-R 24. Mantodea BURMEISTER, 1838* praying mantises K1-R 25. Caloneurodea HANDLIRSCH, 1937 – C2-P 26. Zoraptera SILVESTRI, 1913* – O-R 27. Psocoptera SHIPLEY, 1904* booklice P1-R 28. Phthiraptera HAECKEL, 1896* lice E-R 29. Thysanoptera HALIDAY, 1836* thrips P1-R 30. Hemiptera LINNÉ, 1758* bugs C2-R 31. Glosselytrodea MARTYNOV, 1938 – P1-J3 32. Strepsiptera KIRBY, 1815* stylopids E-R 33. Coleoptera LINNÉ, 1758* beetles P1-R 34. Raphidioptera LATREILLE, 1810* snake flies P2-R 35. Megaloptera LATREILLE, 1802* alder flies P1-R 36. Neuroptera LINNÉ, 1758* lacewings P1-R 37. Hymenoptera LINNÉ, 1758* wasps, ants, bees Tr3-R 38. Trichoptera KIRBY, 1815* caddisflies P1-R 39. Lepidoptera LINNÉ, 1758* moths, butterflies J1-R 40. Diptera LINNÉ, 1758* flies Tr2-R 41. Siphonaptera LATREILLE, 1825* fleas K1-R 42. Mecoptera PACKARD, 1886* scorpionflies P1-R Key: D1, Lower Devonian, ca 398 Ma; D2, Middle Devonian, ca 391 Ma; C1, Lower Carboniferous; C2, Upper Carboniferous, ca 307 Ma; P, Permian; P1, Lower Permian, ca 251 Ma; P2, Upper Permian, ca 273 Ma; Tr, Triassic; Tr3, Upper Triassic, ca 222 Ma; J1 Lower Jurassic, ca 193 Ma; J3, Upper Jurassic, ca 151 Ma; K1, Lower Cretaceous, ca 121 Ma; E, Eocene, ca 46 Ma; O, Oligocene, ca 29 Ma; R, Recent, 0.01 Ma-. * clades (DUNCAN, 1997 and references therein) E. A. JARZEMBOWSKI 28 No. of Orders 20 18 Total 15 16 15 Extant 10 9 8 5 Extinct 3 0 18th 19th 20th Century Fig. 4. Rate of description of insect orders: extinct (dotted line), extant (solid) and total (dotted-and-dashed). Data from Table I. II. PHANEROZOIC PATTERNS BENTON &HARPER (2000) suggested that there is a difference in style between evolution in land organisms as compared with evolution in the marine realm. They considered that terrestrial life has evolved exponentially whereas life in the sea has evolved logistically (cf. Fig. 5). Insects are crucial to this discussion because they are a significant element of terrestrial life (JARZEMBOWSKI 2001). Generic and familial data suggest exponential growth during the Phanerozoic (Figs 6, 7). In con- trast, ordinal data suggest a logistic (sigmoidal) pattern but with a major perturbation superimposed – the Triassic extinction (Fig. 8). If the effect of the latter is subtracted, then ordinal diversity levels off at about 31 orders from a total of about 42 orders of insects. BENTON (2001) considered that, in general, a logistic pattern at high taxonomic level could de- cay into an exponential pattern at low taxonomic level. He based this on HOLMAN’s (1996) statisti- cal analysis which concluded that genus/family/order curves of diversity could be real (genetic) or an artefact (taxonomic). KERR (2001) has, however, doubted some of BENTON’s data source. HOLMAN (op. cit.) suggested that a real signal could be obtained by the use of monophyletic groups (as in cladistics) and supporting morphological data although GRANTHAM (2001) considered that some paraphyletic taxa are real. In this connection it may be noted that the great majority (90%) of insect orders used in Fig. 8 are considered to be monophyletic (Table I). In addition, mouthpart class data for insects shows a logistic pattern (Fig. 9) providing supporting morphological data. This is, however, not easily reconciled with a phyletic approach to palaeodiversity (ALEKSEEV et al. 2001). The testing of congruence between phylogeny and the fossil record is at an early stage (WILLS 2001). Interestingly, Atelocerata (Myriapoda + Hexapoda) is more congruent than an (Insecta + Crustacea) clade advocated more recently (DEUVE 2001). Palaeoentomology: towards the big picture 29 Fig. 5. Ideal curves for exponential (unlimited) and logistic (sigmoidal/constrained) growth. Fig. 6. Cumulative curve for insect generic diversity from Devonian to Recent. Points are totals by period (black circles) and subperiod (open circles). Abbreviations: Pl – Pliocene; M – Miocene; O – Oligocene; E – Eocene; P – Palaeocene; K – Cretaceous; J – Jurassic; Tr – Triassic; P – Permian; C – Carboniferous; D – Devonian; 1, 2, 3, Lower, Middle, Upper. No.s, Ma. Data in JARZEMBOWSKI &ROSS (1996). E. A. JARZEMBOWSKI 30 Fig. 7. Cumulative curve for insect family diversity. Explanation as in Fig. 6 except points joined by dashed line. III. HYPERDIVERSITY According to HOLMAN (1996) non-insectan higher taxa include an average of 6-12 lower taxa. In contrast, insect orders contain an average of 30-40 families. The 32 extant orders of insects total 967 families (NAUMANN 1995). Families are therefore the number of insect orders nearly to the power two (322 = 1,024). The 42 extant plus extinct orders (including the unnatural order Protor- thoptera) contain over 1,275 families (ROSS et al. 2000). Nearly 70 percent of extant families are known as fossils (JARZEMBOWSKI 2001a) suggesting that at least another 290 families remain to be found. This would give a total of 1,565 families for the Phanerozoic, or nearly the total of natural orders to the power two (412 = 1,681). Interestingly, insect orders to the power four is 2.8 million, approximately the lower estimate of insect species biodiversity (some 3 million species; BENTON 2001). Insects may be justifiably referred to as hyperdiverse (MAY 1995)! If the effect of the Trias- sic extinction is ignored by extrapolating from the Permian to Recent, then Phanerozoic ordinal di- versity could level off at about 31 orders (Fig. 8). This is close to the number of extant insect orders (32) and, curiously, the number of phyla (31, NIELSEN 1995). Palaeoentomology: towards the big picture 31 Fig. 8. Cumulative curve for insect orders. Permian – Recent extrapolation, dashed line; ‘K’ value, dotted line. Roman nu- merals indicate key events (see text).
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  • Diversification of Insects Since the Devonian
    www.nature.com/scientificreports OPEN Diversifcation of insects since the Devonian: a new approach based on morphological disparity of Received: 18 September 2017 Accepted: 12 February 2018 mouthparts Published: xx xx xxxx Patricia Nel1,2, Sylvain Bertrand2 & André Nel1 The majority of the analyses of the evolutionary history of the megadiverse class Insecta are based on the documented taxonomic palaeobiodiversity. A diferent approach, poorly investigated, is to focus on morphological disparity, linked to changes in the organisms’ functioning. Here we establish a hierarchy of the great geological epochs based on a new method using Wagner parsimony and a ‘presence/ absence of a morphological type of mouthpart of Hexapoda’ dataset. We showed the absence of major rupture in the evolution of the mouthparts, but six epochs during which numerous innovations and few extinctions happened, i.e., Late Carboniferous, Middle and Late Triassic, ‘Callovian-Oxfordian’, ‘Early’ Cretaceous, and ‘Albian-Cenomanian’. The three crises Permian-Triassic, Triassic-Jurassic, and Cretaceous-Cenozoic had no strong, visible impact on mouthparts types. We particularly emphasize the origination of mouthparts linked to nectarivory during the Cretaceous Terrestrial Revolution. We also underline the origination of mouthparts linked to phytophagy during the Middle and the Late Triassic, correlated to the diversifcation of the gymnosperms, especially in relation to the complex ‘fowers’ producing nectar of the Bennettitales and Gnetales. During their ca. 410 Ma history, hexapods have evolved morphologically to adapt in a continuously changing world, thereby resulting in a unique mega-biodiversity1. Age-old questions2–4 about insects’ macroevolution now- adays receive renewed interest thanks to the remarkable recent improvements in data and methods that allow incorporating full data, phylogenomic trees besides fossil record5–9.
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