Earthquake Location Accuracy
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The Growing Wealth of Aseismic Deformation Data: What's a Modeler to Model?
The Growing Wealth of Aseismic Deformation Data: What's a Modeler to Model? Evelyn Roeloffs U.S. Geological Survey Earthquake Hazards Team Vancouver, WA Topics • Pre-earthquake deformation-rate changes – Some credible examples • High-resolution crustal deformation observations – borehole strain – fluid pressure data • Aseismic processes linking mainshocks to aftershocks • Observations possibly related to dynamic triggering The Scientific Method • The “hypothesis-testing” stage is a bottleneck for earthquake research because data are hard to obtain • Modeling has a role in the hypothesis-building stage http://www.indiana.edu/~geol116/ Modeling needs to lead data collection • Compared to acquiring high resolution deformation data in the near field of large earthquakes, modeling is fast and inexpensive • So modeling should perhaps get ahead of reproducing observations • Or modeling could look harder at observations that are significant but controversial, and could explore a wider range of hypotheses Earthquakes can happen without detectable pre- earthquake changes e.g.Parkfield M6 2004 Deformation-Rate Changes before the Mw 6.6 Chuetsu earthquake, 23 October 2004 Ogata, JGR 2007 • Intraplate thrust earthquake, depth 11 km • GPS-detected rate changes about 3 years earlier – Moment of pre-slip approximately Mw 6.0 (1 div=1 cm) – deviations mostly in direction of coseismic displacement – not all consistent with pre-slip on the rupture plane Great Subduction Earthquakes with Evidence for Pre-Earthquake Aseismic Deformation-Rate Changes • Chile 1960, Mw9.2 – 20-30 m of slow interplate slip over a rupture zone 920+/-100 km long, starting 20 minutes prior to mainshock [Kanamori & Cipar (1974); Kanamori & Anderson (1975); Cifuentes & Silver (1989) ] – 33-hour foreshock sequence north of the mainshock, propagating toward the mainshock hypocenter at 86 km day-1 (Cifuentes, 1989) • Alaska 1964, Mw9.2 • Cascadia 1700, M9 Microfossils => Sea level rise before1964 Alaska M9.2 • 0.12± 0.13 m sea level rise at 4 sites between 1952 and 1964 Hamilton et al. -
Earthquake Measurements
EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENTS The vibrations produced by earthquakes are detected, recorded, and measured by instruments call seismographs1. The zig-zag line made by a seismograph, called a "seismogram," reflects the changing intensity of the vibrations by responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the epicenter, the focal depth, and the type of faulting of an earthquake and can estimate how much energy was released. Seismograph/Seismometer Earthquake recording instrument, seismograph has a base that sets firmly in the ground, and a heavy weight that hangs free2. When an earthquake causes the ground to shake, the base of the seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight does not. Instead the spring or string that it is hanging from absorbs all the movement. The difference in position between the shaking part of the seismograph and the motionless part is Seismograph what is recorded. Measuring Size of Earthquakes The size of an earthquake depends on the size of the fault and the amount of slip on the fault, but that’s not something scientists can simply measure with a measuring tape since faults are many kilometers deep beneath the earth’s surface. They use the seismogram recordings made on the seismographs at the surface of the earth to determine how large the earthquake was. A short wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and a long wiggly line that wiggles a lot means a large earthquake2. The length of the wiggle depends on the size of the fault, and the size of the wiggle depends on the amount of slip. -
Energy and Magnitude: a Historical Perspective
Pure Appl. Geophys. 176 (2019), 3815–3849 Ó 2018 Springer Nature Switzerland AG https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-018-1994-7 Pure and Applied Geophysics Energy and Magnitude: A Historical Perspective 1 EMILE A. OKAL Abstract—We present a detailed historical review of early referred to as ‘‘Gutenberg [and Richter]’s energy– attempts to quantify seismic sources through a measure of the magnitude relation’’ features a slope of 1.5 which is energy radiated into seismic waves, in connection with the parallel development of the concept of magnitude. In particular, we explore not predicted a priori by simple physical arguments. the derivation of the widely quoted ‘‘Gutenberg–Richter energy– We will use Gutenberg and Richter’s (1956a) nota- magnitude relationship’’ tion, Q [their Eq. (16) p. 133], for the slope of log10 E versus magnitude [1.5 in (1)]. log10 E ¼ 1:5Ms þ 11:8 ð1Þ We are motivated by the fact that Eq. (1)istobe (E in ergs), and especially the origin of the value 1.5 for the slope. found nowhere in this exact form in any of the tra- By examining all of the relevant papers by Gutenberg and Richter, we note that estimates of this slope kept decreasing for more than ditional references in its support, which incidentally 20 years before Gutenberg’s sudden death, and that the value 1.5 were most probably copied from one referring pub- was obtained through the complex computation of an estimate of lication to the next. They consist of Gutenberg and the energy flux above the hypocenter, based on a number of assumptions and models lacking robustness in the context of Richter (1954)(Seismicity of the Earth), Gutenberg modern seismological theory. -
Characteristics of Foreshocks and Short Term Deformation in the Source Area of Major Earthquakes
Characteristics of Foreshocks and Short Term Deformation in the Source Area of Major Earthquakes Peter Molnar Massachusetts Institute of Technology 77 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 USGS CONTRACT NO. 14-08-0001-17759 Supported by the EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS REDUCTION PROGRAM OPEN-FILE NO.81-287 U.S. Geological Survey OPEN FILE REPORT This report was prepared under contract to the U.S. Geological Survey and has not been reviewed for conformity with USGS editorial standards and stratigraphic nomenclature. Opinions and conclusions expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the USGS. Any use of trade names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the USGS. Appendix A A Study of the Haicheng Foreshock Sequence By Lucile Jones, Wang Biquan and Xu Shaoxie (English Translation of a Paper Published in Di Zhen Xue Bao (Journal of Seismology), 1980.) Abstract We have examined the locations and radiation patterns of the foreshocks to the 4 February 1978 Haicheng earthquake. Using four stations, the foreshocks were located relative to a master event. They occurred very close together, no more than 6 kilo meters apart. Nevertheless, there appear to have been too clusters of foreshock activity. The majority of events seem to have occurred in a cluster to the east of the master event along a NNE-SSW trend. Moreover, all eight foreshocks that we could locate and with a magnitude greater than 3.0 occurred in this group. The're also "appears to be a second cluster of foresfiocks located to the northwest of the first. Thus it seems possible that the majority of foreshocks did not occur on the rupture plane of the mainshock, which trends WNW, but on another plane nearly perpendicualr to the mainshock. -
What Is an Earthquake?
A Violent Pulse: Earthquakes Chapter 8 part 2 Earthquakes and the Earth’s Interior What is an Earthquake? Seismicity • ‘Earth shaking caused by a rapid release of energy.’ • Seismicity (‘quake or shake) cause by… – Energy buildup due tectonic – Motion along a newly formed crustal fracture (or, stresses. fault). – Cause rocks to break. – Motion on an existing fault. – Energy moves outward as an expanding sphere of – A sudden change in mineral structure. waves. – Inflation of a – This waveform energy can magma chamber. be measured around the globe. – Volcanic eruption. • Earthquakes destroy – Giant landslides. buildings and kill people. – Meteorite impacts. – 3.5 million deaths in the last 2000 years. – Nuclear detonations. • Earthquakes are common. Faults and Earthquakes Earthquake Concepts • Focus (or Hypocenter) - The place within Earth where • Most earthquakes occur along faults. earthquake waves originate. – Faults are breaks or fractures in the crust… – Usually occurs on a fault surface. – Across which motion has occurred. – Earthquake waves expand outward from the • Over geologic time, faulting produces much change. hypocenter. • The amount of movement is termed displacement. • Epicenter – Land surface above the focus pocenter. • Displacement is also called… – Offset, or – Slip • Markers may reveal the amount of offset. Fence separated by fault 1 Faults and Fault Motion Fault Types • Faults are like planar breaks in blocks of crust. • Fault type based on relative block motion. • Most faults slope (although some are vertical). – Normal fault • On a sloping fault, crustal blocks are classified as: • Hanging wall moves down. – Footwall (block • Result from extension (stretching). below the fault). – Hanging wall – Reverse fault (block above • Hanging wall moves up. -
PEAT8002 - SEISMOLOGY Lecture 13: Earthquake Magnitudes and Moment
PEAT8002 - SEISMOLOGY Lecture 13: Earthquake magnitudes and moment Nick Rawlinson Research School of Earth Sciences Australian National University Earthquake magnitudes and moment Introduction In the last two lectures, the effects of the source rupture process on the pattern of radiated seismic energy was discussed. However, even before earthquake mechanisms were studied, the priority of seismologists, after locating an earthquake, was to quantify their size, both for scientific purposes and hazard assessment. The first measure introduced was the magnitude, which is based on the amplitude of the emanating waves recorded on a seismogram. The idea is that the wave amplitude reflects the earthquake size once the amplitudes are corrected for the decrease with distance due to geometric spreading and attenuation. Earthquake magnitudes and moment Introduction Magnitude scales thus have the general form: A M = log + F(h, ∆) + C T where A is the amplitude of the signal, T is its dominant period, F is a correction for the variation of amplitude with the earthquake’s depth h and angular distance ∆ from the seismometer, and C is a regional scaling factor. Magnitude scales are logarithmic, so an increase in one unit e.g. from 5 to 6, indicates a ten-fold increase in seismic wave amplitude. Note that since a log10 scale is used, magnitudes can be negative for very small displacements. For example, a magnitude -1 earthquake might correspond to a hammer blow. Earthquake magnitudes and moment Richter magnitude The concept of earthquake magnitude was introduced by Charles Richter in 1935 for southern California earthquakes. He originally defined earthquake magnitude as the logarithm (to the base 10) of maximum amplitude measured in microns on the record of a standard torsion seismograph with a pendulum period of 0.8 s, magnification of 2800, and damping factor 0.8, located at a distance of 100 km from the epicenter. -
Hypocenter and Focal Mechanism Determination of the August 23, 2011 Virginia Earthquake Aftershock Sequence: Collaborative Research with VA Tech and Boston College
Final Technical Report Award Numbers G13AP00044, G13AP00043 Hypocenter and Focal Mechanism Determination of the August 23, 2011 Virginia Earthquake Aftershock Sequence: Collaborative Research with VA Tech and Boston College Martin Chapman, John Ebel, Qimin Wu and Stephen Hilfiker Department of Geosciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University 4044 Derring Hall Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061 (MC, QW) Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences Boston College Devlin Hall 213 140 Commonwealth Avenue Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 02467 (JE, SH) Phone (Chapman): (540) 231-5036 Fax (Chapman): (540) 231-3386 Phone (Ebel): (617) 552-8300 Fax (Ebel): (617) 552-8388 Email: [email protected] (Chapman), [email protected] (Ebel), [email protected] (Wu), [email protected] (Hilfiker) Project Period: July 2013 - December, 2014 1 Abstract The aftershocks of the Mw 5.7, August 23, 2011 Mineral, Virginia, earthquake were recorded by 36 temporary stations installed by several institutions. We located 3,960 aftershocks from August 25, 2011 through December 31, 2011. A subset of 1,666 aftershocks resolves details of the hypocenter distribution. We determined 393 focal mechanism solutions. Aftershocks near the mainshock define a previously recognized tabular cluster with orientation similar to a mainshock nodal plane; other aftershocks occurred 10-20 kilometers to the northeast. Detailed relocation of events in the main tabular cluster, and hundreds of focal mechanisms, indicate that it is not a single extensive fault, but instead is comprised of at least three and probably many more faults with variable orientation. A large percentage of the aftershocks occurred in regions of positive Coulomb static stress change and approximately 80% of the focal mechanism nodal planes were brought closer to failure. -
Evaluation of Automatic Hypocenter Determination in the JMA Unified
Tamaribuchi Earth, Planets and Space (2018) 70:141 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-018-0915-4 FULL PAPER Open Access Evaluation of automatic hypocenter determination in the JMA unifed catalog Koji Tamaribuchi* Abstract The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) unifed seismic catalog has been widely used for research and disaster pre- vention purposes for more than 20 years. Since the introduction in April 2016 of an improved method of automatic hypocenter determinations (PF method), the number of detected earthquakes has almost doubled due to a decrease in the completeness magnitude around the Tohoku region, where seismicity has been very active in the aftermath of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Automatically processed hypocenters of small events, accepted without manual modifcation, now make up approximately 70% of new events in the JMA unifed catalog. In this paper, we show that the introduction of automated processing did not systematically bias the quality of the JMA unifed catalog. Approxi- mately 90% of automatically processed hypocenters were less than 1 km from their manually reviewed locations in inland and shallow areas. We also considered the use of automated event characterization in real-time monitoring of earthquake sequences using the example of the April 2016 Kumamoto earthquake sequence, when the PF method could have supplied the catalog with about 70,000 events in real time over the course of 2 months. We show that the PF method is capable of monitoring the migration or expansion of the hypocentral distribution and can support sta- tistical analyses such as variations of the b-value distribution. Further improvements in automatic hypocenter deter- mination will contribute to a better understanding of seismicity as well as rapid risk assessment, especially in cases of swarms and aftershocks. -
Mamuju–Majene
Supendi et al. Earth, Planets and Space (2021) 73:106 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40623-021-01436-x EXPRESS LETTER Open Access Foreshock–mainshock–aftershock sequence analysis of the 14 January 2021 (Mw 6.2) Mamuju–Majene (West Sulawesi, Indonesia) earthquake Pepen Supendi1* , Mohamad Ramdhan1, Priyobudi1, Dimas Sianipar1, Adhi Wibowo1, Mohamad Taufk Gunawan1, Supriyanto Rohadi1, Nelly Florida Riama1, Daryono1, Bambang Setiyo Prayitno1, Jaya Murjaya1, Dwikorita Karnawati1, Irwan Meilano2, Nicholas Rawlinson3, Sri Widiyantoro4,5, Andri Dian Nugraha4, Gayatri Indah Marliyani6, Kadek Hendrawan Palgunadi7 and Emelda Meva Elsera8 Abstract We present here an analysis of the destructive Mw 6.2 earthquake sequence that took place on 14 January 2021 in Mamuju–Majene, West Sulawesi, Indonesia. Our relocated foreshocks, mainshock, and aftershocks and their focal mechanisms show that they occurred on two diferent fault planes, in which the foreshock perturbed the stress state of a nearby fault segment, causing the fault plane to subsequently rupture. The mainshock had relatively few after- shocks, an observation that is likely related to the kinematics of the fault rupture, which is relatively small in size and of short duration, thus indicating a high stress-drop earthquake rupture. The Coulomb stress change shows that areas to the northwest and southeast of the mainshock have increased stress, consistent with the observation that most aftershocks are in the northwest. Keywords: Mamuju–Majene, Earthquake, Relocation, Rupture, Stress-change Introduction mainshock from two of the nearest stations in Mamuju On January 14, 2021, a destructive earthquake (Mw 6.2) and Majene are 95.9 and 92.8 Gals, respectively, equiva- between Mamuju and Majene, West Sulawesi, Indonesia, lent to VI on the MMI scale (Additional fle 1: Figure S1). -
Earthquake Basics
RESEARCH DELAWARE State of Delaware DELAWARE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SERVICEGEOLOGICAL Robert R. Jordan, State Geologist SURVEY EXPLORATION SPECIAL PUBLICATION NO. 23 EARTHQUAKE BASICS by Stefanie J. Baxter University of Delaware Newark, Delaware 2000 CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION . 1 EARTHQUAKE BASICS What Causes Earthquakes? . 1 Seismic Waves . 2 Faults . 4 Measuring Earthquakes-Magnitude and Intensity . 4 Recording Earthquakes . 8 REFERENCES CITED . 10 GLOSSARY . 11 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Major tectonic plates, midocean ridges, and trenches . 2 2. Ground motion near the surface of the earth produced by four types of earthquake waves . 3 3. Three primary types of fault motion . 4 4. Duration Magnitude for Delaware Geological Survey seismic station (NED) located near Newark, Delaware . 6 5. Contoured intensity map of felt reports received after February 1973 earthquake in northern Delaware . 8 6. Model of earliest seismoscope invented in 132 A. D. 9 TABLES Table Page 1. The 15 largest earthquakes in the United States . 5 2. The 15 largest earthquakes in the contiguous United States . 5 3. Comparison of magnitude, intensity, and energy equivalent for earthquakes . 7 NOTE: Definition of words in italics are found in the glossary. EARTHQUAKE BASICS Stefanie J. Baxter INTRODUCTION Every year approximately 3,000,000 earthquakes occur worldwide. Ninety eight percent of them are less than a mag- nitude 3. Fewer than 20 earthquakes occur each year, on average, that are considered major (magnitude 7.0 – 7.9) or great (magnitude 8 and greater). During the 1990s the United States experienced approximately 28,000 earthquakes; nine were con- sidered major and occurred in either Alaska or California (Source: U.S. -
Induced Seismicity: the Potential for Triggered Earthquakes in Kansas Rex C
Kansas Geological Survey Public Information Circular 36 • April 2014 Induced Seismicity: The Potential for Triggered Earthquakes in Kansas Rex C. Buchanan, K. David Newell, Catherine S. Evans, and Richard D. Miller, Kansas Geological Survey Introduction Earthquake activity in the Earth’s crust is known as seismicity. When linked to human activities, it is commonly referred to as “induced seismicity.” Industries that have been associated with induced seismicity include oil and gas production, mining, geothermal energy production, construction, underground nuclear testing, and impoundment of large reservoirs (National Research Council, 2012). Nearly all instances of induced seismicity are not felt on the surface and do not cause damage. In the early 2000s, concern began to grow over an increase in the number of earthquakes in the vicinity of a few oil and gas exploration and production operations, particularly in Oklahoma, Arkansas, Ohio, Colorado, and Texas. Figure 1—Earthquake hazard maps show the probability that ground shaking, or motion, will Horizontal drilling in conjunction exceed a certain level, over a 50-year period. The low-hazard areas on this map have a 2% chance with hydraulic fracturing has often of exceeding a low level of shaking and the high-hazard areas have a 2% chance of topping a much been singled out for blame in the greater level of shaking (modified from USGS, 2008). public discourse. Hydraulic fracturing, popularly called “fracking,” does of wells currently in operation have recorded near disposal wells starting cause extremely low-level seismicity, been suspected of inducing earthquakes in September 2013, about three years too small to be felt, as do explosions large enough to be felt or cause damage after horizontal drilling activities in the associated with quarrying, mining, dam (National Research Council, 2012). -
On the Foreshocks of Strong Earthquakes in the Light of Catastrophe Theory
On the foreshocks of strong earthquakes in the light of catastrophe theory A. V. Guglielmi1, A. L. Sobisevich1, L. E. Sobisevich1, and I. P. Lavrov2, 1 Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia 2 Borok Geophysical Observatory, Schmidt Institute of Physics of the Earth, Russian Academy of Sciences, Borok, Yaroslavl oblast, Russia E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstract It is useful to consider the earthquakes in terms of catastrophe theory. In the paper, we illustrate this statement by analysis foreshocks preceding the strong earthquakes. We focused on the so-called catastrophe flags, and on the triggers that cause the critical transitions. The analysis shows a sharp increase of foreshock activity 3 h before the mainshock. This result is reminiscent of the well-known activation of the ULF magnetic precursors of earthquakes. Furthermore, we found that the characteristic frequency of foreshock sequence decreases a few hours before the mainshock, which is consistent with a prediction of the catastrophe theory. Finally, the analysis testifies that the strong foreshocks seems may be triggers of mainshocks. The idea is that the surface waves propagating outwards from the foreshock return back to the vicinity of the epicenter after having made a complete revolution around the Earth and induce there the mainshock. Keywords: catastrophe flags, triggers, round-the-world seismic echo, ULF magnetic precursors. PACS: 91.30.-f Contents 1. Introduction 2. Activization of foreshocks before earthquake 3. Softening of spectrum of the foreshock sequence 4. Endogenous and exogenous triggers 5.