FATHER SHANNON is president of the College of St. Thomas at St. Paid. The present article is drawn from his doctoral dissertation on the subject of "Catholic Colonization on the Western Frontier." It has been revised for publication and will be issued by Yale University Press in April.

BISHOP IRELAND'S Connemara Experiment

JAMES P. SHANNON

IN THE DECADE immediately following Graceville in Big Stone County — is in the Civil War, leaders in Minnesota who reality an insignificant part of the story of hoped to attract new settlers to the young- Catholic colonization in ^Minnesota, state had the advantage of knowing in de­ It is, of course, undeniable that the tail how states farther east had managed twenty-four families of destitute peasants to control and direct the westward migra­ brought directly from Connemara in tions of the 1840s and 1850s. Hence in the County Galway, Ireland, to Minnesota by 1870s when Bishop John Ireland of St. Bishop Ireland in the spring of 1880 were Paul proposed the opening of several Cath­ almost complete faflures on the land. It is olic colonies on railroad land in western regrettable, however, that the dramatic Minnesota, he was in reality foflowing a overtones in the failure of the Connemaras plan which had already been tried and have proved too great a temptation to proved by the state of Wisconsin and by many writers. There is something pecul­ such enterprising railroads as the Illinois iarly attractive about the narration of mis­ Central and the Northern Pacific.^ fortune. When it is used in the writing of Ireland's settlement program, begun in history, this human fascination with ca­ 1875 and concluded in 1881, was the most lamity has often produced startling but extensive and successful wholesale Catholic distorted and inaccurate portrayals. colonization effort in American history and One recent example of this type of his­ deserves comparison with the more famous tory erroneously calls the Connemara inci­ Mormon project in Utah. Unfortunately, dent typical of the "failure" which marked that portion of Ireland's program which afl the Catholic colonies in Minnesota, but has been most discussed and publicized — does not indicate that the Connemara the failure of the Connemara group at group constituted only a tiny fraction of the four thousand families who settled in ^Paul W. Gates, The Illinois Central Railroad and the Catholic colonies of Minnesota and Its Colonization Work, 188-194 (Cambridge, 1931); Theodore C. Blegen, "The Competition of the North­ stayed to become successful farmers. The western States for Immigrants," in Wisconsin Maga­ work in question dismisses the entire Min­ zine of History, 3:4-13 (September, 1920); James B, nesota project of Bishop Ireland in three Hedges, "The Colonization Work of the Northern Pacific Railroad," in Mississippi Valley Historical Re­ sentences: "John Ireland . . did not get view. 13:311 (December, 1926), very far [in the work of colonization], be-

March 1957 205 he found there, and "He decided that something radical was needed, that the country was growing less able year by year to support its population." ^ He found some Irish families paying an annual rent of five pounds for three- or five-acre plots so wretched that they af­ forded the tenants nothing more than a place to live. He reasoned that if means could be found to evacuate a hundred of these famflies, the remaining residents of the Connemara district of Galway would be able to survive by dividing the meager land holdings of those who had emigrated. He wrote to Bishops Ireland of St. Paul and James O'Connor of Omaha to ask if fifty such famflies could be sponsored in Minnesota and fifty in Nebraska. O'Con­ nor replied that he could not accept desti­ tute famflies in his Nebraska settlements. Ireland wrote Nugent that it was contrary to all the rules of successful colonization to BISHOP John Ireland accept indigent settlers and doubly dan­ cause by then it was too late. ... In 1880 gerous to accept persons who were not ac­ he induced three hundred fishermen from customed to farm life in America. Before Donegal to migrate to Minnesota, where it refusing Nugent's request, however, he ap­ is hardly surprising that they proved fail­ pealed to the people of Minnesota, through ures as farmers. What should have been the columns of the Northwestern Chronicle, done was not to bring over more immi­ for financial help to underwrite the cost of grants from Ireland but to induce those bringing fifty Irish famflies to western Min­ already in the great cities to settle on the nesota. This appeal brought in five thou­ land." The true story is quite different from sand dollars.' this account.^ With more optimism than this modest sum warranted, and assured by several EARLY IN 1880, when the effects of the raflroads that his Connemaras would be crop failure of 1879 were beginning to be transported without charge from Boston to felt in the poorer districts of western Ire­ St. Paul, Ireland cabled Nugent to send land, one Irish pastor in Galway wrote to fifty famflies to Boston. In 1879 the Catho­ Father James Nugent, a prominent social lic Colonization Bureau of St. Paul, the reformer and Irish leader in Liverpool: organization administering Ireland's settle­ "This locality is not fit for human habita­ ment project, had secured an option on tion. Not more than a third of the present population can live in any sort of comfort ° Theodore Maynard, The Catholic Church and the on the land." In answer to this and similar American Idea, 121 (New York, 1953). ' Humphrey Moynihan, "Archbishop Ireland's Col­ pleas, Nugent solicited contributions from onies," in Acta et Dicta, 6:221 (October, 1934); Ed­ his friends in Liverpool and crossed over ward K. Bennett, Father Nugent of Liverpool. 101 to the West of Ireland to distribute the alms (Liverpool, 1949). •' Northwestern Chronicle, March 20, 1880, The thus collected. Unfortunately, his resources Chronicle was the ofRcial paper of the diocese of St. were not sufficient to relieve the distress Paul from 1866 to 1900.

206 :MIN NESOTA History fifty thousand acres of the St, Paul and O'Brien, executive secretary of the coloni­ Pacific Railroad's land grant in Big Stone zation bureau, met the ship at Boston and and Traverse counties and a promise of escorted the group to Minnesota. At the lenient credit terms from James J. Hifl. sight of the destitute emigrant band, his Ireland was thus in a position to promise worst fears were confirmed, and his son each of the Irish families a generous credit later wrote that "the kindly but visionary plan for the purchase of its own farm at an Father Nugent . . . [had chosen] from the average price of four dollars an acre. The most congested districts not the competent bishop instructed Major Ben Thompson, but the incompetent; not the industrious his agent in Big Stone County, to reserve but the shiftless; a group composed of fifty farms of 160 acres each for these set­ mendicants who knew nothing of farming, tlers, and to build a small frame house and and were entirely unfitted to cope with life break five acres of sod for each farm.'^ upon the American prairie." " O'Brien was careful, however, not to ex­ THE CONNEMARAS, "three hundred press his fears about the group's future, and nine in number, not one of whom prob­ and he confidently predicted to a news­ ably had ever put his hand to a plough, paper reporter, "It does look bad, but I'll embarked on board the 'Austrian' at the wager a new hat that before twenty years port of Galway," on June 11, 1880, and some of these same people will come to landed at Boston on June 22. Dillon Boston dressed in broadcloth; that they put up at your best hotel and eat at the '^ Catholic Colonization Bureau of St. Paul, Catho­ best table in the house." In spite of his con­ lic Colonization in Minnesota, 45 (Revised Edition, St. Paul, 1879); Northwestern Chronicle, January 15, fident prediction, O'Brien's fears were to be 1876; John P. O'Connor to M. J. McDonnell, March realized within twenty months, not twenty 29, 1889, St. Paul Chancery Archives, Diocesan Let­ years.'' ters, 1888-89, p. 105; Sister Mary Evangela Hen­ thorne, The Irish Catholic Colonization Association In Chicago, O'Brien and his charges were of the United States, 109, 111 (Champaign, Illinois, met by William J. Onahan, secretary of the 1932). St. Patrick's Society in that city, who pro­ "Moynihan, in Acta et Dicta, 6:221; Thomas D. O'Brien, "Dillon O'Brien," in Acta et DicU, 6:50 vided them with warm meals and some new (October, 1933). This account was written by clothing. Onahan was appalled at the pov­ O'Brien's son and was based on family reminiscences erty and suffering which were evident of the older man's private remarks on the settlers from Connemara. in these people: "The famine was visible in 'Henthorne, Catholic Colonization, 110. their pinched and emaciated faces, and

OPENING the Morris line of the St. Paul and Pacific, 1873

March 1957 207 in the shriveled limbs — they could scarcely Bishop Ireland secured employment in the be called legs and arms — of the chfldren. city for forty-five young men and thirty- Their features were quaint, and the entire five young women. Very likely the latter company was squalid and wretched. It was were mostly employed as domestics. When a painful revelation to all who witnessed the main body of the settlers reached it.''« Graceville, Bishop Ireland instructed each In a private letter to Bishop O'Connor, of the families already established in the Onahan promptly voiced his doubts about colony to take one immigrant family into the fitness of the Connemara group for its home until all the new homes were com­ western settlement, and warned the bishop pleted. There the friction started. Several to be prepared for further pleas from of the earlier colonists objected to the dirty Father Nugent on behalf of other such con­ clothes, rough speech, and offensive man­ tingents from Ireland: "Father Nugent is ners of the newcomers. One prominent lady not content to rest with the one experi­ in Gracevflle announced bluntly that she ment of fifty famflies of the Connemara would not receive such people in her home. people he lately sent over.'* He is eager to Fortunately, most of the new houses were send the other 50 to Nebraska and he writes soon ready, and the Connemaras moved me pressing strongly for cooperation. I had into their own quarters." my share of trouble with the Minnesota At the expense of the colonization bu­ contingent, nearly 300 in number, last reau, each of the new famflies was given week, and though I would not shirk any a supply of clothing, the necessary articles duty in regard to aiding my poor country­ of house furnishings, farming implements, men I most sincerely hope I shall have no a year's supply of seed, and credit at Grace­ such task again. A more wretched lot of vflle for a year's supply of food. They people I never saw, and their condition at reached the farms in 1880 in time for spring home must have been deplorable. I would planting, and the prospects for a heavy not care to say publicly but I am convinced grain crop were good. There was also at they would ruin the prospects of any col­ that time ample opportunity for the men ony into which they would find an en­ in the newly arrived famflies to secure em­ trance. I do not wish to give the reasons ployment as day laborers. Prosperous farm­ for this opinion — they would not be to ers among the earlier arrivals were paying the credit of the Connemara Emigrants. hired men wages of one doflar and fifty Despite these convictions I applaud Fr. cents to two doflars a day. The western ex­ Nugent for his work and Bp. Ireland for tension of the St. Cloud and Lake Traverse his cooperation. For these people any Raflroad from Morris was coming closer change is a boon and a blessing and it is each day. The farmers had the assurance God's work to help them. If land can be of a rail terminal and grain elevator in obtained for them apart from the colonies their colony before harvest time in 1880. and aid given them as in the late experi­ ment, wefl and good. I write this as likely ^Catholic Review, January 1, 1881, quoted in Hen­ Fr. Nugent wifl address you on the subject. thorne, Catholic Colonization. 110. We can get plenty of emigrants from Ire­ "Exactly how many Irish families arrived at Bos­ ton is not known. Some settled in St. Paul, and only land . . who, besides possessing means, twenty-four families actually reached Graceville, wfll also have the other necessary qualities '" Onahan to O'Connor, July 1, 1880, Chancery — which I am sorry to say the late emi­ Archives, Omaha, Nebraska. "Henthorne, Catholic Colonization, 111. Mrs. grants seem to be wholly lacking." ^^ Maurice Greene was so disturbed by the sight of the Connemara people "fighting like animals" that she refused them admission to her home. Interview with DELEGATIONS of citizens met O'Brien Sister Grace Aurelia, C,S,J„ a daughter ot Mrs, and his band of immigrants in St. Paul, and Greene, September 5, 1953.

208 MINNESOTA History Moreover, construction on the new line offered additional opportunities for employ­ ment for those new settlers who needed ready cash. Nearly every famfly among the newcomers had at least one member working in St. Paul and earning enough to be able to send home some money each month. All in all, the prospects for the lit­ tle band looked very good.^- As might have been expected. Bishop Ireland was not at all disposed to hear any criticism of these Irish settlers or pessi­ A home on the prairie mism about their prospects as farmers. He urged O'Brien and Major Thompson to do He was displeased to discover that some all they could to make adjustment easier members of this group did not look for­ for the settlers, and promised the people ward to a life of farming, but were content that he would be most patient with them in to take their places as day laborers in the any difficulties they might experience in community. And what was worse, several their new homes. The bishop looked on the of them indicated that they were not satis­ Irish settlers as a test of his grand plan of fied with the treatment they were receiving colonization. He knew that their back­ from their employers, particularly with the grounds as fishermen and garden farmers "low" pay scale of one dollar and fifty cents handicapped them for large-scale farming to two dollars a day. Ireland's answer was in the West. Nonetheless, he fondly hoped prompt and effective. He immediately in­ that they might, with his extensive aid, augurated at Graceville a system of public become successful farmers and thus sflence works, financed by the diocese, offering any nativist critics who held that foreign- day-laboring jobs to all comers at a dollar born settlers made second-rate citizens or a day. He also announced that any man third-rate farmers."^^ who could not find employment to suit him in the public works program or on the DURING the first summer no signs of colony farms would have his credit for pro­ trouble appeared among the Connemaras. visions in Graceville cut off.^* Day-laboring jobs were plentiful, and a It was obvious to the bishop, if not to good growing season promised an abundant his proteges, that day-laboring jobs would harvest. In September, 1880, Ireland and never bring in enough money to enable the John Lancaster Spalding, bishop of Peoria, colonists to pay for their farms. And at the toured the Minnesota colonies and in­ basis of the entire colonization program spected the Graceville settlement with par­ lay the assumption that individual owner­ ticular care. Ireland later recafled that he ship of land gave a man status and secu­ personafly visited more than a hundred of rity. For Ireland, it was unthinkable that the four hundred homes in the colony. He any colonists could seriously consider living found no evidence of any want or suffering on farms without working the land. Earlier but he did sense an uneasy atmosphere of settlers in the Gracevflle colony, displaying discontent in the conversation of some of the energy and industry characteristic of the Connemara people. frontier areas, were at this time quickly paying off the debts incurred by their pur-. '^Henthorne, Catholic Colonization, 111-113; chase of railroad lands. The average price Northwestern Chronicle, September 11, 1880. of hard Minnesota wheat during these "Henthorne, Catholic Colonization, 113. '^'Northwestern Chronicle, September 11. 1880. years was a dollar a bushel, and it was not

March 1957 209 unusual for the Gracevifle lands to yield wheat, a particular type grown most suc­ twenty bushels to the acre. This meant that cessfully in western and southern Minne­ in an average year the yield from an acre sota, produced a superior grade of white of wheat sold for nearly five times the or­ flour. Wheat buyers, as early as 1876, had iginal cost of the land. The arrival of the announced that premium prices would be railroad and the erection of a grain elevator paid for afl Minnesota hard wheat deliv­ in Gracevflle assured the farmers that this ered at the Minneapolis mills.^^ This rising happy state of affairs was likely to continue market, the arrival of the raflroad, the in­ in the future.^^ creased export of American grain, and the The Connemaras, however, had never improvement of bonanza farming equip­ learned to think in terms of future crop ment— all augured well for the future. In prospects. During the summer of 1880 they the meantime, however, it took years of were content to hire themselves out to patient labor to get the western soil in con­ other farmers, satisfied with a small cash dition for intensive farming. But even when income at the end of each week, and pos­ this important qualification is taken into sibly reassured by the underlying convic­ account, the performance of the Conne­ tion that if they came on hard times Bishop maras as farmers stfll leaves much to be Ireland would support them. It was this desired. readiness on their part to receive relief that Some sold the seed given to them by the alarmed the bishop. Other colonists noticed colonization bureau. Others kept the seed the same traits and "the improvidence of but did not plant it. Stifl others picked the Connemaras quickly aroused the ire up cash by selling the farming tools they and indignation of the Gracevifle colony had received. It is small wonder that they and alienated sympathy from the new­ were totally unprepared for the unusuafly comers. ' early and severe winter of 1880. On their arrival the previous spring, they had been IN PARTIAL EXPLANATION of the warned by O'Brien of the severity of Min­ failure of this group, it should be observed nesota winters and had been instructed by that no farmer showed a profit during his Major Thompson that it would be neces­ first or second year in these colonies, be­ sary to sod the exterior foundations of their cause it took at least two years for him to frame houses as a protection against the break up a reasonably extensive portion cold. This many of them neglected to do. of the unusually hard and tough prairie Once winter was upon them, it was not long sod. "Breaking" was a most arduous proc­ before reports of great suffering began to ess. Sometimes it was done with huge emanate from the Connemara section of breaking plows, drawn by four oxen, or the Gracevifle colony. Bishop Ireland ap­ with heavy stoneboats, equipped with pealed to his people in St. Paul, and man­ steel prongs to break up the sod. Several aged to send the settlers about six hundred trips with these implements were required dollars each month during their period of before a given patch of sod turned over. It was then necessary to leave the upturned '^ Henrietta Larson, The Wheat Martcet and the sod exposed to the elements for a whole Farmer in Minnesota, 1858-1900, 161 (New York, 1928); Catholic Colonization in Minnesota, 45-47; year before it would rot and break up. If a O'Connor to McDonnell, March 29, 1889, St. Paul man could turn and break ten acres a year, Chancery Archives, Diocesan Letters, 1888-89, p. 105. he was doing well.^'' "'Moynihan, in Acta et Dicta, 6:221. See also James J, Reardon, The Catholic Church in the Dio­ But time, of course, was working for the cese of St. Paul, 242 (St, Paul, 1952). settlers. Minneapolis had already become "Benson Times, June 5, 1876. "Letter of Dillon O'Brien in the Anti-Monopolist an important mifling center, and it had (St. Paul), reprinted in the Benson Times, February been discovered that Minnesota hard 23, 1876.

210 MINNESOTA History greatest need. He also dispatched O'Brien toes were frozen, they had plainly omitted to Gracevflle to administer these funds and to dig cellars for their protection. If, per­ to advise the Connemaras what was ex­ haps, they suffered from the lack of fuel, it pected of them under the terms of their must be remembered that they suffered in agreements with the colonization bureau. common with the prairie population of the O'Brien later publicly expressed his dis­ extreme northwest generally." ^° appointment with the Irish settlers: "Last winter when the snow was too deep for WHEN officials of the colony chided the horses and sleighs, the other farmers in the Connemara settlers for spurning the means colony bought flour . . . and drew it by of existence offered by Bishop Ireland, the hand on sleds over the snow to their homes. offenders replied, "the Bishop brought us The Connemara men would not take the here and he must care for us." Reports of flour away, although to them it was a free suffering within the colony began to multi­ gift. Some of the farmers, when a sum was ply. Soon a group of citizens from Morris, offered them to carry the flour to the a small town twenty-five miles east of homes of the Connemara men, said they Gracevflle, charged Ireland and O'Brien were willing enough to make a dollar, but with neglecting the Irish immigrants. Pub­ that they would not turn their hands to lic sympathy for the settlers increased benefit such a lazy people." " when similar charges were made by the Writing on the same topic in the Chicago St. Paul Pioneer Press. It was especiallj' Tribune, Onahan also complained of the painful to O'Brien, whose death was to oc­ improvidence and laziness of the Conne­ cur within a year and who had given his mara crowd: "If their shanties were cold, life to the cause of Irish immigrant aid, to it was because they neglected to sod them realize that his countrymen could display as they were advised to do. If their pota- such ingratitude for the favors they had received.-^ ^New York Sun, quoted in Catholic Review, Bishop Ireland quickly convinced the March 26, 1881. See also Henthorne, Catholic Coloni­ zation, 113. editor of the Pioneer Press that his cred­ ™ Chicago Tribune, quoted in Catholic Review, ence of the Morris reports was not justi­ January 1, 1881. fied. The issue of the Press for December °"^ Moynihan, in Acta et Dicta. 6:222; Henthorne, Catholic Colonization, 113; Pioneer Press, December 22, 1880, carried an explanatory letter from 21, 1881; O'Brien, in Acta et Dicta, 6:51. Ireland and a carefully worded editorial on

FROM HARPER'S WEEKLY, MAY 9, 1868

i a. ,w,i *TEVM _^ a„^

BREAKING the prairie sod the whole affair: "Bishop Ireland's letter finally arranged to distribute among neigh­ on the subject of the Connemara colony bors the cattle assigned to the Galway wfll be read with great interest. He freely immigrants." With the departure of the admits that he has got an elephant on his Connemaras, peace returned to the Grace­ hands in these twenty-four families. In vifle colony, and it went on to become one transporting them as an act of charity, of Bishop Ireland's most successful Catho­ from the wfld mountains of Galway to lic settlements.-^ homes on the prairies of Minnesota, he supposed they were, like most of the Irish IN SPITE OF the smafl numbers involved, emigrants to this State, an industrious and the adverse effect of the Connemara ex­ thrifty, though in this case a poverty- periment on the entire colonization move­ stricken people. He found that they were ment was nation-wide. In a letter to Bishop mostly paupers and beggars. . . He had O'Connor of Nebraska, one eastern sponsor a tough problem before him. ... A little of the colonization movement remarked, "I reflection on the nature of the materials the see the Connemara colonists have badly bishop has to deal with, and on the meth­ repaid the trouble taken to provide them ods absolutely necessary to convert them comfortable homes. Bishop Ireland must from incorrigible beggars into industrious, feel a good deal disheartened about the self-supporting men and women, wifl en­ work." At the same time one Father H. A. able their American neighbors at Morris to O'Kelly, who was touring the parishes of understand that they have not been so New York City in search of settlers for the cruelly dealt with as was imagined." Catholic colonies in Nebraska, wrote to Investigation in Gracevflle showed that Bishop O'Connor: "Since my coming I some of the complaining settlers had hid­ have secured about nine or ten families and den extra food and clothing in a vain at­ I feel confident I would have double the tempt to prove to the investigators that number were it not for that unfortunate they were suffering acutely. The North­ Connemara affair. It completely demoral­ western Chronicle for December, 1880, and ized many who were contemplating emi­ January, 1881, carried extensive reports on grating to the West. I have spoken in most Graceville and cleared the colony sponsors of the Churches of New York [City]. I am of any responsibflity for the hardships suf­ inclined to think my labors wfll bear more fered by these few famflies.^^ fruit a year hence than at present." ^* Having cleared his name with the gen­ Onahan also told O'Connor of the bad eral public, Ireland turned to the task of press caused by the Connemara affair: "I providing further help for the Connemara was last week in Minnesota. ... I saw settlers. Since these unfortunate people had Bishop Ireland. He has recovered from the shown some eagerness to work for daily Connemara events and thinks that cries wages, and since the city of St. Paul was wifl be heard no more. It was a bad busi­ growing rapidly, it was agreed that they ness here and elsewhere for colonization — should give up their farms and look for though I think the effect wifl not be perma­ work in the city. The bishop paid their nent, except possibly as affecting immigra­ transportation to St. Paul, and secured jobs tion to Minnesota." ^^ for some of them with the railroad compa­ nies which were then hiring many workers. °" Moynihan, in Acta et Dicta, 6:222; Northwest­ ern Chronicle, December 18, 25, 1880, January 8, 15, Most of these settlers took up residence in 1881. what came to be known as the "Conne­ ^Reardon, Catholic Church in St. Paul, 242; mara Patch" in St. Mary's parish on the Moynihan, in Acta et Dicta, 6:222. flats along Phalen Creek under Dayton's ""Mrs. E. A, Quinn to O'Connor, January 12, 1881, and O'Kelly to O'Connor, January 8, 1881, both in Bluff. Back in Gracevifle, "Bishop Ireland Omaha Chancery Archives, 212 MINNESOTA History THE Connemara Patch, St. Paul, 1925

Dillon O'Brien's son believed that the other Irish settlers who went to Minnesota strain and disappointment resulting from by stages after earlier periods of residence the Connemara incident contributed greatly and farming in New York, Ohio, or Indi­ to the sudden death of his father in 1880. ana, suggests that the very process of mi­ Monsignor Humphrey Moynihan, who in gration, especially of repeated moves, has later years served as Ireland's secretary, been in itself an important factor in deter­ summarized the effect of the affair on the mining the character of the American fron­ archbishop: "In the undesirable promi­ tier. nence attained by this insignificant group It is worthy of note that the Connemara of born beggars the public at large seemed settlers at Gracevflle went to Minnesota to overlook the existence of hundreds of not primarily because of any particular happy homes dotting the prairies for miles good foreseen there, but rather to escape around Gracevflle. That the disastrous rec­ an evfl at home — in this instance, famine. ord of the Connemaras caused untold pain And since they did not immigrate in search and humfliation to the best benefactor of a particular advantage to be found in Catholic colonists had in America, need not Minnesota, it made no appeal to them on be emphasized. Indeed, Archbishop Ireland their arrival. They were in no way pre­ confided to Mr. Wflliam O'Nefll, one of the pared to appreciate the opportunities which most prominent members of the Graceville the western region then offered. The same community, that the incident was the possibilities awaited the Connemaras which greatest grief of his life." -''' had already enriched many enterprising farmers, but the Irish settlers in this group WITHIN the Minnesota colonies estab­ were unable to respond to the challenge of lished by Ireland, the sharp contrast be­ the almost free land on the frontier. Their tween the faflure of the colonists brought conduct would seem to confirm the opinion directly from Ireland and the success of that the frontier does not have the same effect on afl, but that its much-emphasized "influence" depends upon the specific con­ '"Onahan to O'Connor, February 24, 1881, Omaha Chancery Archives. ditioning and the receptivity of the settlers ""Moynihan, in Acta et Dicta, 6:222. who come within its environment.

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