467 Eglon (Place) 468 ites, thereby magnifying his importance. He not (Person) only subjugated the Israelites but reduced them to The second of the four sons of Ham mentioned in poverty for 18 years. Ehud (Ioud, Ιδης) told him Gen 10 : 6 is called Miṣrayim (Egypt). As the de- that he had a dream to disclose to him by order of scendents of Ham are regarded as the forebears of God, which made him leap from his throne in joy. the southern peoples, Miṣrayim is a personification In the few rabbinic sources that mention him, of the land of Egypt. He is also the father of Ludim, however, he is largely redeemed. He is taken to be Anamim, Lehabim, and Naphtuhim (Gen 10 : 13), the father (or grandfather) of virtuous and of which may also be regarded as personifications of . Always anxious to discover genealogical peoples and tribes situated in and around links between biblical characters, the midrash as- Memphis (Naphtuhim). sumes that upper class Bethlehemites like Elime- Bibliography: ■ Lipin´ ski, É., “Les Chamites selon Gen lech’s sons would only have married Moabite 10,6–10 et 1Chr 1,8–16,” ZAH 3 (1990) 40–53. ■ Winnett, women if they were royalty. Thus the women must F. V., “The Arabian Genealogies in the ,”in be the daughters of Eglon, the Moabite king known Translating & Understanding the ,FSH.G.May from Judges. He is honored with Ruth as a daugh- (ed. H. T. Frank/W. L. Reed; Nashville, Tenn. 1970) 171– ter as a reward for his having honored God. Though 96. the biblical text has Eglon rise from his seat when Mareike V. Blischke Ehud approaches, the midrash reads this as an ac- See also /Ham (Person) knowledgment of God: “Rising from your throne in deference to Me [Judg 3 : 20], you accorded me honor. As you live I shall cause to rise out of you a Egypt Exploration Society son [i.e., ] whom I will seat on My throne” /Institutes of Near Eastern Research (RutR 2 : 4). Another midrash links Solomon, who “sat on the throne of the Lord” (1 Chr 29 : 23) as Eglon’s reward for having arisen from his seat (e.g., Egypt, Ancient bSan 60a). Still another tradition makes Eglon the grandfa- I. History and Civilization II. Hebrew / Old Testament ther of Goliath through Orpah. Because Orpah had III. New Testament led a profligate life, Goliath was jeered at as “the IV. Judaism son of a hundred fathers and one mother.” So com- V. bining these traditions, it would appear that Eglon VI. Islam was the ancestor of both David and Goliath reflect- VII. Literature ing perhaps the ongoing Jewish ambivalence about VIII. Visual Arts IX. Music David’s Moabite ancestry. X. Film Bibliography: ■ Bialik, H.N./Y. H. Ravnitzky (eds.), The Book of Legends: Sefer ha- (trans. W. G. Braude; New York I. History and Civilization 1992); trans. of id., Sefer ha-Aggadah, 6 parts in 3 vols. ■ History ■ The Jews in Egypt during the Second (Krakow 1907–10). ■ Ginzberg, L., The Legends of the Jews,7 Temple and Hellenistic Period ■ Christianity in Egypt vols. (Philadelphia, Pa. 1909–38). [See vol. 4] ■ Rabinowitz, (Until 500 CE) ■ Archaeology ■ Texts ■ Society L. (trans.), Midrash Rabbah: Ruth (London 1939). ■ Religion ■ Culture and Arts ■ Relations with Syro- Robert L. Cohn Palestine See also /Ehud; /Ehud and Eglon, Story of A. History Early Dynastic (2920–2575 BCE). History begins with written records. Written records presuppose a soci- Eglon (Place) ety that is sufficiently large and specialized to have Eglon is the name of a Canaanite royal city de- a scribal class. Egypt has one of the earliest societies stroyed by the Israelites (Josh 10 : 34–35) and allot- keeping records. Before the advent of writing, a ted then to the tribe of Judah (Josh 15 : 39). Its loca- number of different cultures are present in the tion is uncertain. The identification with Tell el-Hesi valley. Writing appears at the beginning of a uni- is disputed. Other candidates are Tell Beit Mirsim fied state, the founding of Memphis, and burial of and Tell Aitun. rulers at Abydos. Most developments in Egyptian civilization ■ Bibliography: Blakely, J. A./F. L. Horton, “On Site Identi- seem to be native, but indications of Mesopotamian fications Old and New: The Example of Tell el-Hesi,” Near influence include decorative clay cones, niched fa- Eastern Archaeology 64/1–2 (2001) 24–36. cades on monumental architecture, cylinder seals, Klaas Spronk Sumerian style dress in iconography, and fantastical See also /Eton, Tel beasts with intertwining necks. Contact with the

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 469 Egypt, Ancient 470

Levant occurs early and conflict is attested as early controlled by with Egyptian names. The as the First Dynasty king Den. 13th Dynasty depicted itself as a continuation of Old Kingdom (2575–2134 BCE). The Early Dynastic the Middle Kingdom, but the individual kings of- Period ends when Egyptian society reached a state ten had very short reigns. One of the surviving pa- of organization such that it could erect truly mas- pyri from the 13th Dynasty shows an influx of for- sive structures: the pyramids. The first pyramid was eigners at the beginning of the dynasty. The 14th the step pyramid of Djoser. Later pharaohs, such as Dynasty in the delta had fewer rulers, and they have Sneferu, Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus, devel- Semitic names. The 14th Dynasty is followed by the oped the design further. The manpower necessary 15th Dynasty which is the only dynasty specifically for constructing the pyramids entailed placing a 2.5 labeled as Hyksos. The 17th Dynasty, which fol- ton stone every two–three minutes for the entire lowed the 13th, fought against the 15th Dynasty reign of the king. This required the organization of and eventually turned into the 18th Dynasty and construction crews, levying of corvey labor, requisi- the New Kingdom. tioning of supplies. Sources for the Second Intermediate Period are Conflict with the Levant was regular through- more fragmentary (Ryholt), either because they pro- out the Old Kingdom starting in the 4th Dynasty. duced less historical material or because later Egyp- First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 BCE). Although tian regimes (particularly the 18th Dynasty) deliber- later propaganda depicts the First Intermediate Pe- ately effaced the records of the time. If the biblical riod as a time of chaos, the contemporary documen- figure of carries the memory of the influx tation tells a different story. Archaeologically there of Semites into Egypt at the beginning of the Sec- was a rise in prosperity. Instead of wealth being ond Intermediate Period, a person like Abraham concentrated in the capital, places away from the likely would have interacted with the delta phar- capital show increased affluence. aohs of the 14th Dynasty, who have scarcely left even their names. The systematic destruction of Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BCE). At the end of the 14th and 15th Dynasty material by the later 18th First Intermediate Period, a family of rulers from Thebes reunited Egypt by conquest under Nebhepe- Dynasty have made historical reconstruction diffi- tre Mentuhotep II. His line soon ended and the vi- cult. zier Amenemhet became the starting the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE). Toward the end of 12th Dynasty. the Second Intermediate Period, rulers from Thebes Amenemhet I was assassinated, but his son Se- launched a concerted campaign to expel the Hyksos sostris I succeeded to the throne. Sesostris ex- rulers. Thutmosis I invaded the Levant beginning panded the borders especially to the south in Nu- an Egyptian empire specifically modeled after the bia, which served as a conduit for exotic goods from Middle Kingdom (his throne name meant “great is Africa, and gave Egypt access to the Nubian gold Sesostris I”). Thutmosis III expanded and consoli- mines (the word Nubia comes from the Egyptian dated the empire stretching from the 5th Cataract term for gold). Sesostris I showed little tolerance of the Nile in Nubia to the Euphrates. This empire for religious practices that deviated from his idea of continued through the reign of Ramses II. Egypt what was proper, e.g., burning priests alive if they was at the height of its wealth and power. The El did not follow the rites properly. Amenemhet II is Amarna tablets show an empire of squabbling petty noted for his foundation deposit at Tod which con- kinglets with a minimal military presence. Starting tained silver Mycenaean Kamares ware and Ur III in under Ramses II, invasions first by the Hittites lapis lazuli cylinder seals, showing the import of and then by the Sea Peoples and the Libyans forced luxury items. Egypt to relinquish its empire and defend its bor- During the reign of Sesostris III (or possibly Se- ders. About the same time, they lost their gold sostris II), Egypt invaded the Upper Levant and mines in Nubia. By that point, Egypt tended to took over Byblos, and Ulaza (Allen). Egyptian back the loser in international conflicts. Towards sphinxes dating from the reign of Amenemhet III the end of the New Kingdom, it suffered from high have been found at Aleppo and Ugarit, while Egyp- inflation and scarcity of food supplies. tian artifacts have also been found in Middle While the Bible narrates an Israelite exodus Bronze II levels at Ebla. The northern Levant seems from Egypt, this does not appear in Egyptian to have received more attention than the southern records because (1) Egyptians only recorded military Levant. The Egyptian empire seems to have disap- victories, not defeats; (2) slaves are almost never peared after the reign of Amenemhet III. Under mentioned in stelae, which are only commissioned Amenemhet IV, Egypt’s Middle Kingdom Asian em- by the upper classes; (3) no legible papyri dating to pire seems to have vanished. the New Kingdom have been recovered from the Second Intermediate Period (1640–1532 BCE). With delta. the collapse of the Middle Kingdom, Egypt frag- Libyan Period (1069–715 BCE). At the end of the New mented into delta kingdoms controlled by Phar- Kingdom, Libyan tribes began to move into Egypt, aohs with foreign names, and Nile valley kingdoms and at the end of the New Kingdom, Libyan rulers

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 471 Egypt, Ancient 472 took over the kingship. Even under Smendes, the property of the emperor. Most of the tax revenue founder of the 21st Dynasty, the country fractured was taken to Rome to fund the Roman welfare into northern and southern kingdoms and became state. Roman support of the temples largely ended more fractured later on. Because Egypt was no after the reign of Antoninus Pius and by the 3rd longer unified, it rarely was able to invade much century most of them were abandoned. Egyptian less conquer the Levant as a buffer zone, allowing temple libraries show a willingness to borrow sto- and Judah to exist as independent entities. ries, rituals, and other elements of Jewish and Libyan dynasts appointed chief military officers Christian faiths. through nepotism which prevented Egyptians from Byzantine Period (395–641 CE). Between the end of being able to use the military for upward social mo- the 3rd century and the beginning of the 5th, Egypt bility; consequently Egypt ceased to be a consistent was converted from being mostly non-Christian to military power. mostly Christian. By the second half of the 4th cen- Nubian Period (747–656 BCE). The Nubian Piye at tury, most of the Egyptian priests had to find other the command of conquered the fractured occupations. At the end of the 4th century, Chris- Libyans and reunited Egypt. The Nubian invasion, tian clergy incited riots, destroying many of the which would have occurred during the time of Isa- Egyptian temples and assassinating many of the re- iah and Hezekiah, put an end to the situation de- maining priests. scribed in where brother fought against Within a century of the removal of the capital of brother (Isa 19 : 2). The Nubian period ended when the Roman Empire to Byzantium, the monophysite the Assyrians conquered Egypt under Esarhaddon Egyptian church was anathematized at the Council and Ashurbanipal. of Chalcedon (451 CE), the year before the last dated Saite Period (664–525 BCE). When the Assyrian army hieroglyphic and demotic graffiti were left at Phi- left, Psammetichus I took control of Egypt and lae. This council served to alienate Egypt from the started the 26th Dynasty with the help of Greek rest of the empire. While Theodosius I closed most mercenaries. Judah often allied itself with Egypt, of the Egyptian temples in 391 CE, the last one, but when Josiah rejected that alliance, Necho killed Philae, was finally closed by Justinian I in 550 CE. him and replaced his son Jehoahaz with a more Bibliography: ■ Allen, J. P., “The Historical Inscription of friendly Jehoiakim (2 Kgs 23 : 29–37). With the fall Khnumhotep at Dahshur,” BASOR 352 (2008) 29–39. of , many inhabitants from Judah fled ■ Assmann, J., The Mind of Egypt (New York 2002). ■ Ben- into Egypt and settled there, being the first of many Tor, D. et al., “Seals and Kings,” BASOR 315 (1999) 47–74. waves of Jewish settlement in Egypt (cf. Jer 41–44). ■ Bennett, C., “A Genealogical Chronology of the Seven- Persian Period (525–332 BCE). When the Persians teenth Dynasty,” JARCE 39 (2002) 123–55. ■ Broekman, G. P. F. et al., The Libyan Period in Egypt (Leuven 2009). conquered Egypt they took many Egyptian stone ■ Kitchen, K. A., The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (Warm- masons to decorate Persepolis. While the Persians inster, Pa. 1986). ■ Redford, D. B., “Egypt and Western were popular with the Jews they were largely un- Asia in the Old Kingdom,” JARCE 23 (1986) 125–43. ■ Red- popular with the Egyptians, confiscating large por- ford, D. B., Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times (Prince- tions of the temple revenues. Jewish and Aramaic ton, N.J. 1992). ■ Ryholt, K. S. B., The Political Situation in mercenaries guarded the southern and western bor- Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period (Copenhagen 1997). ders. Records surviving show that at least some, and ■ Shaw, I., The Oxford History of (Oxford probably many, Jews assimilated to the larger Egyp- 2000). tian culture. Others established Jewish temples at John Gee places like Elephantine. B. The Jews in Egypt during the Second Ptolemaic Period (332–32 BCE). After conquering Temple and Hellenistic Period Egypt in 332 BCE, Alexander moved the capital At least since the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem, from Memphis to Alexandria. Alexandria eventu- Egypt was a popular asylum for Judean refugees: ally became one quarter Jewish. His general, Ptol- Jews had served in Egypt in military garrisons, such emy, took Egypt after his death. Ptolemy II fell in as the one on the island of Elephantine near Syene love with and married his sister, Arsinoe, and () documented by an archive of Aramaic pa- started a tradition of intermarriage among the Pto- pyri. Many Jews were caught in the Syrian Wars lemies. Under Ptolemy II, Honi (Onias) built a Jew- which followed the dismemberment of Alexander’s ish temple at Leontopolis, and the LXX was trans- empire and entered Egypt as war captives under lated in Alexandria. Jews served as tax collectors in Ptolemy I Soter, the first king of the Macedonian Ptolemaic Thebes. Several native revolts flourished dynasty (r. 305–282 BC). Josephus preserves a quote briefly, such as the revolt of Haronnophris and Cha- from the historian Hecataeus of Abdera concerning onnophris in Thebes mentioned in the Rosetta a high priest, Ezechias, who encouraged fellow Jews Stone. Ptolemy VI and his brother Ptolemy VIII al- to emigrate to Egypt, speaking of their constitution ternated between joint rule and civil war. (C. Ap. I 186–9), although this fragment may also Roman Period (32 BCE–395 CE). When Augustus con- have referred to a post-war settlement of Judea by quered Egypt in 32 BCE, he made it the personal Ptolemy. The Letter of Aristeas, an anonymous work,

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 473 Egypt, Ancient 474 probably written by an Alexandrian Jew, claims struggle, when the Jewish generals Onias and Dos- that Ptolemy I moved 100,000 Jews into Egypt and itheos defended queen Cleopatra II against her recruited 30,000 of them as mercenary soldiers in brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II. 3 Maccabees also his army. Jews and other immigrant soldiers were mentions an apostate Jew, Dositheos, son of Drimy- used to garrison the country against native Egyp- los, saving Ptolemy Philometor from a plot (3 Macc tian revolts. According to the Letter of Aristeas, Ptol- 1 : 3), and some papyri record this figure as a priest emy II Philadelphus (r. 282–246 BCE) freed all Jew- of the royal cult and the chief secretary of the king. ish slaves through a royal decree, but the archive of The case of Dositheos shows that Jews could attain Zenon (ca. 2,000 letters belonging to the manager high rank at court, although they may have been of Apollonius, the finance minister of Philadelphus) forced to give up Judaism to advance their politi- documents the presence of a Jewish slave trade. cal careers. Jewish military settlers are attested in early Like other immigrants, the Jews in Egypt were Ptolemaic Aramaic and Gk. inscriptions found in granted a degree of local autonomy since they were the Alexandrian necropolis, and inscriptions record a πλτευμα, or ethnic community, with their own the dedication of Jewish synagogues from the 3rd magistrates and popular leaders, a council and an century. Up to the 1st century BCE, synagogues overall ethnarch, “chief of the nation”, who proba- were named πρσευ α, “Houses of prayer,” not bly was also the high priest, and who, according to ερ, “temples,” which indicates that, unlike the Strabo (in Josephus, Ant. 14.118), “governs the peo- earlier case of the temple of Elephantine, the Jews ple and adjudicates suits and supervises contracts of Egypt did not offer sacrifices on altars, an exclu- and ordinances, just as if he were the head of a sov- sive prerogative of the temple of Jerusalem. An ex- ereign state.” Jewish high priests were admitted at ception seems to have been the temple of Leontopo- court and rose to a position of prominence, like the lis (ca. 150 BCE–73 CE), founded by the exiled philosopher Aristobulus, who taught king Ptolemy Jerusalem high priest Onias during the Maccabean VI Philometor (r. 180–145 BCE) and dedicated to period, in the Heliopolite nome (at Tell el-Yehoud- him an Interpretation of the Laws of Moses. ieh near Cairo), although the sources on this temple What remains of the literary production of the suggest that it never became schismatic, but re- Egyptian Jews is a multifaceted legacy that ranges mained loyal to the temple of Jerusalem. Numerous from history to philosophy, from drama to religious documents, however, show that Egyptian Jews, far literature. This literature is all written in Greek and from being “orthodox,” often also worshipped gods follows Greek models even when dealing with Jew- other than their own national god, and attended ish topics. The first Jewish historian who wrote in Hellenistic institutions such as the gymnasium. Greek was probably Demetrius the Chronographer Surely the most important event in Hellenistic (late 3rd cent. BCE), who wrote on the kings of Ju- Judaism was the translation of the first five books dea under Philopator, while a certain Ezechiel of the Bible or Pentateuch into Greek, the so-called wrote the Exodus, a tragedy that imitated Aeschylus (‘Seventy’), from the legendary number and Sophocles. Among other works, we have the of its translators. According to the Letter of Aristeas, mystical-philosophical romance of Joseph and Ase- the initiative came from Ptolemy II Philadelphus on neth, the apocalyptic interpretation of history in the the advice of his librarian Demetrius of Phalerum. hexametric Sibylline Oracles, and the translation of As Philo points out (Moses 2.41–44) the Jewish com- Ecclesiasticus and Esther, in 132 and ca. 78 BCE re- munity of Alexandria celebrated the translation spectively. Philo of Alexandria, the greatest Jewish with an annual festival on the island of Pharos. The Egyptian intellectual, lived at the time of the transi- Alexandrian Jews had spread over many parts of Al- tion from Hellenistic to Roman rule, combining a exandria, but were particularly concentrated in the passion for platonic philosophy with an immense Delta quarter and one other of the five quarters of corpus of biblical . the city (perhaps the Beta). Bibliography: ■ Barclay, J. M. G., Jews in the Mediterranean Overall the Jews were tolerated and even appre- Diaspora (Edinburgh 1992). ■ Bickerman, E. J., The Jews in ciated by the early Ptolemies, although a story in the Greek Age (Cambridge, Mass. 1988). ■ Capponi, L., Il 3 Maccabees relates the opposite: when king Ptol- tempio di Leontopoli in Egitto (Pisa 2007). ■ Mélèze-Modrze- emy IV Philopator (r. 222–205 BCE) was prevented jewski, J., The Jews of Egypt: from Rameses II to Emperor Hadrian 2 ■ by God from entering the Jerusalem temple, he (Princeton, N.J. 1997). Smallwood, E. M., The Jews under Roman Rule: from Pompey to Diocletian (Leiden 1976). started a persecution of all Jews who would not en- Livia Capponi rol in the worship of Dionysus, gathering them in Alexandria and marshalling elephants to trample C. Christianity in Egypt (Until 500 CE) them to death – eventually, they were saved by The religious contours of Egypt included tradi- either a divine vision or a Jewish concubine, who tional Egyptian temples and cults, Greco-Roman convinced the king to desist. The tale is modeled philosophical associations, a large Jewish popula- on the story of Heliodorus in 2 Maccabees, and the tion, and Christians. The LXX, the translation of elephant topos perhaps referred to a later dynastic Israelite scriptures for Greek-speaking Jews living

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 475 Egypt, Ancient 476 in Egypt, became the official version of the OT for early 3rd cent. CE) also displays a radically ortho- Christian churches until the Reformation. dox answer to the Gnostic revelations based on a The Catechetical School for advanced Christian simple and direct reading of canonical NT texts, in- studies was founded in Alexandria. The leaders of cluding the Gospels and Pauline letters. this school boast the major theologians and biblical Egypt may also be credited as the impetus to interpreters of the early church. Eusebius of Caesa- the development of the structure and theology of rea in his Church History (books 5 and 6) lists the catholic Christianity. Arius (d. 336), a presbyter of succession of teachers as Pantaenus (d. 190), Clem- the church at the parish of Baucalis in Alexandria, ent of Alexandria (190–202), and Origen (202–31). taught the subordination of the person of Christ, Clement of Alexandria (115–215) developed a con- claiming that Jesus was the first creation before the cept of the Christian as the true Gnostic, while Ori- beginning of time and implying that Jesus was a gen (185–254) became the earliest biblical exegete creature and not the unbegotten Son of God (based and the premier spiritual author of the late second on John 1 : 1 and other texts). His teaching spread and early 3rd century. throughout the empire, and the emperor Constan- Egypt, and especially Alexandria, developed and tine the Great (d. 337) convened the first Ecumeni- promulgated allegorical interpretation of the scrip- cal Council of Nicea in 324 to deal with Arius’ tures. Philo Judaeus (20 BCE–50 CE) introduced al- teaching which, through the leadership of Athana- legorical interpretation of the LXX to Jewish read- sius, the Patriarch of Alexandria, was condemned ers, while Christians, following his lead, continued by the council. This Egyptian heresy began the long the tradition. Origen was the most articulate and history of conciliar Christianity, which decided or- extensive allegorical interpreter of the OT and the thodox teaching on the basis of meetings of bishops NT in antiquity, writing commentaries on most and theologians in councils. The conciliar model of biblical books. In Christian biblical interpretation, organization continues until today as the primary the Alexandrian style of allegorical reading of the mode of church regulation and renewal. Scriptures (called the Alexandrian School in con- Egypt also provided the environment for the de- trast to the more literal Antiochene School) became velopment of asceticism and monasticism creating the norm for most theologians and biblical inter- a way of life based upon Jesus’ struggle with Satan preters through the Middle Ages in the West and for 40 days in the wilderness (Mark 1 : 12–13 and continues among the Byzantine and Orthodox parallels). Anthony the Great (251–356) after study- churches until today. ing with various ascetics in his village left for the Christian Egypt is most known for the preserva- inner desert to live the ascetic and contemplative tion of Gnostic literature. Gnosticism, an early life, establishing by his manner of life the eremiti- Christian and perhaps originally a Jewish heretical cal life of a solitary ascetic based on the biblical say- system, flourished in Egypt where the dry desert ing “go, sell all that you have, and come follow me” climate preserved many of the early Gnostic writ- (Mark 10 : 17–22 par.). Pachomius (292–348) orga- ings, generally promulgated a salvation through nized the first coenobitic (communal) monastic knowledge often delivered through esoteric revela- communities and developed the form of monasti- tions of divine figures such as Sophia (Wisdom). cism that was to be planted in the Western Chris- Valentinian Gnosticism, developed by the native tian world and that has been the norm in Eastern Egyptian Valentinus (second cent. CE), was ex- Christianity. Later Shenoute (348–466) intensified ported from Egypt to Rome, but left extensive evi- the ascetic life of coenobitic communities to create dence in the famous Nag Hammadi Library of texts a stricter monasticism. where such Valentinian treatises as The Gospel of Bibliography: ■ Bagnall, R. S., Early Christian Books in Egypt Truth, The Gospel of Phillip, The Tripartite Tractate, and (Princeton, N.J. 2009). ■ Bagnall, R. S., Egypt in Late An- the treatise On the Resurrection were preserved. Egypt tiquity (Princeton 1993). ■ Gemeinhardt, P. (ed.), Athanasius (Tübingen 2011). ■ Griggs, C. W., was also the home of Sethian Gnosticism whose Handbuch Early Egyptian Christianity from its Origins to 451 CE (CoptSt 2; Leiden/ New treatises were also preserved in the Nag Hammadi York 1990). ■ Koester, H., Introduction to the New Testament, Library. These Sethian Gnostic treatises with Egyp- vol. 2 (Berlin/New York 1982) 219–39. ■ Pearson, B. (ed.), tian provenance include The Gospel of the Egyptians Gnosticism, Judaism, and Egyptian Christianity (Minneapolis, (NHL 3/2; 4/2), the Second Stele of the Great Seth (NHL Minn. 1990). ■ Martin, A., Athanase d’Alexandrie et l’église 7/2), and the Three Steles of Seth (NHL 7/5). The Secret d’Égypte au IVe siècle (328–373) (Rome 1996). ■ Roberts, C., Gospel of Mark, a purported Carpocratian Gnostic Manuscript, Society, and Belief in Christian Egypt (London 1979). edition of the canonical Gospel of Mark also had Richard Valantasis Egyptian provenance. Catholic Egyptian literature, however, also ex- D. Archaeology ists. The apostolic letter 2 Clement (early second Egyptian history is divided into various periods cent. CE) has an assumed Egyptian origin based on based on political lines. Monumental architecture the manner of allegorical interpretation it presents. tends to follow political trends. Burials and tombs The Epistula Apostolorum (probably late second to depend more on individual resources. Pottery styles

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 477 Egypt, Ancient 478 are not as tied to dynasties. So Second Intermediate Typical pots are small hemispherical bowls. In Period pottery either falls with Middle Kingdom or earlier times, jars either have tapering bodies, early New Kingdom pottery. Nubian, Saite, and pointed bases, and flaring necks, or are globular Persian Period pottery are not distinguished. with rounded bases. In later times, large globular For years, Egyptian archaeology emphasized jars have narrow necks, or are slender with rounded earlier time periods at the expense of material from bases. Foreign pottery styles from Greece, Cyprus, later periods which has been characterized as mere and the Levant influence Egypt. In the late Middle debitage or overburden. Earlier time periods have Kingdom hemispherical bowls become deeper. been painstakingly subdivided, while the later time Large scale architecture disappears after the periods have generally been lumped together. reign of Amenemhet IV. The only extensively exca- Egyptian archaeology has concentrated more on vated town site is Illahun; some Middle Kingdom funerary remains rather than settlement. There are levels from Abydos are known. four reasons for this: first, settlements tend to be Elites burials had coffins and wooden statues. made of less durable material. Second, settlements tended to be on the flood plain where materials are Hyksos Period (1640–1532 BCE). The ceramic assem- not as well preserved. Third, the Nile has tended to blage from the advent of the Hyksos in the 15th shift eastward over time erasing settlement re- Dynasty to the time of Thutmosis III is character- mains. Fourth, many of the settlements are still oc- ized by Tell el-Yahudiyah ware: small one-handled cupied. Those sites that survive (Amarna, Illahun, burnished black ware juglets with incised white and Deir el-Medina) were planned settlements and pigment. Made in Egypt and the Levant they have are not typical. Abandoned sites from the Fayyum been found in Nubia, Egypt, the Levant, and Cy- are more typical but cover only later time periods. prus. Early Dynastic Period (2920–2575 BCE). High quality Large-scale architecture is mostly limited to the stone vessels are numerous. Ceramics include tall Hyksos capital at Tell el-Daba which has also pro- jars, large storage jars, small bag-shaped jars, sim- vided information about the settlement. Remains ple and carinated bowls, and cylindrical vessels as mixed Levantine and Egyptian styles. the last vestiges of wavy-handled ware, along with New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE). The ceramic assem- conical bread molds. blage of the New Kingdom is vast, and because of Temples from this time period are not standard- foreign contact, varied, containing various styles of ized and vary with locality. jars, pots, bowls, lids, bread molds, cult vessels, and The earliest tombs were brick-lined pits; elites wine amphorae. New styles were adopted from erected niched brick enclosures over the pits, which Greece, Cyprus, Crete, and the Levant. Two-handled are termed mastabas. Mummification occurred amphorae appear by the middle of the 18th Dy- naturally from the desiccating effects of the sand. nasty. Old Kingdom (2575–2134 BCE). By the 5th Dynasty, In the first half of the New Kingdom, there were pottery was wheel-made. Among the Old Kingdom four levels: poor burials have mummies, coffins, pottery types are large ovoid storage jars, red cari- pottery, boxes, and baskets. Lower middle-class nated bowls, beer jars, conical molds, flat bread burials also have food, clothing, professional equip- trays, and vessels with tubular spouts. ment, amulets, shabtis, and canopic jars. Upper Elites continued to be buried in mastabas; roy- middle-class burials also have papyri, linen, and alty, beginning with Djoser (3rd Dynasty), stacked stone and metal vessels. Elite burials have multiple progressively smaller mastabas atop each other cre- coffins and glass. Tombs are large, elaborate, and ating first step-pyramids, and finally pyramids. Stone sarcophagi appear in royal tombs in the 3rd lavishly decorated, not only for royalty but for no- Dynasty, and elite burials in the 4th Dynasty. At the bles as well. end of the 3rd Dynasty, the internal organs were Thutmosis III standardized temple architecture eviscerated and mummified separately. South of and replaced many local shrines with larger build- Memphis, where the cliffs line the Nile Valley, ings that had standard plans, obelisks, and colossal tombs for elites were cut into the rock. statues, making the New Kingdom the golden age First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 BCE). First In- of Egyptian architecture. termediate Period pottery is characterized by slim Libyan Period (1069–715 BCE). The Libyan Period jars with sharply pointed bases, bowls with bent pottery assemblage consists of globular jars with walls, globular jars and bag-shaped jars with cylin- rounded or pointed bases. Large storge jars, tall- drical necks. necked jars with two handles, pilgrim flasks (with The number of rock-cut tombs for elites in- a narrow neck and two small vertical handles), and creased; mastabas disappear. Other large scale mon- globular jars with wide open flaring rims, ring base umental architecture is non-existent. and usually one small vertical handle. Bowls and Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BCE). Most temples cups have rounded or pointed bases. seem to have been constructed of wood but a few Monumental architecture remains are meager stone ones survive. and fragmentary.

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 479 Egypt, Ancient 480

Nubian, Saite, and Persian Periods (747–332 BCE). Byzantine Period (395–641 CE). Byzantine period ce- Pottery assemblages are mostly jars of Nile silt: ramics show a variety of vessels imported from neckless jars with two small handles and jars with other regions: African Red Slip Ware, Tripolitanian one or more rings around cylindrical, pilgrim Red Slip Ware, Çandarli Ware, Cypriot Red Slip flasks, and goblets with footed bases. Bowls are sim- Ware, Macedonian, and Athenian Ware, Palestinian ple with straight rims and either rounded or Ware, and Asia Minor fabrics. The eastern Roman pointed bases. Storage jars usually have ribbed Empire heavily influenced the ceramics. Small jars, walls. juglets, costrels, and amphorae were common. Nubian period elite burials feature multiple ste- Globular cooking pots occur in large quantities. lae, outer and inner coffins, bead nets, a canopic Large amphorae have cylindrical necks and handles box, shabti box, and Ptah-Sokar- figure. Saite attached to the vessel shoulder. Large storage jars period elite burials feature outer and inner coffins, with wide open rims. shabtis, a bead net, canopic box, stele and Ptah-So- Christian churches first appear in the Byzantine kar-Osiris figure. During the Persian period, elite Period. Monasteries proliferate, many of them reus- burials include a single coffin, bead net, canopic ing earlier structures, and unfortunately much of box, stele, and shabtis. the later archaeological material was destroyed or New construction tools and techniques appear discarded as refuse by earlier archaeologists. in the Nubian period, including iron tools and true Bibliography: ■ Arnold, D., Temples of the Last Pharaohs (Ox- stone vaults. Most Nubian temple building simply ford 1999). ■ Bagnall, R. S./D. W. Rathbone, Egypt From Al- extends existing structures. Several forts from the exander to the Early Christians (Los Angeles, Calif. 2004). Saite period survive. Temples show mainly the de- ■ Bard, K. A., An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt velopment of the pronaos. Composite capitals ap- (Oxford 2008). ■ Capuani, M., Christian Egypt (Collegeville, ■ pear in the Saite period. Minn. 1999). Ikram, S./A. Dodson, The Mummy in Ancient Egypt (London 1998). ■ Seidlmayer, S. J., Gräberfelder aus Ptolemaic Period (332–32 BCE). With the conquest of dem Übergang vom Alten zum Mittleren Reich (Heidelberg 1990). Egypt by Greeks, Greek pottery styles strongly in- ■ Smith, S. T., “Intact Tombs of the Seventeenth and Eigh- fluence Egyptian ceramics causing imitations of teenth Dynasties from Thebes and the New Kingdom Burial kraters, oinochoe, oipe, amphora, hydria, aryballos, System,” MDAI.K 48 (1992) 193–231. ■ Smoláriková, K., unguentarium, kantharos, lekythos, and fish plates Saite Forts in Egypt (Prague 2008). ■ Strudwick, N./J. H. Tay- lor, The Theban Necropolis (London 2003). ■ Wodzin´ ska, A., of Nile alluvium. Traditional Egyptian forms, such A Manuel of Egyptian Pottery (Boston, Mass. 2010). as globular jars have Greek ring bases. Cooking pots have handles. Large storage jars have cylindrical E. Texts bodies and rounded bases. Tens of thousands of texts come from ancient Egypt Ptolemaic elite burials feature coffins, shabtis, in a variety of scripts and languages. The principal hypocephali, canopic boxes, stelae. difference between the early scripts deals with how Large temples, such as Edfu and Dendara reap- the script is put on a surface. Hieroglyphs are pear, as do obelisks and colossal statues. Numerous carved; hieratic brushed with ink. The large corpus Ptolemaic towns in the Fayyum last into the Roman of clay tablets written in Akkadian from El Amarna period. Towns were built along a major road with was produced during the New Kingdom. During a temple as a focal point. the Libyan Period, hieratic is carved into stone, Roman Period (32 BCE–395 CE). In the Roman pe- while hieratic business hands in the divided coun- riod, ceramics were made from Nile silt but im- try develop in different directions: the northern ported wares are common: African Red Spit Ware, version is called demotic, while the southern ver- Cypriot Sigllata, Eastern Sigillata A, Eastern Sigil- sion is called abnormal hieratic. Aramaic is com- lata B, and Pontic Sigillata. Amphorae are spindle- mon in the Persian Period. After the conquest of shaped with long, straight, thin necks, rounded Alexander the Great, Greek plays an important role shoulders and solid bases, or ribbed necked with through the Muslim conquest. Coptic is Egyptian rounded rims. Long cylindrical necked kegs were written in Gk. characters and is first attested in a also made. Large numbers of flagons, costrels, and graffito dated to 200 BC. one-handled juglets appear. Cooking pots, storage Early Dynastic Period (2920–2575 BCE). Most of the jars, shallow bread trays, dollium, and casseroles texts left from the Early Dynastic period are labels were used for food preparation and storage. Mortar- on durable material: stone, ivory, and rarely wood. ium were used for grinding food. Fine table ware They include stele marked principally with the was also used. name, and sometimes titles. Some of the labels pro- Elite burials mostly disappear in the Roman pe- vide year names, which contain lists of historical riod. A tradition of portraits of the face of the events of the year. One king list has survived. Papy- mummy starts in the Roman period and flourishes rus was clearly known, though no papyrus docu- for a couple of centuries. Temples tend to use more ments have survived. mud brick than stone. Bath houses were added to Old Kingdom (2575–2134 BCE). Most of the texts left many towns. from the Old Kingdom were written on stone. Lists

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 481 Egypt, Ancient 482 of names and titles are often expanded to narra- Libyan Period (1069–715 BCE). Copies of the Book of tives, termed autobiographies, which typically nar- the Dead were abridged to a few standard texts, or rate the most important events of a man’s life. A reduced simply to their vignettes. Incised hieratic, sizable corpus of ritual texts termed the Pyramid that is hieratic carved in stone, was used. Royal in- Texts has been left on the walls of Pyramids. The scriptions are prevalent, although fewer temple in- rituals appear in pictorial form on non-royal tomb scriptions survive. A number of reburial inscrip- walls. Non-royal tombs also contain captions label- tions are known. ing the scene or providing snatches of dialogue and Nubian Period (747–656 BCE). One copy of the Book some tomb threats. Some king-lists, annals, and a of the Dead survives from this time period. The number of royal decrees survive. A few temple ac- longest surviving historical inscription from Egypt count books have survived. A few execration texts, dates to this time period. A number of Egyptian texts listing the enemies of the regime, appear (see texts were made in Nubia. Shabako left a copy of “Execration and Execration Texts”). Some letters, an earlier account dealing with creation and the es- legal texts, and graffiti have survived. tablishment of kingship. First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 BCE). Surviving Saite Period (664–525 BCE). Since Psammeticus, who texts from the First Intermediate Period, mainly au- reunited the country, was from the north, the tobiographies, were written on stone. As the pro- northern business script, demotic, was made the vincial officials became Pharaohs, they brought the standard throughout Egypt. A number of business autobiography into the royal sphere which would documents and historical texts survive. A number become historical commemorative inscriptions. of literary manuscripts have been redated to this Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 BCE). Papyrus texts first time period, including one wisdom text. survive in large numbers in the Middle Kingdom Persian Period (525–332 BCE). Our only preserved and provide a number of new genres: tales and wis- law code from Egypt comes from the Persian pe- dom literature, medical and veterinary texts, let- riod. A few autobiographies survive. Most of the ters, and astronomical texts; many of these are business texts appear in Aramaic or Demotic. An known mainly from copies of later periods. Certain Aramaic text in Demotic script provides the earliest ritual texts shift from the walls of pyramids to manuscript of any of the Psalms. wooden coffins and are called Coffin Texts, though the texts are essentially the same. Numerous private Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE). The number of texts stele appear. surviving in the Ptolemaic Period vastly increases. In hieroglyphic, accounts of the past proliferate, Second Intermediate Period (1640–1532 BCE). Com- paratively little in terms of historical texts and au- most of which cannot be squared with texts con- tobiographies has survived from the Second Inter- temporary with the events. Demotic stories provide mediate Period. Mathematical texts first appear a vast array of details about Egyptian life or culture. then. The ritual texts on coffins form an intermedi- More copies of the survive ate form between the Coffin Texts and the Book of from this time period than all other time periods the Dead. combined, a variety of other compositions were found in burials including execration rituals, tem- New Kingdom (1550–1070 BCE). The New Kingdom ple rituals, even the Instructions of Onchshes- contains an immense number of historical and honqy. autobiographical inscriptions. Temple inscriptions Ptolemaic temples have libraries of multiple proliferate. The Book of the Dead moves from early compositions on the walls, including texts describ- copies on linen or leather, to papyrus, and tomb ing the layout and use of the temple room by room walls. So-called Underworld texts such as the Am- from the inside out, similar to the description of duat, Book of Gates, Book of Nut, Book of the the tabernacle in Exodus. Earth, and the Book of the Cow appear in royal Large numbers of Gk. papyri also appear at this tombs. Autobiographies abound and a number of time, including biblical papyri. From the Ptolemaic wisdom texts survive. Large decorated tombs con- tain texts and iconography usually dealing with re- period, copies of the Heb. text of Exodus (Cam- ligious themes, with an occasional exception with bridge, University Library Ms. Orient. 233), and daily life scenes. Large numbers of documents from copies of the LXX versions of Genesis (P. Fouad daily life survive on ostraca from the late New King- 266), Deuteronomy (P.Ryl. Gr. III 458; P.Fouad 266) dom, mostly from Deir el-Medina, usually on stone survive. The most popular Gk. work is Homer, the chips rather than pottery. The Instructions of Iliad more so than the Odyssey. Amenemope is known to have influenced the bibli- Roman Period (30 BCE–395 CE). New hieroglyphic cal , though no manuscripts of this works, including an important creation narrative, work are known after the New Kingdom. The large appear in the Roman period. Hieroglyphs mostly corpus of diplomatic correspondence in clay tablets die out by the end of the first century as hieratic written in Akkadian found in El Amarna also de- does by the middle of the second century. The Teb- rives from this period. tunis temple library had a wealth of different gen-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 483 Egypt, Ancient 484 res in Demotic including stories, Hermetic litera- pears largely in the form of anonymous homilies, ture, wisdom literature, ritual, and various most of which focus on an event in the liturgical manuals. Theban manuscripts from temple librar- calendar. Documentary texts in Greek are ubiqui- ies appropriate both OT and NT materials, as well tous. The last dated hieroglyphic and demotic texts as Christian ritual. The most common deity men- date to AD 452. tioned is the Heb. Iao; Abraham, Moses, and other For the first century or so after the Muslim con- biblical figures are mentioned and portions of the quest, Coptic documentary texts flourish. After the Lord’s prayer appear in Demotic (Griffith/Thomp- 9th century Coptic declines rapidly with a brief re- son: plate V). vival in the 12th and 13th centuries. Greek works are widely attested. Every book of Bibliography: ■ Allam, S., Hieratische Ostraka und Papyri aus the Bible is attested in Greek at this time, as well der Ramessidenzeit (Tübingen 1973). ■ Bénédite, G., Le temple as significant non-canonical texts such as 1 Enoch de Philae (Paris 1893). ■ de Buck, A., The Egyptian Coffin and the Shepherd of Hermas. Due to Egypt’s dry cli- Texts (Chicago, Ill. 1935–61). ■ Cˇ erný, J., Catalogue des os- mate away from the Nile, all the NT papyri, all the traca hiératiques non littéraires de Deir el Médineh (Cairo 1935– earliest NT manuscripts, and the earliest OT manu- 70). ■ Chassinat, É. et al., Le temple d’Edfou (Cairo 1930–). scripts come from Egypt. Manuscripts like Sinaiti- ■ Clère, J. J./J. Vandier, Textes de la première période intermédi- aire et de la XIème dynastie (Brussels 1948). ■ Dieleman, J., cus, Vaticanus, and Alexandrinus have been Priests, Tongues, and Rites (Leiden 2005). ■ Frood, E., Bio- thought to have been copied in Egypt. Many of graphical Texts from Ramessid Egypt (Atlanta, Ga. 2007). these manuscripts come from only one or two loca- ■ Goedicke, H., Konigliche Dokumente aus dem Alten Reich tions (more than a quarter of NT papyri come from (Wiesbaden 1967). ■ Grandet, P., Catalogue des ostraca hiérat- Oxyrhynchus). While orthodoxy flourished in iques non littéraires de Deir el Médineh (Cairo 2000–6). ■ Grif- Egypt, so did a number of heresies, and there is fith, F. L./H. Thompson, The Demotic Magical Papyrus of Lon- no way to know which NT manuscripts come from don and Leiden (London 1904–9). ■ Grimal, N.-C., La stèle which source and if they were altered to reflect sec- triomphale de Pi(‘ankh)y au Musée du Caire (Cairo 1981). ■ Helck, W., Historisch-biographische Texte der 2. Zwischenzeit tarian views. A number of important interpreters of und neue Texte der 18. Dynastie (Wiesbaden 1975). ■ Jansen- biblical literature lived in Egypt, including Philo, Winkeln, K., Inschriften der Spätzeit (Wiesbaden 2007–). Clement, and Origen. The Testament of Abraham in- ■ Jasnow, R., A Late Period Hieratic Wisdom Text (P. Brooklyn terprets Egyptian iconography like the judgment 47.218.135) (Chicago, Ill. 1992). ■ Jasnow, R./K.-T. Zauzich, scene through Jewish eyes. The Ancient Egyptian Book of Thoth (Wiesbaden 2005). A number of different groups used Coptic, the ■ Kitchen, K. A., Ramesside Inscriptions (Oxford 1975–). Egyptian language written in Gk. script, for their ■ Kloth, N., Die (Auto-) Biographischen Inschriften des ägyptischen ■ own literature. A few Old Coptic texts (a term ap- Alten Reiches (Hamburg 2002). Lichtheim, M., Ancient Egyptian Literature (Berkeley, Calif. 1973–81). ■ Mattha, G., plied to the language before it became standard- The Demotic Legal Code of Hermopolis West (Cairo 1975). ized) were preserved from Egyptian temple ar- ■ Montevecci, O., La Papirologia (Milan 1998). ■ Murnane, chives, but the bulk of Coptic literature comes from W. J., Texts from the Amarna Period (Atlanta, Ga. 1995). Christian groups. Although the earliest dated Cop- ■ Neugebauer, O./R. Parker, Egyptian Astronomical Texts tic text appears in 200 BC, most Coptic literature (Providence, R.I. 1960). ■ Posener, G., La première domina- appears in the Roman period. During the Roman tion perse en Égypte (Cairo 1936). ■ Posener-Kriéger, P./J. L. period, Christian Coptic texts are largely transla- de Cénival, The Abusir Papyri (London 1968). ■ Posener- Kriéger, P. et al., The Pyramid Complex of Raneferef: The Papyrus tions of other literature (often biblical) into the lo- Archive (Prague 2006). ■ Robins, G./C. Shute, The Rhind cal dialect, and most evidence for Coptic dialects de- Mathematical Papyrus (London 1987). ■ Ryholt, K. S. B., The rives from this time period, because superregional Story of Petese, son of Petetum and Seventy Other Good and Bad dialects later replace the local ones (Lycopolitan in Stories (Copenhagen 1999). ■ Segal, J. B., Aramaic Texts from the 4th century, Sahidic in the 5th, and Bohairic in North Saqqâra (London 1983). ■ Strudwick, N. C., Texts from the 9th). Manichaeans translated a number of the Pyramid Age (Atlanta, Ga. 2005). works from Syriac into Lycopolitan, and a number F. Society of the basic Manichaean texts, such as the Kephalaia, The basic unit of society was the nuclear family, a Psalm book, as well as a number of homilies sur- which consisted of husband, wife, and children. vive. A Gk. Life of Mani also survives. Gnostics pre- The terms for husband (hy) and wife (ḥmt) are at- served such works as the Apocryphon of John and Allo- tested almost as early as Egyptian writing and are genes. Monastic communities promulgated distinct from the terms for man (s) and woman (st). numerous rules for conduct, and a number of Starting in the Middle Kingdom and surviving at monks vying for clerical offices (such as Rufinus least through the New Kingdom, the term for sister and Jerome) ensured that texts promoting monasti- (snt) was also used for wife. Marriage was entered cism circulated outside Egypt. into and departed from by an oath, made in the Byzantine Period 395–641 CE). During the Byzantine presence of witnesses (Toivari; Gee 2001). period, Coptic martyrdoms become popular. Mo- Most Egyptians lived in families of some sort. nastic education consisted of memorization of The conjugal family was the most common type scriptural and other texts. Biblical commentary ap- (Clarysse/Thompson). The average household had

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 485 Egypt, Ancient 486 four to five individuals in it (Bagnall/Frier; Clar- portation, 24% are listed in foreign ethnic catego- ysse/Thompson). Long-term stable marriages were ries which usually indicated some difference in tax the norm, although broken homes from death of a status. spouse and, less commonly, divorce were also Until the Libyan period (1069–715 BCE) there known. In case of divorce, the children usually re- were three principle paths to upward economic mo- mained with the father. bility: the military, the priesthood, and scribal bu- Fathers were solely responsible for the educa- reaucracy. Starting in the Libyan period, the priest- tion of children, especially sons. Education in writ- hood became hereditary and the upper military ing was done by copying models, often of didactic became completely nepotistic. As a result, Egyp- content. Further education was provided by senior tians seem to have stopped serving in the military officials mentoring junior ones through correspon- and thus, starting in the Saite time period, Egypt’s dence and memoranda. Books could be attained by military was largely staffed with foreign mercenar- borrowing from temple libraries or having copies of ies, making Isaiah’s (36 : 6) description of Egypt as particular rolls made, though this was expensive. “a broken reed” apt. Literacy has been estimated at less than one percent Foreigners, whether invaders or immigrants, to 62 percent, though there were doubtlessly fluctu- were usually assimilated into Egyptian society ations over time. Literacy rates, however, are con- within a generation or two. This was true of Sem- cerned with the ability to read, and ignore impor- ites at the end of the Middle Kingdom, Nubians tant features of cultural literacy such as individuals in the New Kingdom, Libyans during the late New having access to learning and texts through oral Kingdom and Libyan period, Jews starting in the transmission and other means. Saite period, Aramaeans in the Persian period, and Life expectancy at birth was about 25 years for Greeks in the Ptolemaic period. males and 22.5 years for females. One third of chil- The Egyptian calendar was divided into three dren, however, died before their first birthday, and seasons of four months of 30 days each with five a quarter of those left would die before puberty. For holidays at the end and began in July. The first sea- those who could make it to the age of 15, males son was inundation (ḫt) when the floodwaters rose, could expect to live about 34 more years, while fe- fed by monsoonal rains in central Africa. This was males could expect to live about 33 years more (Bag- followed by seedtime (prt). The final season was har- nall/Frier). Women began to marry about the age of vest (šmw). Taxation and payment of rent normally twelve, though most married in their late teens. occurred during the harvest season. Wages were Men came of age at 14. normally paid on the first of the lunar month. The vast majority of our records of Egyptian so- Whether property was owned has been debated. ciety were left by the elite. The artisan village of It was rented, and the rents were normally a third Deir el-Medina provides extensive records of lower of the harvest. Land produced between five and middle-class craftsmen engaged in the government twelve artabas per aroura (about 50–120 liters per funded excavations of royal tombs. The Satire of the hectare) (Bagnall), above ten-fold increase in the Trades from the Middle Kingdom provides a useful amount sown, while the average crop yield in the list of other occupations, which remained more or ancient world was six-fold at best (Rickman). less stable through Egyptian history: scribes, car- Crops included wheat, emmer, barley, lettuce, penters, sculptors, barbers, reed-cutters, potters, onion, garlic, leeks, cucumbers, melons, lentils, masons, farmers, field laborers, weavers, arrow- beans, chick-peas, vetch, artichoke, grapes, figs, makers, herdsmen, couriers, metal-workers, cob- flax, fenugreek, cumin. Fish was the most widely blers, laundry men, bird-catchers, fishermen. These used meat. Sheep, goats, and cattle were raised. occupations, which go largely unmentioned in the Milk and cheese from these was also used. Beef records of the elite, provided the backbone of Egyp- seems to have been eaten ceremonially and on large tian civilization. They provided the food, utensils, construction projects. Pork was ritually unclean but and houses for all of Egyptian society, as well as the is attested at Tell el-Maskhuta in the Second Inter- luxury goods, such as statues and jewelry, for the mediate Period and more widely in Roman times. elite. The military are conspicuously absent. The Duck, goose, and other fowl were eaten. There was use of slaves by the elite is known but mostly went a caloric intake of 3780 calories a day for men and unremarked. The New Kingdom Wilbour Papyrus 2520 calories a day for women, mostly from grains. lists mainly priests, military men, ladies, herdsmen, Wheat and emmer were used for bread and barley stable-masters, farmers, and scribes. Census records largely used for beer. In Ptolemaic times wine from the Ptolemaic period enable some idea about largely replaced beer, though wine had been in use the percentage of the population engaged in vari- for all of Egyptian history. The beer would have ous activities though the military is again conspicu- been top-fermented from barley bread without ously absent. About 41% of the population was in- hops. As a result, it would have been sour and easily volved in agriculture, 10% in administration, 6% spoiled with little alcohol. The wine would also each in production and commerce, and 3% in trans- have had little alcohol.

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The government was originally structured as a Egyptian religious texts, no examples of systematic large household. Indeed, the term pharaoh, applied theology have been found; theology does not seem to the king as early as the Old Kingdom (Goelet), to feature prominently. Although there are some originally meant “the great house.” No separation stories either in literature or ritual, the Egyptians between church and state existed. The great Harris do not appear to have any myths in the conven- Papyrus from the reign of Ramses III shows that tional sense. Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride seems to temple controlled vast resources: The temple of be a Gk. attempt to fill this gap. Amun at owned 2,393 km2 of land, 421,362 Religion in ancient Egypt was known as “the animals, and employed 81,322 men, while the tem- way of God.” It meant doing what the god loved ple of Re-Horachte in Heliopolis owned 441 km2 of (feeding the hungry, clothing the naked) and avoid- land, 45,544 animals, and employed 12,963 men. ing what the god hated (murder, adultery, same-sex Taxes supported the state and the temples until acts, tampering with balances, changing property the Roman period, when the taxes largely went to lines, and evil in general). support the Roman welfare state. Taxes were paid There were four general classes of beings (b): in kind. In the Old and Middle Kingdom corvey humans (rmtß), gods (ntßr), angels (ḫ), and demons labor was also exacted, though high priestly offi- (mwt). Angels and demons are the spirits of humans cials were exempted. after their death. Religion involved the worship of Coinage did not exist until the Persian period. gods, the worship of divine spirits (angels), and the Before that time money was calculated in weights manipulation of demons. The difference between of metal, but most exchange was bartered. The angels and demons had both a ritual and an ethical standard New Kingdom system was 1 diban (91 dimension. Certain rituals (sḫw) needed to be per- grams) of copper for 1 sack (ḫr = 76.88 liters) of formed for the deceased either in life or at death grain. Ten diban of copper made a diban of silver. to transform his spirit into an angel. Humans also Ten diban of silver made a diban of gold. A kite (qdt) needed to engage in moral conduct during life in was a tenth of a diban.Anoipe (ipt) was a quarter of order to achieve the status of an angel after death. a sack (ḫr). Even the middle class measured Those who failed to achieve that conduct or have amounts in diban of copper with large amounts in the rituals performed became demons. Both angels diban of silver; gold was used only on the national and demons could affect life on earth, either curs- level. Weights, often shaped like animals, are at- ing individuals with illnesses and afflictions or tested in fractions of a diban, units up to five, tens blessing them by healing and otherwise prospering  up to 50, and hundreds up to 500 diban. The Mid- them. The wish, “may his memory (k ) dwell in the  dle Kingdom sack (ḫr) was about 48 liters with sub- presence of the king, may his soul (b ) stay in the divisions of tenths of a sack (ḥqt). presence of god” (Hassan: 76–77) shows that the ul- timate desire of people was to remain in the pres- Bibliography: ■ Allen, J. P., The Papyri (New York ence of god. 2002). ■ Bagnall, R. S., “Agricultural Productivity and Tax- Although more than 85,000 divine names and ation in Later Roman Egypt,” TAPA 115 (1985) 289–308. ■ Bagnall, R. S./B. W. Friar, The Demography of Roman Egypt epithets are known, there are only 144 major and (Cambridge 1994). ■ Clarysse, W./D. J. Thompson, Counting minor gods known over the course of Egyptian his- the People in Hellenistic Egypt (Cambridge 2006). ■ David, R., tory, and only about two dozen had temples built Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt (Oxford 1998). ■ Gardiner, for them. Some gods were minor at some time peri- A. H., The Wilbour Papyrus (Oxford 1948). ■ Gee, J., “Notes ods and major in others. Osiris was first attested on Egyptian Marriage,” BES 15 (2001) 17–25. ■ Gee, J., in the 5th Dynasty (2494–2345 BCE). The earliest “Egyptologists’ Fallacies: Fallacies Arising from Limited Ev- temple of dates to the New Kingdom. Judging ■ idence,” JEH (2010) 133–54. Goelet, O., “The Nature of by the number of temples, Re was the most popular the term pr- in the Old Kingdom,” BES 10 (1992) 77–90. deity of the 5th Dynasty; Amun was the most popu- ■ Grandet, P., Le Papyrus Harris I (Cairo 2005). ■ Janssen, J. J., Commodity Prices from the Ramessid Period (Leiden 1975). lar deity of the 12th through 25th Dynasties, i.e., ■ Lehner, M., “The Pyramid Age Settlement of the Southern throughout the second and first millennia BCE; Isis Mount at Giza,” JARCE 39 (2002) 27–74. ■ Rickman, G. E., was the most popular deity of the Ptolemaic and “The Grain Trade under the Roman Empire,” Memoirs of the Roman periods. Modern accounts of Egyptian gods American Academy in Rome 36 (1980) 261–75. ■ Toivari, J., wrongly tend to reduce the god to a particular func- “Marriage at Deir el-Medina,” in Proceedings of the Seventh tion, but in their own temples, each god has multi- International Congress of Egyptologists (ed. C. J. Eyre; Leuven ple characteristics such as creator, ruler, or pro- 1998) 1157–63. ■ Vittmann, G., Ägypten und die Fremden im vider. ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausend (Mainz 2003). Egyptians adopted foreign deities and entire re- G. Religion ligions in later periods: Judaism starting in the Egyptian religion is often falsely divided into the Saite period (664–525 BCE), Gk. religion in the artificial modern divisions of temple, funerary, and Ptolemaic period (332–30 BCE), and Christianity in magic. The same texts and equipment are used in the Roman period. all of these realms. Magic is a pejorative label and The question of Egyptian monotheism is much impedes understanding. Despite thousands of discussed, particularly in reference to the brief pe-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 489 Egypt, Ancient 490 riod of Akhenaten’s reign. Such discussions tend A number of questions asked of the oracles have both to overemphasize Akhenaten’s monotheistic survived and include such questions as whom one tendencies and underemphasize the monotheistic ought to marry, whether one should take a certain tendencies in Egyptian religion. On the one hand, job, whether one’s child would survive, and who Akhenaten worshiped multiple gods; on the other should fulfill a priestly office. hand, in the daily temple liturgy, used in the wor- Egyptian temples were organized around a cen- ship of a variety of gods, the high priest twice tells tral sanctuary, the great seat of god, surrounded by the god: “I will not compare your being to another the hall that contained various shrines for all the god” (P. Berlin 3055 5/4, 7–8). deities belonging to the god’s council or Ennead. In At death angels (ḫ) were seen to wander among front of that was the hall of offerings, followed by the stars (iḫ). Their typical residence was seen as a hypostyle hall representing a garden, which con- being in the fields of reeds (sḫt irw) or decanal belt tained rooms for washing, anointing, amulets, and (ḫbsw) south of the ecliptic (š nḫ), while the region a library (pr nḫ). In front was a peristyle court into north of the ecliptic was called the field of offerings which the public was admitted. The temple was (sḫt ḥtpw). Stars in this area of the night sky south fronted with a pylon depicting the destruction of of the ecliptic disappeared for 70 days at a time, enemies and two obelisks. matching the 70 days of mummification. During The various types of priests and priestly offices the time that the angels were in the netherworld may be divided into temporary and permanent offi- portion of the field of reeds, they were called the ces. Temporary offices, such as the lesonis who chutes (ḫtyw, υτης). An angel could temporarily served as the president of the temple for a year or transform into any form desired and appear on high priest who served in that office for a day, cov- earth. ered a specific time period and tend not to be listed Worship centered in the temple. The daily lit- among the titles before an individual’s name. Titu- urgy consisted of entering the sanctuary, opening lar offices tend to include the general grade of the doors, prostrating oneself, singing praises, pro- priest: (ḥm- ntßr, πρτης), divine father (it- viding offerings, clothing the image, and sweeping ntßr), or priest (wb, ερευς). away the footprints as one leaves. Although rolls The prophet was in charge of the cult for the providing the words that the high priests spoke in entire nome. It was a full-time salaried position, the ritual have survived, temple walls show that the into which a man had to be initiated. He served on ritual was conceived as a dialogue between the high rotation as the high priest (wb ) for the god and priest and the god. There was also a daily execration as such entered the sanctuary where he met with ritual where a wax figurine representing an enemy the god face to face and served him. He interpreted was bound, trampled, spat upon, stabbed, decapi- the oracles of the god and served as a spokesman tated, burned, and spat upon in the flames. for the god. Though usually a hereditary position, At various points of the year, festivals were cele- were also appointed by divine oracles. brated at the various temples, with each temple Starting in the Persian period, the approval of gov- having its own cycle of festivals. Festivals could ernment officials was also part of the process. Piety either occur on a monthly or yearly basis. Some of and good reputation were prerequisites for nomina- the more notable festivals were the Festival of Drunkenness (celebrated around September) and tion to the office. the Khoiak festival (celebrated in December and co- The divine father was in charge of the cult for a inciding with both the end of the inundation, the city. Like the office of prophet, it was a full-time beginning of planting, and the winter solstice). Fes- salaried position that required an initiation. tivals originally celebrated some important event The priest was a part-time position. The priest but over time the original meaning might be for- was a member of a phyle, and each phyle served one gotten. The Khoiak festival originally celebrated the month on and three months off. The priest was death of Osiris and birth of . The festival on only paid for the time during which he was on the 13th of Epiph originally celebrated the creation duty. The phyle rotation allowed more individuals of the world. The Festival of Drunkenness origi- to serve as priests; one census lists 22% of men as nally celebrated the rescue of humans from destruc- priests. Priests carried the ark of the god during tion and the establishment of kingship (Book of the processions and oracular consultations. Cow), but it came to be a chance to celebrate by get- The biography of Bakenkhonsu shows a pro- ting intoxicated. Each festival had its own series of gression of offices: starting at the age of 15, he rites and practices associated with the festival. Com- spent four years as a priest, twelve as a divine fa- mon to many of these was a procession or parade ther, and the remaining 53 years of his life as a pro- during which the god, borne aloft by priests carry- phet. ing the god in an ark on poles, would visit various In later times, one of the more important tem- places and during which time individuals could porary offices was the lesonis (mr-šn) or president of consult the god who would answer their questions the temple who served for a year at a time, though through oracles. they might have more than one term at irregular

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 491 Egypt, Ancient 492 intervals. The lesonis was in charge of the adminis- 1–14. ■ Hassan, S., Mastabas of Princess Hemet-R (Cairo trative affairs of the temple. The lesonis was as- 1975). ■ Janssen, J. J., “A New Kingdom Settlement,” Alto- sisted by the agent (rd), who carried out the busi- rientalische Forschungen 19 (1992) 8–23. ■ Krauss, R., Astro- ness affairs of the temple. The high priest (wb ) nomische Konzepte und Jenseitsvorstellungen in den Pyramidentex- ten (Wiesbaden 1997). ■ Leitz, C. et al., Lexikon der was chosen from among the prophets and was re- ägyptischen Götter und Götterbezeichnungen (Leuven 2002–3). sponsible for the performance of the cult for that ■ von Lieven, A., Der Himmel über Esna (Wiesbaden 2000). day. ■ Vittmann, G., Altägyptische Wegmetaphorik (Vienna 1999). These elements of Egyptian religion seem to H. Culture and Arts have been fairly common throughout most of Egypt over a long span of time. Both chronological and Almost all art from ancient Egypt has its basis in local variations need to be considered. Not only religion. Some of the earliest artistic masterpieces, would it be unusual for millions of people to have such as the Narmer Palette, and the copper statues the same point of view and practices for millennia, of Pepi I, were found in a temple cache. Most paint- but there is also direct evidence for many differen- ing has been found on temple and tomb walls. ces in opinion. Sculpture was usually found in temple courtyards. Book of the Dead 17 (= Coffin Text 335) pro- The artist laid out figures on a grid. In the Mid- vides a microcosm of Egyptian religion. Its earliest dle and New Kingdoms, the basic standing human manuscript dates to the 11th Dynasty (2055–1985 figure filled 18 squares between the sole of the foot BCE), but many 5th Dynasty tomb biographies to the hairline, with seated figures occupying 14 quote it. The earliest manuscript already includes a gridlines between the same two points. In the commentary on the text. The basic text was a hymn Amarna Period (14th cent. BCE), a 20-square grid in praise of the creator god. seems to have been used with standing figures, and There were various changes in both the text and a 15-square grid with seated figures (Robins). its interpretation over time. In the Middle King- Amarna artists claimed that Akhenaton himself dic- dom, its purpose was to provide “ascension by day”; tated the artwork changes of the time (Murnane: by the New Kingdom it had added other purposes 129). After the Amarna Period, artwork returned to such as enabling the user to “transform into any the previous 18-square proportions. Starting with form that he desires.” Lines such as “I am Re at his the 25th Dynasty, a 21-square grid between the sole first appearance” were understood in the Middle and the upper eyelid with 17 squares between the Kingdom as meaning “when he rises in his horizon sole and the upper eyelid used on seated figures at dawn.” In the New Kingdom, the text was al- (Robins). tered to read “I am Re at his first appearance, when Egyptian art typically arranges subjects in regis- he began to rule.” New Kingdom glosses show an ters which are often read from bottom to top. Ob- expanded interpretation: “It is when Re was first jects are usually depicted as composites with the crowned as king before the supports of Shu came parts shown in the most distinctive and recogniza- into being, while he was on the hill that is in Her- ble form possible: the head is in profile, with the mopolis, when he destroyed the children of iniquity eye shown directly, feet are shown from the outside, among the gods who are in Hermopolis.” Starting torsos are shown from the side but the clothing cov- with the Saite period the text was changed to read ering it from the front. This often leaves figures “I am Re in his appearance when his rule began.” with two hands or feet from the same side. This text was interpreted to mean “It is when Re The typical color spectrum known from Egyp- was first crowned in Herakleopolis, when I was tian texts was black, white, red/brown, and green/ coming into being after Nun had been exalted, blue, though the Egyptian snake manual describes while he was on the hill that is in Hermopolis, after other colors as well. Colors are used symbolically. he destroyed the children of iniquity on the hill The gods are depicted with skin of gold and beards that is in Hermopolis.” of lapis lazuli. Red was often associated with ene- At the same time, there were also different in- mies. Execration figurines and pottery were speci- terpretations of the text. In the New Kingdom, the fied as being red. God’s names were usually written line: “I am the great god who created himself” was in black ink, even in rubrics. Blue shading through interpreted by some as meaning “he is Nun, father turquoise into green was the color both of the water of the gods” and by others as “he is Re.” Some inter- (the sea was “the big blue,” usually mistranslated preted the lines “I am yesterday; I know tomorrow” “the great green”) and of vegetation and thus fresh- allegorically to refer to the sun god, Re, conquering ness. the enemies of the cosmocrator, while others took Several cases are known where Egyptian art- the same lines as the burial of Osiris. work inspired Levantine/Israelite artwork: while Mesopotamia used cylinder-seals and Egypt also Bibliography: ■ Assmann, J., The Search for God in Ancient did in Early Dynastic times (4th millennium BCE), Egypt (Ithaca, N.Y. 2001). ■ Assmann, J., Tod und Jenseits im Alten Ägypten (München 2001). ■ Gee, J., “A New Look at stamped seals in the form of scarabs began to be the Conception of the Human Being in Ancient Egypt,” in used by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom Being in Ancient Egypt (ed. R. Nyord/A. Kjølby; Oxford 2009) (early second millennium BCE). Seal bearers were in

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 493 Egypt, Ancient 494 charge of expeditions to foreign countries and car- BCE) and survive until the Roman period. Texts de- ried this practice to Nubia and the Levant. Egyptian scribe their protective function as spitting forth fire scarabs were circulating in the Levant in the Middle and punishing rebels. By the New Kingdom, they Kingdom on, and the practice was firmly en- form a frieze protecting deities in their shrines and trenched in Judah and the surrounding countries. they can be depicted with wings. Also associated The winged scarab appears in Egypt by at least with deity were seraphim which were fiery serpents the end of the 18th Dynasty (early 13th cent. BCE) (Num 21 : 6, 8; Deut 8 : 15; Isa 6 : 2, 6; 14 : 29; 30 : 6). and is used through at least the Libyan period. This The Egyptian scripts were a form of artwork. motif decorates a number of royal seals from Judah. Hieroglyphs, hieratic and even demotic, could The depiction of a figure with an uplifted arm range from utilitarian to calligraphic. During the prepared to smite appears before the First Dynasty New Kingdom, Egyptian script spread into the Le- (3100–2890 BCE) and is used until Roman times. It vant. In the height of the Libyan period (1069–715 is an iconographic depiction of the Egyptian ex- BCE), even though cultural contact seems to have pression to raise the hand (pr ) which meant to do been limited, Egyptian script was used in the Neo- violence. The outer pylon of Egyptian temples often Assyrian Empire a century before the Assyrian con- depicts the king in this pose, poised ready to strike quest of Egypt. All pre-exilic Heb. numerals are foreigners as a warning for the violent death that from Egyptian (hieratic or demotic) numerals. awaits foreigners violating the sacred temple pre- Egyptians valued eloquence. The Shipwrecked cincts. The image was adopted in the Levant as an Sailor claims that “a man’s speech can always save image of Baal and is referenced many times in the him.” The Instruction of Ptahhotep claims that “el- Bible as the Lord’s “outstretched arm” indicating oquence is more hidden than an amulet yet may be wrath (Exod 6 : 6; 7 : 5; 8 : 5–6, 17; 9 : 22; 10 : 12, 21– found among women at the grindstones.” Egyptian 22; 14 : 16, 21, 26–27; Deut 4 : 34; 5 : 15; 7 : 19; literature employed several common rhetorical de- 9 : 29; 11 : 2; 26 : 8; Josh 8 : 19; 1 Kgs 8 : 42; 2 Kgs vices: 17 : 36; 1 Chr 21 : 16; 2 Chr 6 : 32; Job 15 : 25; Ps Parallelism is common throughout Egyptian. 136 : 12; Prov 1 : 24; Isa 5 : 25; 9 : 12, 17, 21; 10 : 4; Anaphora, repeated initial words, is common in 14 : 26–27; 23 : 11; 31 : 3; 45 : 12; Jer 6 : 12; 15 : 6; hymns. Apanalepsis, irregularly repeated words, is 21 : 5; 27 : 5; 32 : 17, 21; 51 : 25; Ezek 6 : 14; 14 : 9; a common feature of literary texts. Alliteration, re- 16 : 27; 20 : 33–34; 25 : 7, 13, 16; 30 : 25; 35 : 3; Zeph peated initial sounds, is common in all texts. Epis- 1 : 4; 2 : 13). trophe, the repetition of ending words, is found in During festivals and oracles, the Egyptian multiple genres. Antonomasia, substituting a de- priests would carry around the god on poles in a scriptive phrase for a proper name, is common in portable shrine (sometimes shaped like a boat) religious texts. Epizeuxis, repeated adjacent words, made of gold-plated wood. These arks are attested is common for emphasis. Epexegesis, the reinter- from the Old Kingdom through the Roman period. pretation of what has just been said, occurs in a few These bear some similarity to the ark of the cove- religious texts. Bdelygmia, expressions of hatred, is nant (Exod 25 : 10–18). Egyptian arks were pro- common in both religious and historical texts. Epi- tected by winged figures, usually goddesses, similar crisis, the quotation and comment on a passage, is to the Israelite cherubim (Exod 25 : 19–20). Images of gods spearing snakes which appear mainly known from letters. Isocolon, the repetition between the New Kingdom (late second millen- of the same number of syllables, has been assumed nium BCE) and the Roman period became a model to be ubiquitous in Egyptian but it ubiquity may for iconography of St. George and the Dragon. be overstated. Merismus, the division of a whole Old Kingdom images of a goddess nursing the into parts, is frequent. Metallage, treating a word king provided the inspiration for New Kingdom or phrase as an object, is common. Protrope, calling images of Isis nursing Horus (Isis lactans or Γαλακ- to action by threats, is common in religious texts. ττρυσα) which in turn provided the inspira- Skotison, purposeful obscurity, is common in reli- tions for Roman period images of Madonna and gious texts. child. Some peculiarities of Egyptian limit certain rhe- Developing in the New Kingdom, Horus cippi de- torical devices. Egyptian syntax tends to be rigid picted Horus the child mastering wild beasts and and so chiasmus tends to be rare. Hyperbaton, un- were used to ward off the ill effects of snakes, scor- usual word order, is attested though not frequently. pions, and wild animals. They first appear in the Egyptian rhetoric prefers using different vocabulary New Kingdom and spread outside of Egypt from and polyptoton, repeated word roots, which tends Mesopotamia to to Europe and served as to be used more rarely than in Hebrew. Because partial inspiration for the apocryphal Infancy Gos- vowels are not normally recorded until Coptic, rhe- pel of Matthew where the baby Jesus wards off and torical devices that depend on vowels are unknown. tames wild beasts. Dancing and music are depicted in artwork. Serpents protecting the king in the form of uraei Both are a major component of festivals, and almost are known already by the 4th Dynasty (2613–2494 all religious texts were sung. Musical instruments

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 495 Egypt, Ancient 496 included harps and sistrems. Unfortunately, little such as Jerusalem, Megiddo, Shechem, Gezer, and in the way of musical notation has survived and it Gath. In this historical period, the Merenptah Stela is not understood. Most music and dancing were (1208 BCE) is important, since it witnesses to a peo- segregated by gender. ple group called “Israel” in the southern Levant. Clothing styles change over time but there With the arrival of the 11th century, the Egyptian seems to have been a tendency to depict people in Pharaohs had to retreat little by little out of the traditional dress in artwork. Linen was the predom- Syro-Palestinian land bridge (at the latest with inant fabric until the 7th century CE when wool Ramses IV, but presumably already under Ramses began to be used. Linen dropped out of use by the III). From the end of the Ramesside period (1069) 9th century CE. until the 7th century, Egypt was primarily con-

Bibliography: ■ Daview, W. V., Colour and Painting in Ancient cerned with inner-Egyptian politics and undertook Egypt (London 2001). ■ Lieven, A. van, “Music Archaeol- no more noteworthy expansion endeavours in ogy – Music Philology: Sources on Ancient Egyptian Music Syria/Palestine. Cultural or political contacts at the and Their Inherent Problems,” in Musikarchäologische Quel- time of Solomon (such as Pharaoh’s daughter and lengruppen (Rahden 2004) 99–105. ■ Murnane, W. J., Texts an Egyptian campaign, see 1 Kgs 9 : 16) cannot be from the Amarna Period in Egypt (Atlanta, Ga. 1995). ■ Prit- proven on the basis of current sources and must be chard, F., Clothing Culture: Dress in Egypt in the First Millen- evaluated on the basis of archaeological finds. The nium AD (Manchester 2006). ■ Robins, G., Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art (Austin, Tex. 1994). ■ Sauneron, only noteworthy activity is a campaign of the S., Un traité égyptien d’ophiologie (Cairo 1989). ■ Tram Tan founder of the 22nd Dynasty, Sheshonq I, to Pales- Tinh, V., Isis Lactans (Leiden 1973). ■ Wilkinson, R. H., tine in the year 926 BCE, which is reported in the Symbol and Magic in Egyptian Art (London 1994). Bible (1 Kgs 14 : 25–28; 2 Chr 12 : 2–9) as well as in John Gee an Egyptian source (the so-called ‘Bubastide portal’ I. Relations with Syro-Palestine in the temple of Karnak, second pylon). From an Egyptian perspective, Syria/Palestine comes into fo- The Bible offers only a small excerpt of the histori- cal relations between Egypt and Syro-Palestine. cus again because of the westward expansion of the This is confirmed by the results of archaeology and new Assyrians in the 8th century BCE. The Egyp-  historical-critical research. Numerous biblical state- tian Pharaoh (called “So” [Heb. Sô ] in 2 Kgs 17 : 4 = ments assume a certain representation of Egypt that Osorkon IV?), however, did not respond to a request cannot be historically construed. This is especially for help from the last king of Israel, . In the true for the early history of Israel, whether it is the time of Hezekiah of Judah, the new Pharaohs of the migrations of the patriarchs (Abraham, Gen 12), the Cushite 25th Dynasty (728/716–656) were active in Joseph story (Gen 37–50), or Israel’s sojourn in southern Palestine but were challenged by the As- Egypt (Exod 1–14). Thus, questions about the exo- syrians, who in five campaigns move all the way to dus or the historicity of Moses can hardly be fielded Thebes and subordinated the Egyptians (663 BCE). from a historical perspective. If one starts from With the withdrawal of the Assyrians, the new rul- what is reasonably assured, Palestine/Israel was im- ers of the 26th Dynasty (Psammetich I, and then portant from the Egyptian perspective for two main Necho II) took control over the southern Levant in reasons: (1) trade – because of the significance of 630 BCE, so that the kingdom of Judah presumably the coast for maritime trade and overland trade already under Josiah fell under Egyptian suze- routes, and (2) politics – specifically as a buffer rainty. In the battle of Carcemish in the year 605 against the opponents in the Northeast, whether it BCE, the ascendency transferred to the New Babylo- was the Hittites and the kingdom of Mitanni in the nians, who held it until the Persians. The historical second millennium BCE or the Assyrians, new Bab- period from the late 8th until the 6th century BEC ylonians, and Persians in the first millennium BCE. was the first era of direct cultural contacts between Archeologically, there is evidence of trade con- Egypt and Israel and formed the prelude to a cul- tacts between Egypt and Palestine already in the tural exchange that stretched into the Greco-Roman 4th and 3rd millenniums BCE (potsherds with the period. In this period, Judahites fled to Egypt (see name of Pharaoh Narmer [ca. 3000 BCE] and Egyp- for example Jer 43) and settled there (cf. also the tian pottery in Arad). Individual locales, e.g., Me- reports in and in the Egyptian sources). giddo, Ashkelon, Hazor, and Jerusalem are men- Especially important in the Persian period is the tioned in the so-called Egyptian ‘execration texts’ Jewish military colony in Elephantine, where corre- (12th Dynasty, ca. 1700 BCE). In the New Kingdom spondence was preserved that contains significant this territory was important, due to the extensive historical information about the religion of Egyp- program of expansion under the Pharaohs of the tian Jews. Egypt, like Jehud, was a part of the Per- 18th to 20th Dynasties (1539–1069 BCE). In the sian empire and in the Greek period was controlled course of this expansion parts of Syro-Palestine was by the Ptolemies (306 Ptolemy I Soter). Judea was subjected and controlled from Egypt. The Amarna one of several provinces in the Ptolemaic empire Letters from the middle of the 14th century provide and was administered from Alexandria (see the a glimpse into the vassal system and name places Zenon papyri). The close contacts are clearly illus-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 497 Egypt, Ancient 498 trated by the fact that between 240 and 218 BCE, an inscrutable language (Ps 114 : 1) and have exotic Joseph Ben Tobia held office as the highest tax offi- conventions (Gen 43 : 33; 46 : 34). Older research cial of the Ptolemaic kingdom in all of the com- tried to find Egyptian deities in the OT (Amon in bined Coile-Syria province and by the fact that the Jer 46 : 25; Osiris in Exod 6 : 24; Apis [Hapi] in Jer son of the high-priest Onias IV, after his flight to 46 : 15 LXX). More interesting are Egyptian per- Egypt in the year 170 BCE, received permission sonal names with a theophoric element: Asenat from Ptolemy IV Philopator to build a temple for (Neith: Gen 41 : 45, 50; 46 : 20); Harnefer (Horus: the Jewish colony in Leontopolis. In 63 BCE, Judea 1 Chr 7 : 36); Potiphar (Re: Gen 41 : 45; 50; 46 : 20); came under Roman domination, and with the plun- Paschhur (Horus: Jer 20 : 1–3; see in the ancient dering of Alexandria on the 1st of August, 30, and Heb. inscriptions: Eshor [Horus] and Qadbes [Bes]). the suicide of Cleopatra VII Philopator on the 12th An allusion to the divine character of the Pharaoh of August, 30, Egypt experienced its decisive and as an important element of the Egyptian royal ide- final defeat and fell under Roman control. ology can be found in Ezek 32. Egyptian pharaohs are mentioned in the Bible Bibliography: ■ Ash, P. S., David, Solomon and Egypt (JSOT- Sup 297; Sheffield 1999). ■ Chaveau, M., Egypt in the Age only for the time when direct historical-cultural of Cleopatra (Ithaca, N. Y./London 2000). ■ Frankfurter, D., contacts exist: Shoshenq I (945–24, 22nd Dynasty: Religion in Roman Egypt: Assimilation and Resistance (Princeton, 1 Kgs 14 : 25; 2 Chr 12 : 2, 5, 7; 1 Kgs 11 : 40); Ta- N.J. 1998). ■ Görg, M., Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Alten harqa (690–64, 25th Dynasty: 2 Kgs 19 : 9; Isa 37 : 9); Israel und Ägypten (EdF 290; Darmstadt 1997). ■ Helck, W., Necho II (610–595, 26th Dynasty: 2 Kgs 23 : 20, 33– Die Beziehungen Ägyptens zu Vorderasien im 3. und 2. Jahrtausend 35; 2 Chr 35 : 20–22; 36 : 4; Jer 46 : 2); (589– v. Chr. (ÄgAbh 5; Wiesbaden 21971). ■ Hölbl, G., A History 70, 26th Dynasty: Jer 44 : 30) and perhaps Osorkon of the Ptolemaic Empire (London/New York 22001). ■ Kitchen, K., The Third Intermediate Period (Warminster IV (730/728–715/713, 22/23rd Dynasty as “So” in 31995). ■ Lipin´ ski, E., On the Skirts of Canaan in the Iron Age 2 Kgs 17 : 4). During the time of the monarchy in (OLA 153; Leuven 2006). ■ Morenz, S., “Ägypten: III. Israel, Egypt is famous for its military power and Ägypten und die Bibel,” RGG3 1 (Tübingen 1957) 117–206. sought after as a coalition partner (Hosea of Israel: ■ Redford, D. B., Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times 2 Kgs 17 : 4; Hezekiah of Judah: 2 Kgs 18 : 19; 19 : 9; (Princeton, N.J. 1993). ■ Schipper, B. U., Israel und Ägypten probably Zedekiah: Jer 37 : 7). in der Königszeit (OBO 170; Freiburg i.Ue./Göttingen 1999). (b) The image of Egypt in the Bible is ambigu- ■ Schipper, B. U., “Egypt and the Kingdom of Judah under Josiah and Jehoiakim,” TA 37 (2010) 200–26. ■ Williams, ous. Most of the evidence refers to the oppression R. J., “Ägypten: II. Ägypten und Israel,” TRE 1 (Berlin/New of the people of Israel in Egypt and the exodus. York 1975) 492–505. ■ Wilson, K. A., The Campaign of Phar- Thus, Egypt is seen as a “house of slavery” (espe- aoh Shoshenq I into Palestine (FAT 2/9; Tübingen 2005). cially in Deuteronomy and the Dtr literature, see Exod 20 : 2; Deut 6 : 12, passim) and as an “iron fur- II. / Old Testament nace” (Deut 4 : 20; 1 Kgs 8 : 51; Jer 11 : 4; Isa 48 : 10), Egypt is mentioned 678 times in the HB/OT, being from which YHWH has “brought out” (y-ṣ-: Exod the most important of the nations surrounding Is- 16 : 6; 20 : 2; Lev 22 : 33; Deut 5 : 6; et al.) or rael. The identity of biblical Israel is bound deci- “brought up” (-l-h: Lev 11 : 45; Num 14 : 13; Deut sively with the exodus and the foundational figure 20 : 1, passim). Alongside stands the more neutral Moses. Therefore, Egypt can become a general ci- statement that Israel was a “stranger” (gēr) in Egypt pher for the election of Israel by YHWH (Hos (Exod 22 : 20; 23 : 9; Lev 19 : 33–34; Deut 10 : 19). In 12 : 10; 13 : 4). prophetic texts Egypt is seen – probably against the (a) The knowledge of the Bible about the land backdrop of the political history – as a land being of Egypt is small and mainly limited to its northern asked for help because of its military power but not part. From 13 cities which are mentioned, only two as a dependable source of help (see the prominent are in the South (No [Theben] und Syene [Assuan]) word of the “crushed reed” in 2 Kgs 18 : 21; 36 : 6; and the remaining eleven in the northern part “Up- Ezek 29 : 6; Isa 30 : 1–5). The prophetic critique is per Egypt”: Zoan (Tanis), the city of Ramesses, expanded in elaborated oracles against Egypt (Jer Migdol, Pi-Beset (), Tachpanes (Daphne), 42–44; 46; Isa 18; 19; Ezek 29–32) that contain a Noph (Memphis), Hanes (Herakleopolis), Sin (Sais), lot of Egyptian local color. In contrast to the sharp Ir-Heres/On (Heliopolis), (only in the NT: Alexan- and polemical prophetic critique (Ezek 16 : 26; dria in Acts 18 : 24; 27 : 6; 28 : 11). The Nile is men- 23 : 20) stand a number of positive statements about tioned often (Gen 41; Exod 1; Ezek 29 passim); an Egypt: most significant in the story of Joseph (Gen allusion to the Nile flood is probably found in Jer 37–50), but also in isolated references such as Egypt 46:8. as place of wisdom (1 Kgs 5 : 10) as a place to escape With the exception of mummification (Gen (of Abraham: Gen 12 : 10; of the adversaries of Solo- 50 : 5–6, 26), Egyptian conventions and practices are mon, Hadad and Jeroboam: 1 Kgs 11 : 14–25, 40; not known in the Bible. Egypt is seen as a rich 12 : 2; of the prophet Uriah: Jer 26 : 20–24; of a country (Isa 45 : 14, parallel to Kush; Num 20 : 5; group of Judahites after the death of Gedaliah: Jer Lam 5 : 6; cf. Heb 11 : 26), whose inhabitants speak 41 : 17; 42 : 13–22; 2 Kgs 25 : 26). The most positive

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 499 Egypt, Ancient 500 statement on Egypt occurs in Isa 19 : 24–25 (see Mic 11, where Jesus recapitulates the temptations of Is- 7 : 12) where Egypt, along with to Israel and As- rael’s experiences in the desert). Probably in the syria, is named a “people of YHWH” and is blessed background is the idea that, before the consumma- by God. tion, the pattern, exodus/return, will repeat itself

Bibliography: ■ Boadt, L., Oracles against Egypt: A Literary and (cf. Isa 40 : 3–4; Ezek 20 : 33–44; Hos 2 : 14–15). Philological Study of 29–32 (BibOr 37; Rome 1980). A different sort of typology appears in Rev ■ Boer, P. A. H. de, “Egypt in the Old Testament,” in id., 11 : 7–8. This foretells that, when two eschatologi- Selected Studies in Old Testament Exegesis (ed. C. van Duin; Lei- cal witnesses have finished their testimony, “the den 1991) 152–67. ■ Görg, M., Die Beziehungen zwischen dem beast that comes up from the bottomless pit will Alten Israel und Ägypten (EdF 290; Darmstadt 1997). ■ Ha- make war on them and conquer them and kill sitschka, M., “Ägypten im Neuen Testament: Eine bibeltheo- them, and their dead bodies will lie in the street of logische Skizze,” PzB 10 (2001) 75–83. ■ Kaiser, O., Israel the great city that is prophetically called Sodom and und Ägypten: Die politischen und kulturellen Beziehungen zwischen dem Volk der Bibel und dem Land der Pharaonen (Zeitschrift des Egypt, where also their Lord was crucified.” The Museums zu Hildesheim, Neue Folge 14; Hildesheim 1963). city is Jerusalem, which is censured as Sodom else- ■ Kessler, R., Die Ägyptenbilder der Hebräischen Bibel: Ein Beitrag where (e.g., Jer 23 : 14; Ezek 16 : 46). But the refer- zur neueren Monotheismusdebatte (SBS 197; Stuttgart 2002). ence to Egypt is odd. It is not a city, and precedent ■ Montet, P., Das alte Ägypten und die Bibel (Bibel und Archäo- for likening Egypt to Jerusalem appears lacking (al- logie 4; Zürich 1960). ■ Morenz, S., “Ägypten: III. Ägypten though in Matt 2 Herod and the leaders of Jerusa- 3 ■ und die Bibel,” RGG 1 (Tübingen 1957) 194–206. Pfei- lem act like Pharaoh and the counselors of Egypt). fer, G., Ägypten im Alten Testament (BN Beiheft 8; München Perhaps Egypt is paired with Sodom because of its 1995). ■ Ringgren, H., “Misrayim,” ThWAT 4 (Stuttgart 1984) 1099–111. ■ Russell, S. C., Images of Egypt in Early association with idolatry (Isa 19 : 1; Ezek 20 : 7). Biblical Literature: Cisjordan-Israelite, -Israelite, and The NT does not attest to the presence of Chris- Judahite Portrayals (BZAW 403; Berlin/New York 2009). tians in Egypt, although Acts 2 : 10 purports that ■ Sawyer, J. F. A., “‘Blessed be My People Egypt’ (Isaiah Egyptian Jews were present when Peter preached 19 : 25): The Context and Meaning of a Remarkable Pas- at Pentecost. sage,” in A Word in Season, FS W. McKane (ed. J. D. Martin/ P. R. Davies; JSOTSup 42; Sheffield 1986) 57–71. Bibliography: ■ Allison Jr., D. C., The New Moses (Minneapo- ■ Talmon, S., “Ägypten und Israel aus biblischer Sicht,” in lis, Minn. 1993). ■ Brown, R. E., The Birth of the Messiah 2 5000 Jahre Ägypten: Genese und Permanenz pharaonischer Kunst (New York 1993). (ed. J. Assmann/G. Burkhard; Heidelberg 1983) 129–39. Dale C. Allison, Jr. ■ Williams, R. J., “Ägypten: II. Ägypten und Israel,” TRE 1( Berlin 1975) 492–505. ■ Williams, R. J., “‘A People Come IV. Judaism out of Egypt’: An Egyptologist Looks at the Old Testament,” ■ Second Temple and Hellenistic Judaism ■ Rabbinic in Congress Volume Edinburgh 1974 (ed. G. W. Anderson et al.; Judaism ■ Medieval Judaism ■ Modern Judaism VTSup 28; Leiden 1975) 231–52. Bernd U. Schipper A. Second Temple and Hellenistic Judaism Egypt was a multivalent place for Jews in the Sec- III. New Testament ond Temple period. For all Jews, Egypt was con- In the NT, the mention of “Egypt” serves most of- nected primarily with the slavery and liberation of ten to recall famous HB/OT episodes as well as to the exodus story, and a number of authors retold indicate parallels between such episodes and stories the story in this period, usually keeping relatively from the life of Jesus or experiences of the early close to the biblical tale (e.g., L.A.B. of Pseudo-Philo, church. Josephus). For the most part Egypt was valued Acts (7 : 9–40; 13 : 17), Hebrews (3 : 16; 8 : 9; negatively, but this was not a universal perspective. 11 : 26–29), and Jude (5) mention Egypt when refer- Perhaps the most positive view taken of Egypt can ring to the histories of Jacob, Joseph, and Moses be found in the Letter of Aristeas. The author plays and to the exodus of Israel. In each case there are with the Exodus story, but Egypt was not for him only short summaries, it being assumed that read- a place of oppression; whereas in the biblical story ers are familiar with the important stories in Gene- God’s people must escape from an oppressive Phar- sis and Exodus. In Stephen’s speech in Acts 7, part aoh, in this version Ptolemy II Philadelphus is cast of the message seems to be that the divine presence as a benevolent pharaoh who releases the Jews from is not bound exclusively to Jerusalem (cf. 7 : 44–50). slavery (§§ 12–27) and acts as a patron of the project In Hebrews, the appeal to Egypt consistently serves to translate the . As a result, the Mosaic law a hortatory function (cf. Jude 5). is given to the Jewish community in the Gk. lan- In Matt 2, the parents of Jesus flee with him to guage, while they reside in Alexandria, without the the safety of Egypt when Herod threatens the life need for an exodus. of a potential royal rival. This is part of Matthew’s Egypt’s hoary antiquity and reputation for an- Moses typology: Jesus recapitulates events from the cient wisdom served the propagandistic needs of life of Moses (Allison). But the quotation of Hos some Jewish writers. Aristeas refers twice to learned 11 : 1 in Matt 2 : 15 further implies that Jesus also Egyptian priests who can testify to the devout char- recapitulates the experience of Israel (cf. Matt 4 : 1– acter of the Jews (§§ 6, 140). Josephus also appeals

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 501 Egypt, Ancient 502 to Egypt in order to demonstrate the great an- most hateful animals, which are worse than all tiquity and higher wisdom of the Jews. Although others when judged by their lack of intelligence; Egyptians are said to excel in understanding, Solo- and even as animals they are not so beautiful in mon surpassed Egyptian wisdom (Ant. 8.42). Egyp- appearance that one would desire them” (15 : 18– tian records, which predate those of the Greeks, tes- 19). tify to the Jews’ own ancient roots (Ag. Ap. 1.70, 73– Among the DSS, besides direct references to the 90, 215). As a way of contesting Gk. wisdom, Jose- Exodus story, there are several mentions of Egypt, phus claims that Gk. philosophers were actually although perhaps not as many as one might expect. disciples of Egyptian wisdom (Ag. Ap. 1.14). The In a number of cases, Egypt figures in eschatologi- early Sibylline Oracles also look favorably toward cal scenarios. 4Q462 (Narrative C) 1, 13 might refer Egypt as the source of a Ptolemaic savior-king un- to the post-exilic Jewish community in Egypt as en- der whom an eschatological age would begin during a second captivity that will precede the full (3.193–95). restoration of Israel. In 1QM, the War Scroll, Other texts show a more competitive relation- Egypt’s idols appear as the object of the “fire of his ship with Egypt. The fragments of the Alexandrian [i.e., God’s] wrath.” In the eschatological events of Jewish writer Artapanus preserved by Eusebius of 4Q387 (Apocryphon of Jeremiah Cb), God will both Caesarea in his Preparation for the Gospel do not dis- “break” Israel and the “kingdom of Egypt.” Accord- play antipathy but rather a sense of having to prove ing to Devorah Dimant, the diatribe of 4Q385b Jewish superiority over Egypt. Whatever the Egyp- (4QPseudo-Ezekielc) points toward historical events tians are reputed to know well, they learned from surrounding Antiochus IV’s first Egyptian cam- the Jews. So, Abraham traveled to Egypt and taught paign. In this text we find an interpretation of the the Egyptians astrology (Fragment 1); during Jo- biblical Ezekiel’s so-called “oracles against the na- seph’s sojourn in Egypt, he organized Egyptian tions,” especially , where Egypt is des- farming and discovered measurements (Fragment tined for God’s destruction. 4Q386 (Pseudo-Ezek- b 2); the ultimate source of knowledge, both theoreti- iel ) col. II mentions events that will occur in cal and practical, was Moses, who, during his time Memphis, Egypt from which the Jews will return in Egypt, invented boats, stone construction, Egyp- as a remnant. tian weaponry and war strategy, implements for Bibliography: ■ Beavis, M. A. L., “Anti-Egyptian Polemic in drawing water, and philosophy. Artapanus further the Letter of Aristeas 130–165 (The High Priest’s Dis- credits him with establishing the traditional Egyp- course),” JSJ 18 (1987) 145–51. ■ Collins, J. J., The Sibylline tian districts, called nomes, and even with institut- Oracles of Egyptian Judaism (SBLDS 13; Missoula, Mont. 1972). ■ Dimant, D. (ed.), Qumran Cave 4 XXI Parabiblical Texts, Part ing the Egyptian worship of animals (theriolatry), a 4: Pseudo-Prophetic Texts (Oxford 2001). ■ Holladay, C. R. practice universally condemned elsewhere in Jewish (ed.), Fragments from Hellenistic Jewish Authors: Volume I: Histori- literature (Fragment 3)! ans (SBLTT 20; Chico, Calif. 1983). ■ Smith, M. (ed.), “462. Finally, quite a number of Jewish authors treat 4QNarrative C,” in Qumran Cave 4, XIV: Parabiblical Texts, Part Egypt with outright disdain or utter scorn. Philo of 2 (ed. M. Broshi et al.; DJD 19; Oxford 1995) 195–209. Alexandria denigrates Egypt in his allegorical inter- Benjamin G. Wright III pretations by making the country signify the body, B. Rabbinic Judaism the passions, or both, as well as sensory pleasures, The engagement with Egypt that transpired in the aspects directly in contrast with mind and reason, HB was continued in rabbinic literature. One of the for example. Thus, Israel’s dwelling in Egypt signi- critical objectives was to set boundaries of Jewish fied a depraved and carnal life (On the Posterity of identity by presenting rabbinic Judaism in opposi- Cain, 156). The worst invective in Jewish literature tion to Egyptian culture; Egypt was a symbol of the was reserved for Egyptian theriolatry. Even as irenic “Other” (Ulmer 2009). Knowledge of Egypt was de- a book as the Letter of Aristeas condemns this prac- rived partially from contact with Greco-Roman tice, calling those who engage in it “vain” (§ 138). Egypt and the spread of Hellenistic-Roman culture. The Sibylline Oracles Book 5 inveighs against Egypt Additionally, there was an abundance of popular both for persecuting Jews and for idol worship. knowledge of Egyptian medicine, wisdom, and Three of the six oracles in the book predict woes magic in late antiquity. The Nile inundation is to befall Egypt, sometimes connecting them with mentioned in rabbinic texts: “R. Judah said: Like idolatry: “They worship stone and brute beasts in- the Nile, which repeatedly waters [Egypt]” (BerR stead of God, revering very many things…and you 13 : 9) and in commentaries (, Gen 41 : 10). A Alexandria, famous nurse of cities, war will not midrashic analysis of Deut 11 : 10 in SifDev 38 dis- leave you” (5.77–78, 88–89). Perhaps the harshest tinguishes between the landscapes of Egypt and Is- criticisms of idolatry come from the author of the rael. Wisdom of Solomon. The second half of the book Egyptian festivals are mentioned (Lachs; Ulmer narrates biblical events from Adam to Moses with 2009). During the festival of Pharaoh’s birthday Lady Wisdom guiding them. Particular venom is di- (Gen 41 : 1), Joseph was left behind in his master’s rected at Egypt: “Moreover they worship even the house (BerR 88 : 6), avoiding idolatry by not partici-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 503 Egypt, Ancient 504 pating in the festival, but being pursued by Poti- Nile” (Gen 41 : 1) in ShemR 5 : 14 or “the Nile is phar’s wife (Ulmer 1992/93). The Egyptian festivals mine and I made it” (Ezek 29 : 9) in Tan Waera 5; in BerR 88 : 6 and BerR 87 : 11 could be based upon the Nile God Nilos from Roman Egypt is also men- the Romanized Nile festival or the Egyptian Opet tioned (BerR 69 : 4). festival; a festival in ShemR 11 : 11 could be based Egyptian worship of “lambs,” possibly the god upon the Romanized version of the Hebsed festival. Khnum (Ulmer 2010) is attested: “the Egyptians The retrieval of Joseph’s coffin during the exodus worshiped lambs” (TanB Bo 3; bShab 89a). The Isra- contains specific elements from Egyptian culture elites were requested to slay the Egyptian ‘lamb (Heller; Horovitz; Ulmer 2009), including the Osiris god’: “God said to Moses: As long as Israel worships myth (MekhYBeshallaḥ 1; ShemR 20 : 19; DevR 11 : 7), Egyptian gods, they will not be redeemed; go and based mainly upon the version in Papyrus Jumilhac. tell them to abandon their evil ways and to reject Güdemann equated Serah bat Asher with Isis. The idolatry. This is the meaning of ‘draw out and take magic that Moses performs to raise the coffin is for yourselves lambs’ (Exod 12 : 21). [This means:] similar to Egyptian magical practices (Ulmer 2009). Draw away your hands from idolatry and take for Moses was walking through the city for three days and yourselves lambs, thereby slaying the gods of Egypt three nights, trying to locate Joseph’s coffin, since the and preparing the Passover [sacrifice]; this is the Israelites could not leave Egypt without Joseph. Why? way the Lord will protect you” (ShemR 16 : 2). ShemR Because he bound them by oath before his death, as it 20 : 19 refers to Anubis: “The Egyptians had made is said, “So Joseph made the Israelites swear, saying dogs out of gold, by means of magic, which barked ‘When God comes to you, you shall carry up my bones for forty days whenever a man approached the cof- from here’” (Gen 50 : 25). When Moses had become ex- fin; but Moses silenced them, as it is said: ‘But not tremely tired Serah bat Asher met him; seeing that he was tired she said to him: ‘My lord Moses, why are you a dog shall growl at any of the Israelites’ (Exod tired?’ He said: ‘For three days and nights I have been 11 : 7).” Other gods referred to include: Isis and Se- walking through the city to locate Joseph’s coffin, but rapis (tAZ 5 : 1),  (YalqShim 1, 372), Horus (MekhY I cannot find it.’ She said to him: ‘Come, I will show Beshallah 2), Neith (bAZ 11b), (bYev 98a) you where it is.’ She brought him to the river and said and Haroeris (yMQ 3 : 7, 83c) (Ulmer 2009, 2010). to him: ‘This is the place where the magicians and as- The “Egyptian” language is mentioned, and trologers constructed a coffin of five hundred talents there are Egyptian and Coptic loan-words (Ulmer for him and cast it into the river; they said to Pharaoh: 2009): “When the Holy One, Blessed be He, came If it is your wish that this people shall never leave, then as long as they will not find the bones of Joseph, they to give the Torah to Israel, He spoke to them in a will be unable to leave.’ Immediately Moses stood by language they knew and understood, anokhi (I am) the bank of the river and called out: Joseph, Joseph, the Lord your God’ (Exod 20 : 2). R. Nehemiah said, you know how you swore to Israel, ‘God will surely What kind of word is anokhi? – an Egyptian word. remember you’ (Gen 50 : 25)? Give honor to the God In Egypt, when someone wishes to say ‘I’ he says of Israel and do not delay the redemption of Israel … anokh”(TanB Yitro 16). Immediately Joseph’s coffin began to break through The sojourn in Egypt served as an example of the water and to rise from the depths like a stalk of initial assimilation and the subsequent return to reed. Moses took it and placed it upon his shoulder and one’s heritage, as experienced by Joseph and Moses carried it, and all Israel followed him (DevR 11 : 7; cf. MekhY Beshallaḥ 1). (PRE 38). The command not to return to Egypt (Exod 14 : 13; Deut 17 : 16; 28 : 68) is justified “be- Interpretations of “At midnight the Lord smote … cause it is bad for a slave to return to his master” all the first-born” (Exod 12 : 29) mention statues or (EstR Pet. 3); this injunction is acknowledged to depictions of a deceased family member (MekhY Pi- have had exceptions (MekhY Beshallah 3). sh a 13; PesRab 17 : 13), which resemble funeral prac- As a major city of the Jewish Diaspora, Alexan- tices (mummy portraits) of Roman Egypt. dria in Egypt, was viewed as a potential rival of Je- The Egyptian kings mentioned are the unspeci- rusalem (yHag 2 : 2, 77d); it was stereotyped as a fied “Pharaoh” (of the Exodus) and kings from later source of magic, sexual licentiousness, and wisdom historical engagements: Shoshenq (Shishaq) (bPes (EstR 1 : 17). Rabbinic texts recognized its skilled 119a), Necho (bTaan 22a; BemR 19 : 3), Apries (ShemR craftsmen (bAr 10b) and physicians (ShirR 4 : 13), 8 : 2) and Taharqa (Tirharka) (ShirR 4 : 20). With the and the magnificent double stoa (ySuk 5 : 1, 55a–b). exception of Cleopatra, the Ptolemies are generi- Several rabbis visited Alexandria (bSan 107a; bSan cally referred to as “Talmai” (BerR 38 : 10). Cleopatra 111a). Important sages, Shemaiah and Avtalyon is depicted as a physician schooled in Alexandrian (mAv 1), are said to have been proselytes from Alex- medical knowledge and as a cruel tormenter of her andria (bGit 57b). subordinates (tNid 4 : 17; Geiger). Queen Cleopatra (VII) participates in a discourse on the afterlife Bibliography: ■ Bohak, G., “Rabbinic Perspectives on Egyp- tian Religion,” Archiv für Religionsgeschichte 2 (2000) 215–31. (bSan 90b). ■ Geiger, J., “Cleopatra the Physician,” Zutot 1 (2001) 28– The rabbis criticized the Egyptian religion (Bo- 32. ■ Güdemann, M., Religionsgeschichtliche Studien (Leipzig hak). Pharaoh as the Nile god is based upon an in- 1876). ■ Heller, B., “Egyptian Elements in the Haggadah,” terpretation of “he was standing by [or, over] the in Ignace Goldziher Memorial Volume, vol. 1 (ed. S. Löwinger/J.

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Som´ ogyi; Budapest 1948) 412–18. ■ Horovitz, J., Die Jo- is therefore incumbent upon every individual to con- sephserzählung (Frankfurt a.M. 1921). ■ Lachs, S. T., “An sider himself as if he himself had gone forth from Egyptian Festival in Canticles Rabba,” JQR 51 (1960) 47–54. Egypt, for it was not only our ancestors whom He re- ■ Ulmer, R., “Zwischen ägyptischer Vorlage und talmudi- deemed in that comprehensive redemption, but us too scher Rezeption: Josef und die Ägypterin,” Kairos 24/25 He redeems and delivers every day from various troub- (1992/93) 75–90. ■ Ulmer, R., Egyptian Cultural Icons in Mid- les, just as He did for them; hence Scripture says, ‘He rash (SJ 52; Berlin/New York 2009). ■ Ulmer, R.,“The brought us out from there’ [Deut 6 : 23]. (apud Eisen- Egyptian Gods in Midrashic Texts,” HTR 103 (2010) 181– stein: 121a–b) 204. In addition to this symbolic-paradigmatic value, Rivka Ulmer biblical Egypt also took on more direct-prophetic C. Medieval Judaism relevance for medieval Jewry as they found them- As in the rabbinic period, so too in the medieval selves increasingly under the often wary and occa- period, Egypt was viewed as a symbol of the sionally outright hostile dominion of Muslim au- “Other” – i.e., as the exemplar of a religio-political thorities – this “Israel-Ishmael” enmity being group that is not only non-Jewish, but also usually perceived as a continuation of the enmity between at odds with the Jewish people (although this sym- Sarai and her “Egyptian handmaid” (Gen 16 : 1), as bolism is increasingly shared during the medieval subsequently between their sons Isaac and Ishmael. period by Edom/Esau (see “Edom, Edomites II. Ju- David Qimḥi (ca.1160–1235) comments on Joel daism”; “Esau III. Judaism”) as denoting Christian 3 : 19 (MT 4 : 19), with regard to God’s future (es- Gentiles and the Fourth Empire (see “Four Empires chatological) resolution of this enmity: III. Judiams”) generally). This perspective was fur- He mentions ‘Egypt’ with reference to the Ishmaelites, ther crystallized during the early geonic period (ca. for the wife of Ishmael was an Egyptian, as it says, ‘And 8th–9th cent.) by the compilation (from rabbinic she took a wife for him from the land of Egypt’ (Gen sources) of the Passover Haggadah (see “Haggadah 21 : 21); and it likewise says that Hagar (herself) was an Egyptian. Therefore it links this people (i.e., the Ishma- of Pesaḥ”) – a liturgical guide not only for perform- elites) to Egypt” (Miqraot gedolot 1992b ad loc.; cf. Ibn ing the first night’s ritual requirements, but also Ezra, who distinguishes between biblical and contem- for commemorating the exodus from Egypt (per porary Egypt and relates this prophecy to the desola- Exod 13 : 8–16), arguably the most important event tion of Egypt in the days of Nebuchadnezzar). in Jewish history with respect to its subsequent im- Notwithstanding such negative valuation, and as a pact on Jewish self-perception as a distinct corpo- testimony to the increasingly complex perspective rate entity living in an often hostile non-Jewish among medieval Jewry towards the concept of Egypt, world. both as a place and as a people, we also find that, Hence, biblical Egypt, perceived first and fore- relative to other Gentile nations, Egypt is viewed most through the exodus narrative (Exod 1–14) and with special distinction vis-à-vis her role in biblical the subsequent biblical references thereto (e.g., Jer narrative and prophecy. Thus, for example, Judah 32 : 20–21; Ezek 20 : 5–10; Pss 78; 105 : 23–38; 106; ha-Levi (d. 1141) begins his poem “Le-mitsrayim 114; 136 : 10–15; Neh 9 : 9–12), is equated by medi- alei kol ir” by eulogizing Egypt as the place where eval Jewish authors with the dominant Gentile God’s written word was first given and Israel was powers of their Jewish readership, just as the life of incubated as God’s “treasured possession” (cf. the Israelites in the “exile” of exodus-period Egypt Exod 19 : 5): is applied as a paradigm by which that same reader- Praise, above all cities, be unto Egypt ship is to live and from which it may draw comfort Whither came first the word of God. in their own medieval “exile.” Thus, in comment- There a chosen vine was planted ing on the Haggadah’s We-hi she-amedah (“And it is Whose clusters became a treasured possession. this [promise] that has stood firm …”), the author (32–35) of Kol bo (15th cent.) writes: “we find that the patri- archs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were aggrieved by Among the additional merits of Egypt enumerated various types of affliction and were (ultimately) de- by R. Judah, both in this poem and in his shorter livered, and thus also (i.e., after various afflictions) poem “Reeh arim” (ibid.: 2.3), are: it is the birth- were our ancestors in Egypt delivered, and thus also place of God’s messengers, Moses and Aaron; there we who are here (i.e., in the ‘exile’ of the Diaspora) God’s glory was manifest in pillars of fire and today” (apud Eisenstein: 145a). Even more specifi- cloud, and the divine presence (Shekhinah) passed cally, writing at a time when anti-Jewish sentiment through its streets (Exod 12 : 12); there miracles of would culminate in his coreligionists’ expulsion such kind and number were performed that “the from Spain and then his native Portugal, Isaac world has become filled with the glorious recollec- Abarbanel (1437–1508), in commenting on the "In tion of (God)”; its land is compared by Scripture to Each and Every Generation" passage, states that: the garden of Eden (Gen 13 : 10); and its people will Every Jew in this present exile will experience person- one day become “a third part” with Israel, with an ally the subjugation of the nations in a manner similar altar devoted to the exaltation of God’s name to that experienced by the entire nation in Egypt….It erected in her midst (Isa 19 : 19–25). To this list may

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 507 Egypt, Ancient 508 also be added, according to at least one 10th-cen- Compendium (in Hebrew) of Authoritative Commentaries and Orig- tury source (T ābā b. Salḥu¯ n’s Kitāb al-manāẓir): it inal Illustrations on the Hagada[!] (New York 1920). [Heb.] was one of the first nations blessed with the knowl- ■ Isaiah ben Mali of Trani, Perush Neviim u-Khetuvim, vol. 2 1 edge of philosophy and the other sciences (Ben- 1 (ed. A. J. Wertheimer; Jerusalem 1978 [= 1959]). [Heb.] ■ Judah ha-Levi, Selected Poems of Jehudah Halevi (ed. H. Brody; Shammai: 16–19, 22–23). trans. N. Salaman; Philadelphia, Pa. 1928). ■ Juda ha-Levi, This positive assessment of Egypt culminates Miqraot gedolot “Orim gedolim,” vol. 4, Yeshayah 1 (Jerusalem with the eschatological expectation – based on the 1992a). [Heb.] ■ Juda ha-Levi Miqraot gedolot “Orim ged- aforecited passage in Isaiah – of her ultimate incor- olim,” vol. 8, Terei As´ ar (Jerusalem 1992b). [Heb.] ■ Saadia poration into the community of God’s people, such ben Joseph, Siddur R. Seadyah Gaon [Kitāb jāmi al-ṣalawāt wa- that she is considered not only “a third part” with l-tasābı¯ ḥ] (ed. I. Davidson et al.; Jerusalem 32000 [= 11941]). Israel, but in fact accorded the label typically re- [Heb. and Judeo-Arab.] served by God for Israel: “my people” (ammî; Isa Michael G. Wechsler 19 : 25). In this way Egypt – especially in light of D. Modern Judaism her aforementioned negative valuation, both sym- Images of ancient and modern Egypt have inter- bolic and direct – becomes a prophetic emblem of mingled in modern Judaism. The Bible has influ- the profound and enduring rapprochement be- enced perceptions of modern Egypt, and modern tween Israel and the Gentile nations that will be realities as well as modern archaeological discover- ushered in during the messianic age and continue ies have influenced interpretations of the Bible. into the World to Come. As Abarbanel writes in his Until 1948, modern Egypt was of relatively lit- commentary on Isa 19 : 23–25: tle interest to most Jews. Biblical and ancient Egypt Hence you may discern … that Egypt, Assyria, and all however were the subject of a series of exciting the lands of the East, after God executes vengeance on archaeological discoveries. Ancient Egyptian motifs them, will turn to the Lord and accept true faith in began to appear, for instance, in Passover Hagga- Him, and so they will have both “a name and a rem- dot, such as the Haggadah illustrated sumptuously nant” (cf. 2 Sam 14 : 7) in the land, … this will come to pass in the days of the Messiah, … on account of the by Arthur Szyk, first published in 1940. wonders that they will behold when the Messiah comes Archaeology could sometimes be used to rein- and gathers in the exiles (of Israel), and they will then force a profoundly negative view of Egypt. For in- celebrate the festival of the Lord, as He directed Zecha- stance, Martin Buber characterized Egypt in his Mo- riah the prophet [to say] (see Zech 14 : 16-21) … [and ses (1946) as a culture of slavery, alienation, and so] it refers to Egypt as His “people” and Assyria as His belief in magic, diametrically opposed, as he per- “handiwork,” all of them being a blessing in those ceived it, to the biblical message of freedom and days, insofar as they will all participate with Israel in [true] faith in the Lord – may He be exalted! – and connection. On the other hand, archaeology could [in] His [true] worship; thus all three of them will be a also be used as the basis for a more positive por- blessing in the midst of the land. (Miqraot gedolot 1992a trayal of ancient Egyptian culture. The view that ad loc.). Moses was actually an Egyptian by birth and cul- Whereas similar explanations are advanced by other ture and not an Israelite, and that Israelite mono- authorities such as Abraham Ibn Ezra (1089–1164) theism should be traced to Egyptian origins, was and David Qimḥi, others, in the vein of Targum presented most famously by Freud in Moses and Isaiah ad loc., hold to a much diminished eschato- Monotheism (1939; see “Freud, Sigmund”). Egyptian logical role and final spiritual status for Egypt, Jews themselves used both the Bible and discoveries maintaining Israel as the sole referent of the “bless- such as the Elephantine papyri to argue for the ing” and distinctive epithets in these verses. Thus, depth of Jewish roots in Egypt and the continuity for example, writes Isaiah of Trani (d. ca. 1260) ad of Jewish settlement in Egypt. loc. (1959: 122): “Israel will be a shelishiyah’ (v. 24) – The Passover Haggadah calls on all the partici- by analogy with The commander (shalish) an- pants in the seder ritual to see themselves “as if swered’ (2 Kgs 7 : 2, 19), this means that Israel will they had gone forth from Egypt,” and it warns that be a ruler over Egypt and Assyria, … And Israel in every generation persecutors like Pharaoh arise will be a blessing in the midst of the earth’ insofar again. Thus modern persecutions of Jews are inevi- as everyone [else] will be blessed by them … tably compared to Egyptian slavery. The Holocaust, Blessed are my people Egypt’ (v. 25) – [this is] as if including specifically the experience of slave labor, to say from Egypt, ’ [i.e.,], from the miracles that I was frequently compared to Egyptian slavery; al- performed for them then in Egypt’ (cf. also Rashi ready in the 1930s Szyk’s taskmasters wore swas- and Joseph Kara ad loc.). tika armbands. Images of “the Exodus from Egypt” were also used in relation to the deliverance of the ■ Bibliography: Ben-Shammai, H., “A Jewish Wool Mer- Holocaust survivors. chant in Tenth-Century Mosul Defends Resorting to ‘the Sages of the Nations’: An Early Encounter between Jewish During the Nasser regime in Egypt, and for a Bible Exegesis and Graeco-Arab Philosophy,” in Pesher few years before and afterwards, from 1948 until Naḥum, FS N. Golb (ed. J. L. Kraemer/M. G. Wechsler; SAOC 1978, Egypt was the most powerful enemy of the 66; Chicago, Ill. 2012) 11–31. ■ Eisenstein, J. D. (ed.), A state of Israel. Political rhetoric sometimes echoed

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 509 Egypt, Ancient 510 biblical images. For instance, PLO leader Ahmad the form of a dialogue in which Hermes or the di- Shuqayri’s threat in 1967 to “drive the Jews into the vine mind reveals his knowledge in the form of a sea” was later often attributed to Nasser, no doubt mystery. They describe the unity of the spiritual because it resonated for Bible-readers with images and the divine entity as the formative cause for the of the biblical Pharaoh at the Sea of Reeds. Nasser multiplicity of the visible and corporeal world. Dif- and Egypt were also associated in the Israeli mind ferent paradigms concerning theology, philosophy with Hitler and Nazism, forming a threefold nexus of nature, ethics, astronomy, magic, and alchemy of Pharaoh–Hitler–Nasser or ancient Egypt–Nazi are derived from this idea. It was first and foremost Germany–modern Egypt. Neo-Platonic philosophers, such as Iamblichus (3rd/ Since the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty of 1979, Is- 4th cent. CE), who considered Hermeticism to be rael has enjoyed a “cold peace” with Egypt. The the original Egyptian philosophy and theology. Jewish community of Egypt has mostly emigrated; During the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, early only a few Egyptian Jews remain there. Political ref- Christian apologetics developed its image of Egypt erences to Pharoah and his army have become infre- according to Platonic hermeneutics, thus creating a quent. Israelis today who are uneasy about the fu- balance between the Egyptophobia portrayed in the ture of Israeli-Egyptian relations are more likely to book of Exodus and the Egyptophile tendencies of quote Isa 36 : 6 and parallels: “Egypt, that broken Hellenism. A sacred wisdom, a rudimentary Christi- reed of a staff.” anity, was supposed to be hidden underneath the Bibliography: ■ Band, A., “The Moses Complex in Modern polytheistic surface. Nevertheless, Egyptian religion Jewish Literature,” Judaism 51 (2002) 302–14. ■ Beinin, J., could still be considered a scandal, and the aspect The Dispersion of Egyptian Jewry (Berkeley, Calif. 1998). of zoolatry ‒ taunted in satires by Juvenal and Lu- ■ Buber, M., Moses (Oxford 1946). ■ Szyk, A. (ill.)/C. Roth cian as well ‒ was especially viewed as a phenom- ■ (ed.), The Haggadah (London 1940). Szyk, A. (ill.), The Hag- enon of decadence and as evidence of polytheism gadah (trans. B. Sherwin; Burlingame, Calif. 2008). and idolatry. Joseph Davis In the Latin Early Middle Ages, Egypt served as V. Christianity the platform for salvific history, though it was not rooted in any well-founded conception of Egypt As ancient Egyptian sources were not deciphered apart from Egypt’s role in the biblical narrative. until the 19th century CE, the image of Egypt in Owing to translations from the Arabic, the idea of the Christian Occident mainly fed on the narratives Egypt as a land of magic and alchemy was intro- in the book of Exodus and accounts dating from duced to the Latin Occident in the 12th and 13th Greco-Roman antiquity. centuries CE. Claiming to be the work of Hermes Greco-Roman antiquity draws a largely positive Trismegistus, the Tabula Smaragdina (Emerald Tab- picture of Egypt. According to Herodotus (5th cent. let) was popularized by many commentaries and BCE), who authored the oldest attested comprehen- sive account of Egypt, Egypt is a land of great age, translations and became one of the central texts the origin of various cultural and technical concep- with regard to the magico-esoteric discussions by tions, and an example of exotica. He identifies articulating the concept of correspondence. The Greek deities with their Egyptian equivalents and opening words of the text proclaim, “Quod est infe- thus renders the Egyptian religion accessible. Sub- rius est sicut quod est superius, et quod est superius sequently, Diodorus (first cent. BCE) would praise est sicut quod est inferius” (That which is above is Egypt as the origin of all wisdom and culture. Due like to that which is below, and that which is below to the loss of power entailed by its integration into is like to that which is above). the Roman Empire, Egypt was less and less per- Due to the re-discovery of antiquity during Hu- ceived as an important political factor and over time manism and the Renaissance, the antique concep- became the symbol of hidden wisdom. This herme- tion of Egypt was revived from the classical authors. neutics of the hidden was systematized by Plutarch In this regard, two newly-discovered ancient sour- (first cent. BCE) in his work On Isis and Osiris. Ac- ces were of great influence for the conception of cording to Plutarch, only an allegorical interpreta- Egypt: tion will show the hidden essence of Egyptian cul- 1. The Hieroglyphica by Horapollon, dating to ture. At about 170 CE, Apuleius, a Middle Platonist the 5th century CE, which explains the hieroglyphs like Plutarch, dramatized the mysteries of Isis and as a purely symbolic scripture; this discovery led to rendered Egypt an example of mystery culture that, a great enthusiasm for hieroglyphs in Renaissance from then on, remained closely connected to ideas art and in the emblem books of the 16th century inspired by Platonism. CE. Around the turn of the eras and in the first cen- 2. The Corpus Hermeticum (cf. above) was consid- turies CE, scriptures emerged that were attributed ered an authentic articulation of the most ancient to the legendary Egyptian sage Hermes Trismegis- Egyptian philosophy and theology. Marsilio Ficino tus and that were considered the most ancient (1433–1499) translated the work from Greek into Egyptian wisdom literature. These texts often take Latin and viewed the Egyptian Hermes as the

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 511 Egypt, Ancient 512 founder of a wisdom tradition that via Orpheus and was painted by Grimmelshausen in his Joseph Pythagoras led to Plato. For Ficino, this tradition of novel. a “Prisca Sapientia” is only on the surface different After the conception of Egypt had become more from a biblical one; in essence both are the same. objective due to the exploration of the cultural en- Even though the primacy of Christianity remained vironment of the biblical scriptures in the 17th cen- undisputed, Hermetic, Platonic, and Christian tury CE, the sciences of philosophy and history teachings were interwoven, and the Egyptophobic gradually detached themselves from theological im- perception offered in the book of Exodus was thus plications and ceased to view Egypt as part of the overcome. Even during the era of confessionaliza- Historia Sacra. At the same time, the mysteries of tion, this spiritual-philosophical Hermeticism Egypt became a much-debated topic, which was of- served as a means of reconciliation. Thus, by refer- ten interpreted politically. The Freemasons consid- ring to Egyptian Hermeticism, Sebastian Franck ered them the origin of their lodges and transferred (1499–1543) relativized the Christian claim to truth mystery theory and religious studies into lodge in support of his religio-philosophical universalism. practice. Subsequently, this “Egyptian Freema- And Philippe de Mornay (1549–1623), by claiming sonry” was interpreted as a radically enlightened that Christian dogmas represent natural truths in proto-Spinozism. Isis, who was seen as the personi- which even the Egyptians believed, uses his image fication of nature and the symbol of unveiling of Egypt to promote religious tolerance. truth, could be understood as the goddess of deism The northern European Hermeticism, the cen- and during the French Revolution was stylized as a tral text of which is constituted by the Tabula Sma- religious alternative. ragdina, frequently distinguishes between ortho- Alongside the enlightened conception of Egypt, doxy and heresy with a polemic rigor: Egyptian an occultistic one persisted as well. Even though wisdom, Platonic, and Phythagoreic philosophy are outdated scientifically, the alchemical Hermetica considered to anticipate Christianity, which is con- were adopted by the members of the Order of the tinued by Alchemo-Paracelsism, while Aristotelism Golden and Rosy Cross, who considered themselves is understood as a diabolical human attempt to put heirs of the Egyptian priests and fought against de- reason before the divine. ism. The legendary forger Cagliostro presented The dispute about the Corpus Hermeticum as an himself as an Egyptian sage, and in the literature incarnation of Egyptian theology culminated in the of the late 18th century, he is regarded as the per- 17th century CE. Isaak Casaubon identifies the sonified dark side of the Enlightenment. texts as pseudepigraphs dating from the Christian Subsequent to Jean Terrasson’s novel Sethos era. Nonetheless, Ralf Cudworth attempts to under- (1731), which was of great influence for Freema- stand them as the esoteric core of Egyptian religion, sonry, and Mozart’s The Magic Flute, a great variety and Ole Borch and Hermann Conring argue about of Egyptian motifs emerged in literature. As a “Le- the scientific value of the alchemical Hermetica. semysterium” (reading mystery), the Egyptian mys- Even though scholars such as Athanasius Kircher teries were supposed to introduce gnostic esoteri- continued to understand Egypt and Hermeticism as cism or to convey an understanding of Kant’s “Prisca Sapientia,” the conception of Egypt became transcendental philosophy inspired by Pietism. In largely detached from Hermeticism. Occasionally, gothic novels, Egyptian mysteries were rendered Egypt would appear as a stigma following the tradi- into erotic literature. In secret society novels or in tion of the book of Exodus. The Pietists, e.g., de- didactic artificial fairy tales, they are ridiculed as fended themselves against the accusation that they anti-enlightenment hocus-pocus. had adopted “heathen and diabolic” doctrines from In the 19th century, after Napoleon’s campaign the ancient Egyptians. against Egypt, detailed descriptions of Egypt were The concept of Egypt that was portrayed in the composed and, in 1822, François Champollion deci- Joseph novels of the 16th century was rather vague phered the hieroglyphs. From then on, ancient and served just as the location of the narrative. A Egyptian sources could be consulted directly. None- profound image in these novels emerged in the theless, during the period of Romanticism Egypt 17th century when authors adapted not only the was also seen as a supreme example of symbolic cul- biblical narrative on Joseph but also the antique re- ture according to the history of reception. ports on Egypt and the contemporary scientific lit- Due to the translation of the hieroglyphs, Egyp- erature. In his novel Asenath, Philipp von Zesen nar- tology became a well-established scientific disci- rates how the daughter of the priest of On was pline in the second half of the 19th century. Yet, the given to Joseph in marriage (Gen 41 : 45) and turned ideas emerging from the history of the reception of from Egyptian polytheism to the God of Joseph. For Egypt, with their theological and religio-historical this idea of a peaceful coexistence between Egyp- implications, have been prominent in the public at tian and Heb. religion, Zesen draws upon the work large. Esoteric groups refer to Hermeticism; the Oedipus Aegyptiacus by Kircher. A rather gloomy pic- Afrocentrism debate regards Egypt as the cradle of ture of Egypt with zoolatry and deceiving priests Western culture; and in Hollywood movies or light

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 513 Egypt, Ancient 514 novels, Egyptian mysteries are commemorated as works, e.g., The Apocalypse of Shenute (written before gothic aesthetics. In addition, the image of the 700). Egypt of the book of Exodus still has its place Despite retaining their religion, Copts gradually within the self-conception of Jews and Christians, changed their language from the 8th century on- whether in Passover traditions or Liberation Theol- wards. Bilingual liturgical texts and translations of ogy. the NT, and later the whole Bible, from Coptic to Arabic mark the gradual recession of Coptic, first as Bibliography: ■ Assmann, J., Moses the Egyptian (Cambridge, a spoken and later also as a liturgical language. Mass. 1997). ■ Assmann, J./F. Ebeling, Ägyptische Mysterien The coexistence between Muslims and Chris- (München 2011). ■ Baltrusaitis, J., La quête d’Isis (Paris 1967). ■ Curran, B., The Egyptian Renaissance (Chicago, Ill. tians has generally been relatively peaceful. In the 2007). ■ Ebeling, F., The Secret History of Hermes Trismegistos 8th and early 9th centuries, there were insurrec- (Ithaca, N.Y./London 2007). ■ Hornung, E., The Secret Lore tions of the then Coptic majority and later there of Egypt (Ithaca, N.Y./London 2001). ■ Ucko, P. (ed.), En- were occasional restrictive regulations and mob ri- counters with Ancient Egypt, 8 vols. (London 2003). ots against Copts. Whether encouraged by the rul- Florian Ebeling ers or not, the riots were both an outlet for social pressure and a potential threat to the civil order VI. Islam in general. The eccentric Fātimid Caliph al-H ākim’s In the Qurān and Islam, ‘Egypt’ does not have the reign (996–1021), however, witnessed serious perse- overtones of captivity and godlessness that it does cution of Copts.   in the Jewish tradition. The negative features are The early Fātimid period, before al-Hākim, had, condensed into the character of the Pharaoh on the contrary, seen peaceful religious debates. (Firawn), an eponymous tyrant whose name is still The Arabic apologetical writings by Severus (Sāwı¯ -  a powerful emotional tool in Egypt. ru¯ s) ibn al-Muqaffa (d. 987) and reports in histori- cal sources provide us with evidence for interfaith In the Qurān, Egypt (Miṣr) is only mentioned encounters between Christians, Muslims, and Jews. by name five times: three times in connection with In these, the Scriptures and their interpretation Moses and the exodus (S 2 : 61; 10 : 87; 43 : 51) and have been central topics in Egypt, as also in other twice with Joseph (S 12 : 21, 99). Whether the term Islamic countries, but also apocryphal (e.g., the Prot- refers there to a country or a city is not clear, and evangelium of James) and hagiographical texts crossed the same ambivalence later continues. the religious boundaries. Religious texts rarely took In later tradition, Egypt is also understood to the reverse direction, but qurānic influence, via be the place where Mary took flight with the infant Egyptian Christian Arabic texts, may be seen in the  Jesus, which may already have been the qur ānic no- Ethiopian Kebra Nagast. Egypt was also the scene tion (cf. S 23 : 50), although their flight is there not of the curious interfaith encounter between Saint unequivocally localized. The close association of Francis of Assisi and the Sultan al-Malik al-Kāmil  Egypt with magic is based on the qur ānic mention (r. 1218–38). of the magicians in the Pharaoh’s court (e.g., ■ S 7 : 103–26) as well as on the still visible vestiges of Bibliography: Donner, F., The Early Islamic Conquests (Prin- ceton, N.J. 1981). ■ Griffith, S., “The Kitāb Misbāh al-aql the pharaonic past. However, the magicians in the of Severus ibn al-Muqaffa: A Profile of the Christian Creed Qurān are not evil. They declare their belief after in Arabic in Tenth Century Egypt,” Medieval Encounters 2 seeing Moses’ signs and are contrasted to the hard- (1996) 15–42. ■ Horn, C., “Mary between Bible and ened Pharaoh, as is also his pious spouse. A theme Quran: Soundings into the Transmission of the Protoevan- absent from the Qurān and not much developed in gelium of James on the Basis of Selected Literary Sources later literature, is the encounter of Abraham and in Coptic and Copto-Arabic and of Art-Historical Evidence Pertaining to Egypt,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 18 Sarah with the Pharaoh (Gen 12 : 10–20). (2007) 509–38. ■ Little, D., “Coptic Conversion to Islam The Egyptian ruler al-Muqawqis reputedly sent under the Bah rı¯ Mamlu¯ ks, 692–755/1293–1353,” BSOAS 39 as a gift to the Prophet Muh ammad a slave-girl (1976) 552–69. ■ Thomas, D. (ed.), The Bible in Arab Christi- Māriya al-Qibtiyya, who, in terms reminiscent of anity (The History of Christian–Muslim Relations 6; Leiden/ the story of Abraham and Hagar, became his concu- Boston, Mass. 2006). ■ Thomas, D./B. Roggema (eds.), bine and bore him a son, Ibrāhı¯ m. The story is of Christian–Muslim Relations: A Bibliographical History, vol. 1 ■ dubious historicity, but it has had a positive influ- (Leiden/Boston, Mass. 2009). Wensinck, A. J. et al., “Misr,” Encyclopaedia of Islam 7 (Leiden/New York 21993) ence on the image of Egypt in the eyes of Muslims. 146–86. ■ Zaborowski, J. R., The Coptic Martyrdom of John Egypt was conquered by Arab armies in 639–41, Phanijôit and Conversion to Islam in Thirteenth-Century Egypt but the country remained less fully Islamized than (Leiden/Boston, Mass. 2005). most areas in the Near East, despite its importance Jaakko Hämeen-Anttila in Islamic intellectual and political history. The number of Copts and other Christians is difficult to VII. Literature assess, but Muslims must have been a majority Before Jean-François Champollion deciphered hiero- since the 10th century. Christian reactions to Mus- glyphics in 1822, literary (read western) concep- lim rule in Egypt are available in several early tions of Egypt depended upon reports from else-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 515 Egypt, Ancient 516 where in the ancient world: notably biblical Israel threat to Egypt is, of course, Cleopatra, who con- and classical Greece. Both sources cite Egypt as the firms Roman fears by captivating and effectively cradle of their own cultures; both set it apart as emasculating Caesar’s best general in Shakespeare’s somewhere ominous or strange. To Israel, it is a Antony and Cleopatra (1607). Beaten and betrayed, place of shelter and oppression; to Herodotus (ca. Antony expresses his rage in the language of Ps 484–ca. 425 BCE), it represents the inversion of ev- 22 : 12: erything known: a land where women go to market …O that I were while men weave at home; where mud is mixed by Upon a hill of Basan, to outroar hand and dough kneaded by foot (Hist. 2 : 35–99). The horned herd! (3.13.126–28) To the purportedly well-traveled “Widsith” in the 10th-century Exeter Book, Egypt remains part of Cleopatra, to characterize the defeat of her king- a familiar biblical world populated by Israelites, As- dom as a near-apocalyptic disaster, invokes the syrians, and Hebrews (lines 83–84); in the 14th-cen- combined plagues of the Exodus (Exod 7–11) by tury York Mystery Plays, Egypt’s firstborn die of the way of Rev 16 : 21: same “grete pestilence” afflicting Europe at that …the memory of my womb, time (cf. Exod 11). By the 17th century, however, Together with my brave Egyptians all, Egypt had become the established alternative to By the discandying of this pelleted storm, Christendom. In John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667), Lie graveless, till the flies and gnats of Nile for example, it is populated by “wandering Gods Have buried them for prey. (3.14.159–61) disguis’d in brutish forms” set there by Satan soon In Dante’s Paradiso (25 : 52–57) Egypt is a cipher for after his fall (1 : 480); in an appendix to the History this world; in John Donne’s “Nativity” (c. 1608) it of the Life and Adventures of Mr Duncan Campbell is the site of the incarnation; in John Bunyan’s Pil- (1720), traditionally ascribed to Daniel Defoe, the grim’s Progress (1678) Christian admits to Prudence black arts are said to be practiced there as part of its that Egypt retains a hold over him still; and in his “superstitious religion” (Defoe: 171). Even Egypt’s 1891 poem “In the Desert” Herman Melville sym- own brand of monotheism – once thought to have pathizes with Israel’s preference for “Pharoah’s (sic) influenced Moses (see Freud’s Moses and Monotheism night” over God’s “intolerably bright” light (Mel- 1939) – is treated as a symptom of the Pharaoh’s ville: 158). Elsewhere, Egypt represents the archety- decadence in Thomas Mann’s Joseph and His Brothers pal empire: in an address given by the Connecticut (1943); it does, however, also allow Joseph’s rise to preacher Jacob Oson, for example, in which he re- power. Egyptian decadence is precisely what ap- minds America that all such powers fall. Oson him- peals to in Ancient Evenings (1983), self was still proud of Egypt’s place in his African where it serves as a contrast to a stifling New York ancestry, not least because the biblical Abraham was social scene. said to have introduced the arts and sciences there By the 19th century, Egypt had become a desti- (Bruce: 124–25). Percy Bysshe Shelley in his often- nation for those seeking release from western sex- anthologized “Ozymandias” (1818) characterizes ual taboos – particularly homosexual taboos. This Egypt’s fall by means of the broken legs and half- provokes Levitical condemnation from the British buried head of a vast Egyptian statue bearing the explorer Richard Francis Burton, who in his cele- biblical motto “king of kings” (Shelley: 198). And brated translation of The Arabian Nights (1885) dubs the young princes brought as a bride to the Arthu- Egypt “that classical region of abominations” rian court in William Wordsworth’s “The Egyptian (10 : 194); it allows Gustav Flaubert an opportunity Maid” (1835), serve in part as a comment on the to succumb precisely to the kind of temptations plundering of an old empire by a new. Finally, the with both females and males (Naaman: 58) that the “New Egypt” in Robin Becker’s 2006 poem of that Egyptian hero of his Temptation of Saint Anthony title catches people in an equally new kind of slav- (1874) overcame with the Queen of herself. It ery – one characterized by the lawn mower and is clear from his travel notes (published posthu- bank loan (Becker: 3). mously as the Carnets d’Égypte, 1954) that André Bibliography: ■ Aldrich, R., Colonialism and Homosexuality Gide was more impressed by the local boys than by (London 2007). ■ Becker, R., Domain of Perfect Affection any erections from the Pharaonic age (Aldrich: 333– (Pittsburgh, Pa. 2006). ■ Bruce Jr., D. D., The Origins of Afri- 34). Perpetuating this stereotyping, albeit from the can American Literature: 1680–1865 (Charlottesville, Va. 2001). other side, Lawrence Durrell in his Alexandria Quar- ■ Bunyan, J., The Pilgrim’s Progress (Oxford 2003). ■ Dante tet (1960) depicts westerners – specifically the Brit- Alighieri, The Divine Comedy (available at the Princeton ish – as by comparison a virtually sexless breed. Dante Project; http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante; accessed ■ In the account of his journey to Egypt (Voyage January 31, 2011). Defoe, D., The Novels and Miscellaneous Works, vol. 6 (London 1890). ■ Donne, J., Selected Poetry (ed. en Orient, 1851), Gérard de Nerval includes novellas J. Carey; Oxford 2001). ■ Durrell, L., Alexandria Quartet about the building of Solomon’s temple and an ar- (London 2001). ■ Flaubert, G., The Temptation of St Anthony chitect’s love for the Queen of Sheba. But the queen (New York 1977); trans. of id., La tentation de Saint Antoine who best epitomizes the imagined seduction of and (Paris 1874). ■ Freud, S., Moses and Monotheism (New York

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 517 Egypt, Ancient 518

1967); trans. of id., Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische ble illustrations (1860). Fully Egyptian sceneries ap- Religion (Amsterdam 1939). ■ Gide, A., Carnets d’Égypte pear in the second half of the 19th century. (Paris 1961). ■ Mailer, N., Ancient Evenings (New York Berthold Kreß 1988). ■ Mann, T., Joseph and his Brothers (trans. J. E. Woods; New York 2005); trans. of id., Joseph und seine Brüder, vol. 4 IX. Music Joseph, der Ernährer (Stockholm 1943). ■ Melville, H., The Collected Poems of Herman Melville (ed. H. Cohen; New York The musical reception of biblical Egypt centers 1991). ■ Milton, J., Paradise Lost (London 2005). ■ Flau- around three core narratives: the respective stories bert, G., Les lettres d’Égypte d’après les manuscrits autographes of Joseph in Egypt and of Moses and the exodus of (ed. A.Y. Naaman; Paris 1965). ■ Nerval, G. de, Voyage en the Israelites in the HB/OT, and the flight of the Orient (Paris 1862). ■ Shakespeare, W., The Tragedy of Antony holy family into Egypt in the NT. George Frideric and Cleopatra (Oxford 1994). ■ Shelley, P. B., The Major Handel’s oratorio Joseph and his Brethren (1743), Works (ed. Z. Leader; Oxford 2009). ■ Wordsworth, W., based on a heavily condensed, versified libretto by “The Egyptian Maid,” in The Poetical Works, vol. 3 (Cam- bridge, Mass. 1881) 224–37. James Miller, and Étienne Méhul’s opera Joseph en Mark Brummitt Égypte (1807) based on the libretto by Alexandre Duval, are the two most prominent examples of VIII. Visual Arts compositions that focus entirely on the protagonist, whereas Andrew Lloyd Webber offers a more paro- The land of Egypt is mentioned in the Bible over dist view in his musical Joseph and the Amazing Tech- 500 times, and it is the scene of a number of narra- nicolor Dreamcoat of 1968. tives, most importantly the stories of Joseph (Gen The works dedicated to Joseph are outnum- 37–50) and the Exodus (Exod 1–14) in the OT and bered by far by those focusing on Moses and the the flight of the holy family in the NT (Matt 2 : 13– captivity and eventual exodus of the people of Is- 15, 19–21). Nevertheless, with one major exception rael. Again, Handel created the most relevant ren- (the late antique Egyptian Cotton Genesis and the dering on the subject with his oratorio Israel in related atrium mosaics of St Mark’s in Venice depict Egypt (1739), whose text – entirely taken from the the granaries built by Joseph as pyramid-like struc- Book of Exodus and the Psalter – may have been tures), there is hardly any specific iconography of compiled by the composer himself. Because of his Egypt throughout most of the history of Christian central role in the exodus narrative, many of the art. Egypt is depicted in a contemporary or classi- other works on the subject concentrate on Moses cizing fashion; like other biblical rulers, Pharaoh and even bear his name in the title. These include appears sometimes in classical, sometimes in orien- the oratorios Il nascimento di Mosè (1682) and Il matri- tal garb; and also the personification of Egypt in monio di Mosè (1684) by Vincenzo De Grandis, Mose some Byzantine images of the flight (e.g., in Decˇ ani) by Adolf Bernhard Marx (1841), The Ordering of Mo- looks like other late-antique personifications of ses by Robert Nathaniel Dett (1937), Moses by Her- towns. The Speculum humanae salvationis regularly man D. Koppel (1963/64), and Moses by Sven-David depicts an Egyptian idol of a mother with a child, Sandström (1997), as well as the operas Moses by supposedly inspired by a prophecy of Jeremiah, as Franz Xaver Süssmayr (1792), Mosè in Egitto (1818/ a type for the flight, but this is usually represented 19) by Gioachino Rossini – reworked later as Moïse like an image of the Virgin and child, without ex- et Pharaon, ou Le passage de la Mer Rouge (1827) –, Mo- otic elements. Since the Romanesque period, and ses and Pharaoh’s Daughter by Yedidya Admon-Goro- most frequently in the 15th and 16th centuries, the chov (1963), and Moses by Zsolt Durkó (1972). As flight into Egypt often incorporates a palm tree into the most important among the Moses operas, how- an otherwise European landscape – a reference to ever, ranks Arnold Schönberg’s Moses and Aron the non-biblical episode of the tree bending down (1930–32). Schönberg, who wrote the text himself, so that Mary and Joseph could pick its fruits. Al- diverges from the biblical story in several aspects though Egyptian motifs like obelisks, pyramids, in order to concentrate on the conflict between the sphinxes, Egyptian gods, or hieroglyphs appear in protagonists of his seminal work. secular Renaissance and Baroque art, they rarely For liturgical use, the verse anthem When Israel make their way into biblical imagery. From the late came out of Egypt to the words of Ps 114 was set by 16th century, few depictions of the flight and of early modern composers such as William Byrd, Mi- the finding of Moses (especially works by Poussin) chael East, John Heath, and in the 20th century by enrich a classical landscape with obelisks and pyra- Jack Allan Westrup, among others. The exodus and mids (which can sometimes be quite steep, some- thus the escape from slavery also inspired the com- times stepped rooftop-decorations, and sometimes position of several spirituals, including Go down, small wayside monuments). Only from the late 18th Moses and Wade the water, with the former being in- century onwards does the inclusion of Egyptian corporated by Michael Tippett in his oratorio Child sculptures or hieroglyphs – still as elements of a of our time (1939–41). See also the articles in “Exo- classicizing interior – become more common, as in dus, The IX. Music.” some entries for the 1789 Prix de Rome competi- Regarding the NT narrative of the flight of the tion (about Joseph) or Schnorr von Carolsfeld’s Bi- holy family into Egypt in Matt 2 : 13–15, the full

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 519 Egypt, Ancient 520 text was set to music by Heinrich Schütz in the as a harsh master, who treats Joseph as an ungrate- third part of his Symphoniae Sacrae of 1650, as well ful slave. Joseph’s pious obedience to his God con- as by John Harbison in his sacred ricercar The Flight trasts with the Pharaoh’s despair over the inade- into Egypt of 1987. In contrast, Hector Berlioz wrote quacy of the Egyptian gods. his own text for this scene in L’enfance du Christ The video adaptation of the popular broadway (1850–53/54), whereas Ottorino Respighi composed musical, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat one of the few purely instrumental pieces depicting (dir. D. Mallet, 1999) draws on Egyptomania and the event in La fuga in Egitto, the first of his Vetrate clichés. It presents Egypt as a land of excess, where di chiesa of 1926. soft, fat, effeminate Potiphar wears pinstripes and

Bibliography: ■ Kerlin, M. M., ‘O Wort, du Wort, das mir a monocle and works in a faux-high industrial of- fehlt.’: Die Gottesfrage in Arnold Schönbergs Oper ‘Moses und Aron’; fice. His wife is Joan Collins bedecked in heavy zur Theologie eines musikalischen Kunst-Werkes im 20. Jahrhundert makeup, Cleopatra crown, and shiny jewels. (Mainz 2004). ■ Massenkeil, G., Oratorium und Passion,2 Splashy dance numbers characterize the Egyptian vols. (Handbuch der musikalischen Gattungen 10/1–2; Laa- scenes. The pharaoh is Elvis (“the king”). This ber 1998–99). ■ Sennefelder, D., ‘Moitié italien, moitié fran- Egypt allegorically signifies the height of American çais’: Untersuchungen zu Gioachino Rossinis Opern ‘Mosè in Egitto,’ pop culture and commercial excess, at times bright ‘Maometto II,’ ‘Moïse et Pharaon ou Le passage de la Mer Rouge’ und ‘Le siège de Corinthe’ (München 2005). and shiny, at others decadent and corrupt. Egypt’s Andreas Bücker largesse, however, continues only due to the fore- sight of Joseph. X. Film Three Exodus films deserve mention for their portrayal of Egypt: Cecil B. DeMille’s two Ten Com- The most significant films showcasing biblical mandments (1923, 1956) and the Dreamworks ani- Egypt fall into three overlapping types: “historical” epics, modern allegories, and films in which biblical mated film Prince of Egypt (dir. B. Chapman/S. Hick- Egypt serves as a site of political or religious con- ner/S. Wells, 1998). DeMille’s earlier silent film, test. released just a year after the discovery of Tutankha- Several epics about the biblical Joseph (Gen mun’s tomb, combines biblical epic with a modern 30 : 22–50 : 26) deserve mention for their depiction morality tale. Egypt is featured in the first half of of Egypt and its inhabitants. The silent film Joseph the film, which depicts the adulthood of Moses up in the Land of Egypt (dir. E. Moore, 1914), which is to the receipt of the Ten Commandments. Grandi- narrated by placards bearing quotes from Genesis, ose sets and a large cast of extras (including count- features sets and costumes that evoke David Rob- less horses) evoke ancient Egypt’s monumental erts’ 19th-century lithographs. scale. It is a rich, unjust land ruled by a young and Egyptian director Youssef Chanine’s Al-mohager somewhat effeminate king. Costumes, lighting, di- (1994, The Emigrant) is a thinly veiled retelling of rection, and cinematography all mark the film as the Joseph story from an Egyptian perspective. The an early masterpiece. DeMille’s preface situates the film’s protagonist, renamed Ram due to contro- movie as a response to World War I. God’s law is a versy concerning the depiction of religious charac- set of “fundamental principles without which man- ters in film, convinces his doting father to send him kind cannot live together,” and to which the to Egypt where he can learn the secrets of agricul- “blood-drenched” post-war world must return. ture. On the way he is betrayed by his abusive This Egypt then represents the antithesis of those brothers and sold as a slave. The film depicts several principles. The rest of the film is a modern morality aspects of Egyptian culture including mummifica- tale about a man in San Francisco who breaks all tion, religious dispute between the followers of ten commandments, following in the way of Egypt Aton and Amun, and a general prejudice against despite having been raised to obey and fear God. outsiders like Ram. Overall, Egypt is presented as a While escaping by boat to Mexico, the waves con- center of knowledge and enlightenment, although sume him, echoing the fate of Pharaoh’s army. The its ancient religious beliefs are presented as false film premiered in another landmark of Egyptoma- over and against Ram’s monotheism. nia: Grauman’s Egyptian Theatre, Los Angeles. The 1995 miniseries Joseph (dir. R. Young) at- DeMille’s 1956 production begins with Moses tempts to provide a more historically and biblically as a baby who then becomes “brother” to crown based production and emphasizes religion more prince Ramses. It also carried a contemporary po- than earlier films. The Egyptians recognize Joseph’s litical message: freedom and liberty in the face of piety and monotheism, sometimes with respect, tyranny. Here ancient Egypt stands in for modern sometimes with disdain. The series also portrays communism. the injustice of slavery and the brutality of the Prince of Egypt attempts to present a more au- Egyptians. Potiphar – a wise Egyptian who sees the thentic vision of the ancient world, using Hebrew truth of Joseph’s character – is the exception. in song and depicting Israelite and Egyptians ethni- The Dreamworks video Joseph: King of Dreams cally in various shades of brown. It represents Egyp- (dir. R. LaDuca/R. Ramirez, 2000) portrays Potiphar tian religion, however, as a false one led by huck-

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM 521 Egypt, River of 522 sters. The film follows a young Moses in a search gods have enslaved an illiterate, impoverished peo- for his own identity, to which religion (Israelite ple. Ancient Egyptian religion and culture are mere monotheism) is central, and speaks to contempo- alien mechanisms for controlling slaves. American rary concerns about assimilation into a dominant knowledge and technology vanquish the decadent culture. aliens to liberate the native people. Released soon Egypt also figures into some Jesus biopics that after the first American war with Iraq, Stargate re- depict the holy family’s “flight.” To some degree in flects contemporary issues of orientalism and mili- each film, visual imagery accentuates Egypt’s geo- tarism. The film and subsequent television series graphical otherness and cinematography under- tap into conspiracy theories about alien abductions scores the family’s alienation. and ancient Egyptian origins. The 1903 La vie et passion de Jésus Christ (dir. L. Biblical Egypt is also the site of modern political Nonguet/F. Zecca), a silent film shot as a series of and cultural contests. In Raiders of the Lost Ark (dir. vignettes, is a significant piece of cinema history S. Spielberg, 1981) archaeologist Indiana Jones races because of its artistry and technological advances. It the Nazis to decipher Egyptian artifacts that will was one of the first full-length feature films and lead to the discovery of the ark of the covenant. The used a tinted stencil process to produce a color 1954 romantic thriller Valley of the Kings (dir. R. Pi- movie, resulting in a surreal yet vivid visual display. rosh), filmed on location in Egypt, features a search Part 4 depicts the flight into Egypt. Mary, Joseph, for the tomb of a pharaoh converted to monotheism and Jesus arrive at the Giza plateau, where pyra- by the patriarch Joseph. mids loom in the painted backdrop and Mary rests Bibliography: ■ Lang, J. S., The Bible on the Big Screen (Grand at the base of the Sphinx, whose body is still buried Rapids, Mich. 2007). ■ Orrison, K., Written in Stone: Making in sand. The reproduction is small-scale but realis- Cecil B. DeMille’s Epic The Ten Commandments (Lanham, Md. tic. 1999). ■ Schroeder, C. T., “Ancient Egyptian Religion on Soaring orchestral music and an epic landscape the Silver Screen: Modern Anxieties about Race, Ethnicity, and Religion,” Journal of Religion and Film 7/2 (October 2003; set the scene for a lone man leading a donkey and http://www.unomaha.edu/jrf/; accessed November 9, 2011). rider in The Greatest Story Ever Told (dir. G. Stevens, ■ Serafy, S., “Egypt in Hollywood: Pharaohs of the Fifties,” 1965). Their small figures emphasize the magni- in Consuming Ancient Egypt (ed. S. MacDonald/M. Rice; Lon- tude of their journey and their distance from home. don 2003) 77–86. ■ Tatum, W. B., Jesus at the Movies (Santa While camped on the banks of the Nile, with scat- Rosa, Calif. 32013). ■ Tooze, G. A., “Moses and the Reel tered palm trees in the foreground and pyramids in Exodus,” Journal of Religion and Film 7/1 (April 2003; www.unomaha.edu/jrf/; accessed November 9, 2011). the background, they learn the news of Herod’s Caroline T. Schroeder death. The black-and-white 1964 Italian film, Il Vangelo See also /Aaron; /Exodus, Book of; /Exodus, secondo Matteo (dir. P. P. Pasolini), is heavily inspired The; /Joseph; /Moses; /Pharaoh; /Plagues by Renaissance paintings. A serious, still-faced Mary looks backward as Joseph leads her away on the donkey. When the angel tells Joseph to return Egypt, Plagues in home, the camera closes in on his face. It then pans /Plagues across desert dunes to rest on Mary and then on a boy playing in the sand. The young Jesus walks to- ward his father, who lovingly embraces him. The Egypt, River of focus is Joseph’s emotional bond with his son. The The Heb. expression for “river of Egypt” (MT nĕhar sand and the camera’s attention to the family unit Miṣrayim) appears only in Gen 15 : 18. The Greek remind the viewer of their isolation. Likewise, in equivalent (πταμς Αγπτυ) appears in Jdt 1 : 9 Jesus of Nazareth (dir. F. Zefferelli, 1977), the flight and in 1 Kgs 8 : 56. In Gen 15 : 18, it indicates the to Egypt begins with a close-up of Joseph leading size of the land promised to Abram. As it is put in Mary on donkey through a desert; then the camera contrast to the “great river, the river Euphrates,” pans out until they become a small speck in a pano- the designation obviously does not refer to the Nile rama of wilderness. but to a smaller watercourse. BHS records a pro- A few nonbiblical films use biblical Egypt and posal to emend nĕhar to naḥal, which is in fact the the exodus narrative to construct modern allego- more common term to indicate the border between ries. Exodus (dir. O. Preminger, 1960) is set during Israel and Egypt. In Jdt 1 : 9, the expression πτα- the flight of Jews from Europe and the founding of μς Αγπτυ serves to indicate the size of the em- the State of Israel. Stargate (dir. R. Emmerich, 1994) pire of Nebuchadnezzar. In 1 Kgs 8 : 65, it is the presents a science-fiction exodus. A portal to other translation for the Hebrew term naḥal Miṣrayim, parts of the universe is found near the great pyra- which the NRSV translates as “the Wadi of Egypt” mids of Egypt. A young egyptologist (the Moses fig- (see also 2 Kgs 24 : 7; 2 Chr 7 : 8, etc.). ure) leads the American military through the “star- Mareike V. Blischke gate” to another planet. There, aliens posing as See also /Egypt, Wadi of

Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception vol. 7 Authenticated | [email protected] © Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/Boston, 2013 Download Date | 1/19/19 4:54 PM