Mining matters

Unacceptable metal mining in developing countries and the responsibilities of companies in the Netherlands

Friends of the Earth Netherlands onderkant pagina onderkant pagina Credits

Research: Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie) Text: Albert ten Kate Editing: Iris Maher Production: Joukje Kolff Design: Ruparo, Amsterdam © Milieudefensie - Friends of the Earth Netherlands, May 2009

Friends of the Earth Netherlands (Milieudefensie) Office: Nieuwe Looiersstraat 31, 1017 VA Amsterdam Post: P O Box 19199, 1000 GD Amsterdam The Netherlands Phone: (00 31) (0) 20 5507 300 Email: [email protected] Website: www.milieudefensie.nl

Special thanks to: Anne van Schaik (Friends of the Earth Netherlands, FoE NL) Anne-Sophie Simpere (Les Amis de la Terre, FoE France) Carina Tertsakian (Global Witness) Esther de Haan (SOMO/makeITfair) Jan Willem van Gelder (Profundo) Päivi Pöyhönen (Finnwatch/makeITfair)

Coca-Cola: Robert Seegers (public affairs & communications manager Netherlands) Corus: Eric van der Oest (manager public affairs Netherlands) Corus: René Boulonois (manager sustainable development Netherlands) Draka: Annette Schermer (manager safety, health and environment) Draka: Martin de Koning (director corporate communications) Photo cover: Heineken: Hans Kroes (manager safety, health and environment Netherlands) Miners extracting tin Philips: Jan Roodenburg (senior vice president supply, development and sustainability) ore from the Bisie mine in the Democratic Republic of Congo This document has been produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The contents of this document are the sole responsi- © Johan Spanner/ bility of Milieudefensie and can under no circumstances be regarded as Hollandse Hoogte, reflecting the position of the European Union. November 2008. Contents

Executive summary 4

Conclusion and recommendations 7

1. Trade links from the Netherlands to mining in developing countries 9 1.1 Tin 9 1.2 Bauxite 12 1.3 Copper 14

2. Review of mining practices in developing countries 16 2.1 Tin: Indonesia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bolivia and Burma 16 2.2 Bauxite: Jamaica and Guinea 24 2.3 Copper: Chile, Peru, Zambia and Indonesia 29

3. Companies reviewed 37 3.1 Methodology of the review 37 3.2 Cookson / Alpha-Fry Technologies 37 3.3 Corus 39 3.4 Aluminium smelters Aldel and Zalco 41 3.5 Draka 42 3.6 Philips 43 3.7 Heineken 45 3.8 Coca-Cola 47

4. Dutch government policy on supply chain responsibility 48

5. Preliminary research on the use of copper and tin resources 51

Annexes: A: Abbreviations 56 B: Questionnaires sent to the companies 57 Executive summary

• The Netherlands is a large importer of copper, fuel a terrible war that has already gone on for aluminium and tin from developing countries ten years. Working conditions in the mines are • Mining causes major environmental and human extremely poor. Furthermore, tin mining poses rights violations in developing countries an immense threat to the survival of the eastern • Dutch companies import and/or use met- lowland gorilla, which is hunted for food by min- als, but leave problems for planet and people ers and traded by rebels. unsolved Due to the enormous oppression of Burma’s • The metals mined are used in cars, electronics, people, the EU has put trade sanctions in force housing and packaging materials against the military junta, including tin. Nonetheless, raw tin materials mined from In this report, mining practices in ten develop- the DRC and to a lesser extent in Burma still ing countries are reviewed with regard to labour arrive in the Netherlands through Asian smelt- rights, human rights and the environment. The ers, such as tin from the company Thaisarco mining products examined are tin, bauxite and in Thailand (supplying 7 per cent of Dutch copper, metals which have major trade links with imports) which contains tin mined in eastern companies in the Netherlands. Various compa- Congo. nies in the Netherlands import and/or use met- als. This report reviews the supply chain respon- In the Netherlands, the companies Alpha-Fry sibility towards mining practices in developing Technologies (producer of solder and subsidi- countries of seven companies in the Nether- ary of the UK-based Cookson group) and Corus lands. (producer of tinplate and subsidiary of Indian Tata Steel) are the largest importers of tin. Tin: mining practices and trade links Most of the tin imported for further processing Bauxite: mining practices and trade links in the Netherlands can be linked to serious envi- Alumina is the mineral made from mined baux- ronmental, labour rights and human rights con- ite; in smelters it is turned into aluminium. cerns in developing countries. Tin is used mainly Jamaica accounts for 60 to 70 per cent of annual for solder in electronic products and tinplate (to alumina imports by Dutch aluminium smelt- make cans). ers. Bauxite mining is the single largest cause of Tin mining in Indonesia – number one deforestation in Jamaica. The mining industry exporter of tin to the Netherlands – only takes has stripped thousands of hectares of forest and place on and off the shores of Bangka island, has caused even larger destruction by creat- east of Sumatra. The mining damages coral ing access roads into forests, making the forests reefs; seriously affects fishermen’s income; has accessible to loggers. created hundreds of toxic craters on the island; Air pollution from the chimneys of the four causes abrasion of the coastline; and does not bauxite processing plants (mainly particulate provide a sustainable livelihood for the people matter and sulphur dioxide emissions) cause seri- on the island. ous health problems, like respiratory diseases, In Bolivia, which also supplies tin to the Neth- in the communities living nearby. Community erlands, thousands of children work in under- health risks due to air pollution have been badly ground tin, zinc and silver mines. According to monitored and as yet no investigation has been the International Labour Organization (ILO) this carried out. Dust resulting from bauxite mining, is one of the worst forms of child labour. bauxite processing and port activities is also a Tin imports to the Netherlands may also origi- big nuisance for people. nate from the eastern part of the Democratic A matter of great concern are the red mud Republic of Congo (DRC), where miners are lakes of waste covering hundreds hectares near subject to oppression by rebel groups and gov- the four bauxite processing plants in Jamaica. ernment army factions. Revenues from mining The lakes consist of metals, water and alkaline

4 substances. Releases of water from red mud minium smelters Zalco and Aldel Executive summary lakes can seriously contaminate ground and sur- • Draka: third-biggest copper cable producer in face waters. Europe Most of the bauxite mining in Guinea (Africa), • Philips: user of tin in its electronic and lighting which is also an indirect bauxite supplier to the products Netherlands, takes place in tropical rainforests. • Heineken: producer of beer packed in tinplate The area is one of the world’s most biologically cans rich, yet seriously threatened, ecosystems. • Coca-Cola: producer of non-alcoholic bever- The Dutch aluminium smelters Zalco (Zee- ages packed in tinplate cans land Aluminium Company) and Aldel (Aluminium Delfzijl) are both owned by the UK-based Klesch Results of the review & Company. Together they account for all annual Cookson, the aluminium smelters, Draka and alumina imports into the Netherlands. Corus use massive amounts of mining products. Moving further down the supply chain, Philips, Copper: mining practices and trade links Heineken and Coca-Cola use considerably fewer Most of the copper and copper products mining products themselves, as the mining prod- imported by the Netherlands probably have ucts used to make their products are spread their origin in Chile. In this country, the biggest throughout multiple companies. problems of copper mining are related to the Most companies acknowledged they have massive amounts of water and energy needed to not yet mapped out the supply chain of their produce copper concentrates. Often the use of mining products nor have they identified prob- water for copper mining conflicts with the needs lems related to the environment, human rights of farmers. Water shortage is a major issue in and labour rights. This means that the compa- Chile, as well as in Peru, which also exports cop- nies are purchasing metals without being aware per to the Netherlands. of the consequences of the mining practices. In Chile, there are plans to build huge hydro- Reporting to the public about their trade power dams in Patagonia, in the south of the relationships with specific mining practices is country, to supply energy to the mining industry. not common yet among the seven companies These dams will flood thousands of hectares of reviewed. In fact, not a single annual report or native forest in a pristine area. CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) report was Indonesia contains the biggest and most found including any information on the mining polluting copper mine in the world: the Gras- practices or the origins of the tin, bauxite and berg copper and goldmine in West Papua. copper used by these companies. Massive toxic releases from the mine flow into The situation in the eastern part of the Dem- natural river systems. The main mining compa- ocratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is probably the ny is Freeport McMoRan, which has also been best known case triggering responsibility among accused of illegal payments to members of the companies for mining practices. Corus and Indonesian military. Philips have acted on the DRC issue. Both com- In Zambia, environmental practices and work- panies now demand that their suppliers exclude ing conditions in the copper mines are poor. raw tin materials from the DRC from their prod- The Dutch cable producer Draka is probably ucts. While seeming sincere in their intentions, the biggest Dutch importer of copper. The com- neither company could guarantee that suppliers pany accounts for more than 7 per cent of cop- fulfil this demand as no monitoring is carried out. per imports by the Netherlands. Both companies state they are looking forward to a broader industry response to the situation in The seven companies reviewed the DRC. For this report, seven companies in the Nether- Meanwhile, the biggest importer of tin into lands were reviewed. The seven companies are the Netherlands, Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technolo- among the biggest Dutch companies involved in gies, showed no interested in communicating the supply chain for tin, bauxite and copper. The about the origins of its tin purchases and its reviewed companies, located in the Netherlands, efforts – if any – to improve mining practices. are: Though their global tin use may somewhat • Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies: solder manu- less than that of Philips, it is remarkable that facturer for the electronics industry Heineken and Coca-Cola have no supply chain • Corus: big producer of tinplate for can makers policy in place regarding their global use of tin • Klesch & Company: owner of the Dutch alu- for cans.

5 Of all the reviewed companies, Philips had the best general policy on supply chain responsi- bility.

Dutch government policy The Dutch government has several initiatives to promote supply chain responsibility among com- panies with regard to the environment, human rights and labour rights: • Reporting on corporate social responsibility (CSR) by companies will be further encouraged and stricter reporting requirements will be introduced. This is an initiative, supported by the government, of the major employers’ asso- ciations and trade unions in the Netherlands. • The Dutch government has a procurement policy stating that in 2010 all purchases of the state government must be sustainable. • As an addition to several existing market initia- tives, the government and several stakehold- ers have started the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH), aiming to bring stakeholders together to work on CSR problems related to the trade in commodity products such as timber and other forest products, soy, natural stone products, cocoa and tea. • Currently, the government has started research and discussions with experts and stakeholders on better options to hold companies liable for abuses in the CSR chain within their sphere of influence.

While the government initiatives may be mov- ing in the right direction, Friends of the Earth Netherlands thinks the present policies are not likely to help reduce the severe social and envi- ronmental problems related to the mining of tin, bauxite and copper imported into the Nether- lands.

Preliminary research on resource use Although it may not be the case for copper in the immediate future, tin mining resources are definitely running out. Governments will have to adopt policies to reduce global metal scarcity. Preliminary research on resource use for cop- per and tin shows that the recycling rates of tin (around 27 per cent) and copper (around 67 per cent) leave much room for improvement. For both copper and tin, future resources will be more difficult to extract, and at higher environ- mental costs.

6 Conclusion and recommendations

Conclusion ing by companies on environmental, human rights and labour rights, including criteria for This report shows that there are huge problems reporting on mining products. with regard to mining in developing countries, • Freedom of information. In specific cases, including loss of livelihood and health risks to mandatory reports will always be too general. communities; devastation of rich ecosystems; When a specific problem exists (environment, poor working conditions of miners; child labour; human rights and labour rights), there is always fuelling war and oppression. valuable information which only the company possesses. At present, companies have the Several large Dutch companies which import and ability to withhold information that might be process tin, bauxite and copper are linked with valuable to solve the problem. The govern- these problems through their supply chain. How- ment has poor mechanisms in place to make ever, these companies do not yet appear to feel a company comply with specific requests by a strong responsibility for the mining practices stakeholders. The government should construct occurring upstream in their supply chains. better regulations for this purpose. • Resource use. The government should set This situation is not unique to the tin, aluminium policy goals to reduce the use of metals with or copper sector. The mining practices and the depleting resources, in order to ensure com- trade links of tin, bauxite and copper with the ing generations will also be able to utilise their Netherlands should be seen as a model of the useful applications. There are also many pos- entire mining sector and their Dutch buyers. Vari- sibilities to create a bigger market for our own ous other Dutch companies source other mining recycling deposits. products in large quantities, in which the mining • Chain initiatives. Governments should pay far process causes huge problems in developing more attention to the severe CSR problems of countries. mining and trade links. Mining appears to be an overlooked problem. Governments could So far, the government has not focused on the set up chain initiatives within host and mining mining sector at all. Friends of the Earth Neth- countries, with all stakeholders involved. The erlands strongly appeals to the Dutch govern- government could also address the severe CSR ment to turn its attention to the severe problems problems in the mining sector through their in the mining sector which are related to Dutch procurement policy. companies, and also to develop a policy on the • Liability. It is necessary to legally anchor mini- use of scarce metals. mum requirements for supply chain responsibil- ity in order to be able to tackle abuses and free riders (supply chain liability). It must be made Recommendations possible to take legal action against companies in their homelands if they are involved in main- For governments taining illegal and/or unacceptable practices • Transparency. Governments should ensure in their supply chains. The Dutch government that companies report publicly on the supply must work to achieve regulations on supply chain of their mining products. The reporting chain liability, in the Netherlands and in the EU. should include: the origin of the mining prod- ucts; existing environmental, human rights and For companies labour rights problems; the company’s efforts Companies which use considerable amounts of to reduce and end the problems. Because mining products in their final products should experience shows that a lot of companies do take responsibility for the total supply chain not provide this information voluntarily, the with regard to the environment, human rights government should institute mandatory report- and labour rights. In order to make this happen,

7 companies should do the following: • map out the supply chain for their mining products from the mine level and identify prob- lems with the environment, human rights and labour rights along the supply chain. • take active steps to prevent, reduce or end the problems by exerting influence on suppliers • report publicly about their involvement in min- ing throughout the supply chain, existing prob- lems, and efforts towards improving the envi- ronment, human rights and labour rights along the mining product chain.

8 Chapter 1

Trade links from the Netherlands to mining in developing countries

This chapter maps the 1.1 Tin ­Netherlands’ trade links to the Tin: the metal mining of tin, bauxite and cop- Tin is a silvery-white metal; its elemental symbol per in developing countries. is Sn. It is obtained chiefly from the grey mineral cassiterite (tin ore). Tin ore is transformed into tin- This was done with the help of in-concentrate in processing plants, and smelters import statistics from Statistics then heat the tin-in-concentrate to become pure refined tin. The London Metal Exchange (LME) ­Netherlands, US Geological and Kuala Lumpur Tin Market (KLTM) are the key Survey global mining statistics centres of the worldwide refined tin trade. and additional information. Major mining countries The major tin mining countries are China and Indonesia, in 2007 accounting for 41 per cent

Printed wire board ellmark B Flickr/

9 and 31 per cent of tin mining production respec- of tin to prevent rust, is second largest use for tively. Peru, Bolivia, the Democratic Republic of tin. Tinplate is primarily used for the packaging Congo, and Brazil followed, accounting respec- of products, principally food cans, beverage cans tively for 12, 5, 4 and 3 per cent. In 2007 mining and pet foods.5 Globally, tinplate accounts for 16 production totalled 329,000 tonnes.1 In the last per cent of tin usage. ten years, tin mining production has increased by 50 per cent.2 Tin imports to the Netherlands In 2008, the Netherlands imported 14,000 Large tin belts have been found in Asia and tonnes of tin, worth 180 million euros. More than South America. The biggest starts on the island 30 per cent of exports to the Netherlands come of Tasmania, off the coast of Australia, and runs from countries that do not mine tin themselves, up through Indonesia and Malaysia, Singapore but re-export it to the Netherlands, usually after and further through Burma and Vietnam up to some processing operations. the outer reaches of China and Russia.3 Tin is For this report it is assumed that Indone- also found in some African countries, notably the sia imports a bigger percentage of tin than Democratic Republic of Congo. is accounted for by the Dutch statistics listed below. This is due to the fact that Indonesia is a Tin in products main exporter and a main producer of tin. Tin is the main substance used in solder, a metal China is also a big producer of tin, but not a alloy used to join the edges or surfaces of two big trader. China’ tin exports have declined over pieces of metal. In 2007 solder accounted for 53 the years, due to China’s massive demand in its per cent of global tin use. More than 80 per cent own domestic industries (especially electron- is used in the electronics industry, for example in ics) and a 10 per cent export duty on refined tin printed wired boards.4 In the past few years, tin imposed by the Chinese government.6 use as solder has increased rapidly, due to the growing global electronics industry and regula- The Netherlands’ trade links with the tions requiring replacement of lead in solder. Democratic Republic Congo Solder can be found in many products: cars, tel- About 4 per cent of global raw tin materials are evisions, computers, mobile phones, household mined in the eastern part of Democratic Repub- appliances, etc. lic of Congo (DRC). The Netherlands’ import Tinplate, sheet steel covered with a thin layer statistics do not list any imports from the DRC. But some Dutch imports might nevertheless Imports of tin and tin alloys to the ­Netherlands in 20087 originate from the DRC, as most tin ore from the DRC is known to be exported to Asian smelters. Country tonnes per cent Dutch import statistics only list imports of refined Indonesia 4,136 29 tin after smelting. The tin smelting companies Thaisarco Smelting and Refining Corporation Peru 1,875 13 and Malaysia Smelting Corporation Berhad have both indicated that they buy cassiterite from United Kingdom (re-export) 1,133 8 the DRC.8 In December 2008, a United Nations Group of Experts working on behalf on the Secu- China 1,065 8 rity Council reported it had obtained documents Bolivia 949 7 showing that an exporter had sold all its mineral purchases to Thaisarco. The exporter knowingly Thailand (re-export) 895 6 bought the tin ore from mines in South Kivu con- trolled by the FDLR rebel group.9 Germany (re-export) 891 6 The Thai company Thaisarco exports a great deal Singapore (re-export) 682 5 of refined tin to the Netherlands that is likely to Malaysia (re-export) 633 5 have been mined in the DRC. The company is part of the UK-based Amalgamated Metal Cor- Brazil 612 4 poration group. In Thailand little tin mining takes place and raw material imports from Indone- Other 1,206 9 sia, common in earlier years, have decreased.10 The Thaisarco tin smelter in Phuket – the only Total 14.077 100 tin smelter in the country – produced 22,000

10 Thaisarco share in Dutch imports of refined tin, period 2004-200813

Sold by Thaisarco to the Tin imports by the Year Thaisarco share Netherlands (tonnes) Netherlands (tonnes)

2004 534 9,131 6%

2005 1,272 11,274 11%

2006 1,165 16,049 7%

2007 339 11,318 3%

2008 895 14,077 6%

Total 2004-2008 4,205 61,849 7% tonnes of refined tin in 2008.11 It therefore must rely heavily on the import of tin concentrates, including from the DRC. Thaisarco annually buys 30,000 tonnes of this raw material.12 The table above charts Thaisarco’s trade link with the Netherlands. In the period 2004-2008 Thaisarco accounted for about 7 per cent of imports of tin by the Netherlands.

Companies and countries reviewed for this report The companies Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technolo- gies and Corus were reviewed for this report. These companies are the largest importers of tin into the Netherlands. Alpha-Fry Technologies in Naarden (a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cook- son group) produces solder. Alpha-Fry accounts for 15 to 20 per cent of the European solder market. It can thus be assumed that the compa- ny bought around 3,500 tonnes of refined tin in 2007 (for the calculation, see endnote).14 Corus Packaging Plus in IJmuiden (a 100 per cent subsidiary of Tata Steel) has one of the larg- est European plants producing tinplate for the can-making industry. The company buys about 3,000 tonnes of tin annually. In 2008, 30 per cent of its tin originated from recycling sources; in 2009 the percentage has risen to 65 per cent according to the company.15 In addition to Cookson and Corus, down- stream users (users which are further down in the supply chain) of tin Philips, Heineken and Coca- Cola were reviewed for this report. For this report the following mining coun- tries were reviewed: Indonesia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Bolivia and Burma. Togeth- er these countries are estimated to account for more than half of the imports of tin to the Neth- erlands.

11 tonnes in 2008, worth 206 million euros. In 2008 1.2 Bauxite as well as in previous years, Jamaica and Spain were the main exporters of alumina to the Neth- Bauxite: aluminium ore erlands. Bauxite, which looks like gravel, is the most important ore for aluminium extraction. Alumina (also known as aluminium oxide) is made from Percentage of Dutch imports alumina bauxite in a refinery. Alumina is converted into originating from Jamaica and Spain in the aluminium in smelters. On average, two kilo- period 2004-200822 grams of alumina can be made from four kilo- grams of bauxite, which in turn can be smelted Year Jamaica Spain into 1 kilogram of aluminium.16 2004 70% 16% Main production countries 2005 61% 31% In 2008, bauxite was mainly mined in Australia (31 per cent), followed by China (16 per cent), 2006 65% 25% Brazil (12 per cent), India (10 per cent), Guinea (9 per cent) and Jamaica (7 per cent).17 2007 58% 32%

Main bauxite areas 2008 65% 22% The following map shows where most bauxite is found in the earth’s crust.18 Globally, in 2008, aluminium was mainly smelt- Spain ed in China (34 per cent), followed by Rus- Spain does not itself mine bauxite, but it does sia (11 per cent), Canada (8 per cent), United have a huge refinery that processes bauxite into States (7 per cent), Australia (5 per cent) and alumina, the San Ciprián facility, with a produc- Brazil (4 per cent).19 tion capacity of 1.5 million tonnes of alumina per year. The bauxite arrives at San Ciprián har- Aluminium in products bour from the Alcoa mines in Conakry, Guinea, In addition to cars, trains, planes and other and Brazil.23 The plant is owned by the Ameri- means of transport (25 per cent of all alumini- can aluminium giant Alcoa and is the only plant um use), aluminium is widely used in construc- producing alumina in Spain. In 2005 and 2006, tion (18 per cent), for beverage cans and other Spain accounted for about 10 per cent of Guin- packaging materials (18 per cent), in electrical ea’s export revenues. Bauxite mining and alu- equipment and machinery (14 per cent) and for mina production provide about 80 per cent of various consumer products (6 per cent).20 Guinea’s foreign revenues.24 For this report, it is assumed that most of the bauxite that arrives at Alumina imports to the Netherlands the San Ciprián facility originates from Guinea. Dutch imports of alumina totalled 685,000 Companies and countries reviewed for this report Imports of alumina to the ­Netherlands in Nearly 700,000 tonnes of alumina reach the 200821 Dutch harbours of Flushing and Delfzijl each year. The Zalco and Aldel aluminium smelting Country tonnes per cent companies were reviewed for this report, both of which are owned by the UK-based Klesch & Jamaica 447,588 65 Company. These countries mine most of the Spain 142,448 22 bauxite that is eventually imported into the Netherlands as alumina. Surinam 42,274 6 The Zeeland Aluminium Company (Zalco), located near the harbour of Flushing in the Ireland 35,797 5 south-east of the Netherlands, produces more than 300,000 tonnes of aluminium annually, aug- Other 16,580 3 mented partially with recycled aluminium. Total 684,687 100 Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel), located near the harbour of Delfzijl in the north-west of the Neth-

12 pril 2006 A , PR icardo Stuckert/ R © President Luiz erlands, annually produces over 115,000 tonnes Inácio Lula of new (or primary) aluminium. Re-melting da Silva of production waste and scrap produces another Brazil visits an aluminium 50,000 tonnes. Can-users Heineken and Coca- plant in Brazil Cola were also reviewed for this report. The mining countries Jamaica and Guinea were reviewed for this report. In these countries most of the bauxite is mined that eventually is imported into the Netherlands as alumina.

13 per.30 A great deal of heating equipment uses 1.3 Copper copper components. Copper is also used for roofs and cladding. Copper: the metal • Industrial use: surface and underground Copper is a chemical element with the sym- cables, ships, rail, aircraft, plants, machinery, bol Cu (Latin: cuprum), known for its excellent ammunition, etc. electrical conductivity. Copper is mined in large, • Electrical and electronic equipment: This open-pit or underground mines.25 includes everything with a pin contact or bat- teries. The list of products is endless: micro- Main mining countries waves, televisions, computers, vacuum clean- Chile is by far the leading copper mining coun- ers, refrigerators, mobile phones, wires for try. In 2007 the country mined 36 per cent of the lighting, etc. Copper is used in cables, wiring, world’s copper, followed by Peru (8 per cent), motors, circuit boards, etc.31 Consumer elec- United States (8 per cent), China (including Mon- tronics like DVD players and audio equipment golia, 7 per cent), Australia (6 per cent), Indone- have on average 400 grams of copper con- sia (5 per cent) and Zambia (4 per cent).26 tent.32 Over the past five decades, the volume of • Vehicles. On average, a car contains 20 kg of copper mined globally has increased by an aver- copper (electronic devices, radiator, motor, age of 2.6 per cent annually.27 In 2007, 15 million brakes, etc.)33 tonnes of copper was mined globally; in the year 1900 the total was less than 0.5 million tonnes.28 Copper imports to the Netherlands In 2007, the Netherlands imported almost Copper in products 300,000 tonnes of copper, copper alloys and Average residents of wealthy nations require copper objects with a total worth of 1.5 billion about 200 kg of copper per person to fulfil their euros (copper waste trade excluded). Almost needs.29 Copper is used in four main sectors: 40 per cent of copper imported into the Neth- • Housing and other buildings. These are sup- erlands came from Chile. Chile mainly exports plied with copper wires and cables in the elec- refined copper. tricity and phone network. In the Netherlands, A large portion of Dutch imports originate Copper pipe 90 per cent of water pipes are made from cop- from countries like Germany, Belgium and the stocks ctober 2008 O ulpolux, P Flickr/

14 United Kingdom. These countries have no cop- Imports of copper, copper alloys and copper objects to per mines themselves, but process copper the Netherlands in 2007 (copper waste­­ trade excluded)34 before exporting it to the Netherlands. There- fore, the mining origin of the copper imported Country tonnes percentage to the Netherlands is difficult to extract from the statistics. Chile 115,804 39

Companies and countries reviewed for Germany (re-export) 57,056 19 this report Belgium (re-export) 34,082 11 The only company reviewed in this report is the Dutch cable producer Draka, probably the big- Peru 15,586 5 gest Dutch importer of copper. Draka’s head- quarters are in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Russia 13,404 5 Draka annually processes about 22,000 tonnes of copper wire in the Netherlands, thus accounting United Kingdom (re-export) 13,347 4 for more than 7 per cent of copper imports to France (re-export) 8,310 3 the Netherlands. Only primary copper is used in cables; no recycled copper is used in cables.35 Brazil 7,567 3

The reviewed countries are Chile, Zambia, Peru Canada 6,101 2 and Indonesia. Together these countries account Other 25,669 9 for about 55 per cent of global copper mining production. Total 296,926 100

15 Chapter 2

Review of mining practices

metres below sea level.38 In March 2009, Abrun 2.1 Tin Abubakar, corporate secretary of Timah, stated: ‘Currently, we have three suction vessels and hire more than 20 vessels of this type from our part- Indonesia ners, which operate in our concessions.’39 The company wants to boost offshore mining from Almost all tin produced in Indonesia originates 30 to 50 per cent of its tin production. In 2009 from and around Bangka Island, located just it intends to invest $21 million in new bucket- east of Sumatra. Bangka-Belitung is one of the wheel dredgers,40 which may be capable of dig- 33 provinces of the Republic of Indonesia, and ging down to 70 metre depths.41 While present Bangka is the biggest island of the province. The offshore resources in depths up to 50 meters amount of tin mined in Indonesia in 2008 has are being depleted and onshore operations are been estimated at 100,000 tonnes.36 constrained for geographical, environmental, and sociological reasons, Timah considers the PT Timah area extending to 70 metre depths as a major The leading producer of Indonesian tin is the PT resource for the future.42 Timah Tbk company (Timah). Timah produced almost 50,000 tonnes of refined tin in 2008.37 IHC Merwede The Indonesian Government owns 65 per cent The Dutch company IHC Merwede has a long of the company, while the other 35 per cent is tradition of delivering dredgers to Indonesia owned by private shareholders. The company for tin mining and the company is currently still is listed on the Jakarta, Surabaya and London involved in this business. In 2005, IHC delivered Stock Exchanges. the Pulau Tujuh (seven islands) dredger to Timah. The Pulau Tujuh will be used by Timah for remov- Timah operations ing sediment above the tin deposits, which will subsequently be mined by Timah’s huge bucket dredgers.43 Timah also works with IHC Merwede to dredge at depths of more than 50 meters.44

Timah markets The company produces mainly refined tin as an end product. Its buyers are traders or manu- facturers of downstream products like solder, tinplate and chemicals. ‘If you ask about our markets, they are mostly in Asia,’ says Wachid Usman, President Director of Timah. ‘About 55 per cent goes to Asia, 30 per cent to Europe, Timah mines both on and offshore Bangka and about 8 per cent to North America. The Island and has a very large tin smelter in Men- domestic market is very small.’45 Timah’s web- tok, Bangka. Offshore mining presently accounts site reports: ‘Export destination in Asia Pacific: for about 30 per cent of its mining production. Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China and Singapore; Timah has a number of dredgers that operate Europe: England, Netherlands, France, Spain several kilometres offshore in depths of up to 50 and Italy; and also America and Canada.’46 PT

16 eawiharta, February 2007. B S/ REUTER

Timah’s financial report 2008 shows the follow- Arcelor Espana and S.A Westmetal Gmbh & A worker holds an ingot ing main debtors as of 31 December 2008: Mit- Co.KG.47 of 99.99% subishi Shoji Light Metal Corp, Indelberg Trad- tin at a PT ing & Service PTE Ltd, Pan Light Corporation, Other tin companies on Bangka Timah smelter Daewoo International Corp., Cookson Electron- Many small artisanal miners are still engaged in Mentok ics. Wilhelm Grillo Handelsgesellsschaft GmbH, in illegal mining on Bangka. In recent years the on the Indonesian island of Bangka. air, ITf atch/make W

One of the

öyhönen, Finnhundreds of P toxic lakes on

äivi Bangka P

17 government has tried to clamp down on the checked, government monitoring to prevent and illegal mining, but in October 2008 Bangka- clean up damage from mining activities is weak. Belitung’s police chief reported that mining was Hundreds of deep craters and small lakes still going on in prohibited areas, including pro- containing acidic water cover the landscape of tected forests.48 Bangka. Most of the onshore mining uses gravel PT Koba Tin (Koba), which operates in South pumps, and the tin ore containing alluvium is Bangka, is the number two company active in washed with running water. This water becomes mining and smelting on Bangka. The Malay- acidic when it is mixed with the grey-black tin sia Smelting Corporation Berhad owns 75 per ore extracted from the earth.53 Reclamation and cent of Koba, while Timah owns the rest. Koba re-vegetation of mined areas is almost never produced 7,200 tonnes of refined tin in 2008.49 done. The two main mining companies have Its production was low compared to previous re-vegetated only a few of their former mines. years, because the police had closed down the Many holes have been left by the illegal mining company’s operations for some time in 2008 of small-scale miners.54 due to allegations that it had bought tin from Tin mining is also the main cause of damage illegal sources.50 All charges against the defend- to the coral reef ecosystem around the island ants have been dropped, but an investigation of Bangka. The head of the Bangka-Belitung by the Forestry Department into Koba’s use of Marine and Fishery Service, Dr. Yulistyo, has protected forests for mining operations is still stated that about 30 per cent of the coral reefs pending.51 in Bangka-Belitung waters have been damaged Apart from Timah and Koba, some 20 to due to offshore tin mining and fish poaching 30 smaller tin smelters operate on the islands activities using explosives. He has further assert- of Bangka and Belitung. In late 2007, a new tin ed that on Bangka Island, coral reefs have been smelter with a capacity of 12,000 tonnes of tin mainly damaged due to tin dredging activities per year, was put into operation by Singapore in the coastal area, naming losses in Lepar and Tin Industries (which is 51 per cent owned by the Pongok (South Bangka) and Tanjung Ular (West Chinese Yunnan Tin Company).52 Bangka).55 Another negative consequence of off- shore mining is abrasion of the coast area, due Environmental damage to the number of holes at the bottom of the sea Tin mining causes severe environmental damage. caused by coastal mining.56 Though dredging ships are sometimes halted and Coral reefs along the coast, extending up

One of the tin dredging boats of PT Timah air, 2008 ITf atch/make W öyhönen, Finn P äivi P

18 air, 2008 ITf atch/make W öyhönen, Finn P äivi P

Tin miner on to 50 metres deep, are the tropical rainforests of these ships are able to suction around 1000 Bangka with of the sea: there are no other sea areas where cubic metres of sand per hour.60 gravel pump so much biodiversity can be found.57 As fish- ing grounds, they are thought to be 10 to 100 times as productive per unit area as the open sea.58 It is estimated that about 20 tonnes of fish can be obtained each year, enough to feed 1,200 people in the coastal areas, on one square kilometre of healthy coral reef. Even when dredging associated with mining only takes place in the area around the coral reefs, it causes water turbidity which can reach the coral reef area and damage it.59 The Indonesian environmental organisation Walhi (Friends of the Earth Indonesia) reported in early March 2009, after field visits, that the income of fishermen in the Permis, Rajik and Sebagin villages in South Bangka has decreased by 80 per cent, due to offshore tin mining. According to Walhi, a newly built road along the coast also suffered damage due to abrasion of the coastline. Three tin dredgers owned by Timah have been active in this specific region of South Bangka since the beginning of 2004. Another tin dredger has also been conducting activities in the waters since the end of January 2009. Some

19 Mines in control of armed groups Democratic Republic of Congo Rebel groups as well as units and commanders of the Congolese national army have had con- Tin mining in eastern Congo trol over mines or have imposed ‘taxes’ in the About 4 per cent of global tin mining takes place form of minerals or cash at the mines, along the in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). roads or at border crossings since 1998. These Cassiterite (tin ore) is found in various parts of revenues enable them to keep fighting.64 Among eastern Congo, mainly in the provinces of Manie- other groups, mine revenues are extracted by: ma, North Kivu and South Kivu. It is estimated The Forces Democratiques de Liberation du that exports from the Kivus amounted to 18,000 Rwanda (FDLR). The group is descended from tonnes of cassiterite in 2007 and 25,000 tonnes Hutu rebels responsible for the 1994 Rwandan in 2008. The export value of the cassiterite sold Genocide. It controls mines in Walikale, in the from the Kivus in 2008 has been estimated at Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in the South Kivu $200 million.61 province and also lots of other mines in North and South Kivu.65 Adapted The non-integrated 85th Brigade of the Forc- from a map es Armées de la République Démocratique du in a report Congo (FARDC, the Congolese national army). by Global In December 2007, the DRC’s Vice-Minister of Witness: ‘Undermining Mines, Viktor Kasongo, stated that the 85th peace’, June brigade was not under the control of the ‘état- 2005 major’, while it should be under the control of the government and army structure. One of the mines it controlled was the Bisie mine, which is the largest mine in the Walikale region. The 85th brigade was moved away from Bisie in March 2009; a FARDC/ex-CNDP (Le Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple) brigade replaced the 85th brigade.66 Walikale is the main cassiterite production area of DRC, estimated to account for about 9,000 tonnes of cassiterite exported from Goma (North Kivu’s trading capital).67 War The Tutsi-dominated CNDP. One of the prin- War was waged in eastern Congo during the cipal sources of revenue for CNDP has been con- period 1998-2002, leading to extreme violence, trolling Bunagana customs on the DRC/Uganda massive population displacement, widespread border.68 In December 2008, a United Nations rape and the collapse of public health services. report accused Rwanda of supporting CNDP- Despite the signing of a formal peace agree- leader General Laurent Nkunda.69 This has led ment in December 2002, conflict and erup- to aid cuts (among others from Sweden and the tions of violence have persisted in the eastern Netherlands) and threats from donors. The pres- provinces, causing severe loss of life. Approxi- sure may have led to the fact that on 22 January mately 500,000 Congolese have continued to 2009 General Nkunda was arrested by Rwan- die each year, mostly due to easily preventable da. In March 2009, the Congolese government and curable conditions, such as malaria, diar- reached an agreement with CNDP: the group rhoea, pneumonia, malnutrition, and neonatal said it would give up violence and in exchange problems.62 Rape, murder and pillage are still was promised the release of all prisoners taken committed regularly in eastern Congo; children in the war, accorded a political party status and are still being recruited to join the rebel groups. an all-important clause granting amnesty to all its The United Nations Mission in the Democratic members (including some serious criminals) who Republic of Congo (MONUC) has been engaged have fought since 2003.70 in the area since February 2000, and currently has about 20,000 peacekeepers in the country.63 Workers’ conditions MONUC and the Congolese government have The consultant Nicholas Garrett has widely not yet managed to gain control of the region, published about mineral trade in the DRC and though some progress has been made. has advised several organisations including the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative,

20 Miners extracting cassiterite from the Bisie mine ovember 2008 N oogte, H e- s olland H © Johan Spanner/

World Bank and German government. He has are generally in breach of commonly acceptable extensively studied working conditions at the labour standards and many injuries and acci- Bisie Mine in North Kivu. The mining is subdivid- dents – some of them fatal – occur regularly. ed into alluvial, open pit and hard rock mining in Health hazards result from occupational hazards, 167 different pits, tunnels and alluvial sites. Allu- poverty, poor sanitation and a lack of access to vial and open pit mining is undertaken on the protection and health support. Environmental surface; hard-rock mining goes on underground. degradation includes pollution, erosion, defor- Hard-rock mining accounts for the large major- estation, poaching, etc.72 ity of production volume, with a cross-checked estimate of 75 per cent, suggesting a far higher Kahuzi-Biéga National Park yield in the tunnels. This extra productivity is an The Kahuzi-Biéga National Park in eastern Congo incentive for tunnel owners to drive the tun- is a World Heritage Site and home to the eastern nels ever further into the mountain; some up lowland gorilla (Gorilla beringei ssp. Graueri). to 150 meters deep, which is far beyond the 30 This subspecies of gorilla is endemic in the DRC meters stipulated as ‘safe’ in DRC mining regula- and 86 per cent of the population, some 14,500 tions. Mining activities are accompanied by seri- animals, live in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park ous safety hazards, such as mudslides, naturally and the adjoining Kasese forests. However, about occurring CO2 in the tunnels, or mine collapse. 25 per cent of the population is said to have Even on a productive day, the income of the disappeared. Most of these gorillas have been workers in the Bisie mine does not exceed $5. killed for bush meat for the thousands of mining Communities around the mine subsist in abso- labourers and for sale by armed rebels.73 lute poverty. In Bisie, the FARDC’s non-integrat- The gorilla is an endangered species. In ed 85th brigade used to prey on the miners. eastern DRC, the eastern lowland gorillas face Low-ranking soldiers were exploited by their substantial threats to their survival. Firstly, agri- commander to steal cassiterite on his behalf. At culture and grazing are leading to massive loss the time of research, no children under the age and fragmentation of forest habitat. Secondly, of 10 were identified on the mining sites in Bisie, widespread illegal mining activities in the forests but a minimum of 300 youths (estimated 10-18 increase the demand for bush meat, includ- years) were present. ing consumption of gorillas. Thirdly, infants are Garrett estimates that the province of North illegally captured, often causing other group Kivu has up to 200,000 artisanal miners. Allow- members to be killed. Ongoing political unrest ing for five dependants per worker, this means and military activity, including the occupation of up to one million people in North Kivu could be national parks and killing gorillas for food, have dependent on artisanal miners for their liveli- compounded the problems.74 hoods.71 The working conditions in most mines

21 in the south-western departments of Oruro and Bolivia Potosí, and in gold mining in the subtropical area around La Paz.79 Another estimate states that Bolivia’s mining sector accounted for about 4.5 3,800 children – 10 per cent of the total min- per cent of the country’s gross domestic product ing workforce – work in tin, zinc and silver mines (GDP) in 2006. Zinc, gold, tin and silver were the in the Ururo (which incorporates the Huanuni main products mined.75 mine), Potosí and La Paz departments.80 The International Labour Organization (ILO) Yearly, Bolivia produces some 18,000 tonnes of defines the mining work done by children in tin-in-concentrate, making it the world’s fourth- Bolivia as one of the worst forms of child labour, largest tin producer (after China, Indonesia and and states that its elimination should be a prior- Peru). Almost half of the production originates ity. Article 3d of ILO Convention 182 describes from the Posokoni mine near the city of Huanu- this hazardous work as ‘work which, by its nature ni, the remainder from smaller mines.76 In 2006, or the circumstances in which it is carried out, small-scale, cooperative and artisanal miners is likely to harm the health, safety or morals of accounted for about 62% of tin production in children.’81 Bolivia. An estimated 41,800 miners were offi- A 2006 study on child labour in the Boliv- cially registered with a cooperative in 2006, but ian mining sector states the following about the it is assumed there are more artisanal small-scale health conditions for children working in the miners.77 Most of the mined tin-in-concentrate underground Posokoni mine: ‘Mining children is processed in the Vinto tin smelter, which pro- who work in the mine are exposed to reduced duced 9,500 tonnes of tin in 2008.78 oxygen and poisonous gases that affect their health, particularly their nervous system. Contin- Miners at Child labour uous exposure to dust causes silicosis (the most work in an It is estimated that more than 13,500 children common occupational lung disease worldwide), underground and adolescents in Bolivia work in traditional as well as nose and eye irritation. The high levels mine at mining (extraction of tin, silver and zinc), mainly of noise produced by the drills and explosions Potosí can produce deafness. (...) None of the children that were interviewed go to the doctor since they have no money, or because they ignore the pain.’82 ctober 2008 O uiter, R .J. W ©

22 Log truck in Burma. The export of logs from Burma to the EU is prohibited. ie, 2008 s en f ilieude M ©

Burma indications that the recent European sanctions have had no impact on the export of Burmese EU regulations timber. Sanctions are a means to put more In response to the brutal repression of the pressure on the junta in order to work towards peaceful protesters of the Saffron Revolution in democratisation. Therefore it is highly important September 2007, the European Council decided that sanctions are effective and monitored on a to strengthen their position against Burma’s mili- regular basis by the European Council. tary junta. Among other measures, the import into the European Union of several goods origi- Tin trade link Burma – Netherlands nating or exported from Burma was prohibited: The Netherlands does not directly import tin round logs, timber and timber products, metals ores/concentrates and refined tin from Burma. and minerals, as well as precious and semi-pre- Refined tin is however imported from China, Sin- cious stones. Banned tin products included tin gapore and Thailand. Tin smelters in these coun- ores and concentrates; unwrought tin (refined tin tries may source tin ore and concentrates from before further processing); tin waste and scrap.83 Burma. Some examples: The new regulations came into force in March • China imported 7,000 tonnes of tin ore and 2008. concentrate in 2008.85 In 2008, China’s main The regulations have not yet had any effect import sources were Vietnam (39 per cent), on tin imports originating in Burma to the Neth- Bolivia (31 per cent) and Burma (17 per cent).86 erlands. This is due to the fact that according to In 2007, as well as 2008, the Netherlands EU Import Customs Regulations, the country of was the biggest importer of refined tin from origin changes if goods have been processed. China.87 Both refined tin as well as electronic Therefore, if tin ores and concentrates from Bur- products containing tin solder from tin mined in ma are processed into refined tin outside Burma Burma may end up at the Dutch market. and the EU, the tin is simply allowed onto the EU • About 5 per cent of tin imports to the Nether- market. lands come from Singapore. In 2007, the Sin- Earlier this year, Friends of the Earth Neth- gapore Tin Industries Pte Ltd tin refinery relied erlands (FoE NL) conducted research on timber on supplies of crude tin from Australia, Burma, traded from Burma to the European Union.84 India and Vietnam. Most of their refined tin Based on a first round of interviews and field output was exported to the United States and work in Burma, FoE NL has found several strong European countries.88

23 Burma also has some tin smelting facilities. In November 2002, the newly built Lonhtan (or 2.2 Bauxite Long Tan) tin smelting plant started operations, very close to the border with Yunnan, China.89 No information on the capacity and recent pro- Jamaica duction of this plant could not be found for this report. Bauxite and alumina in Jamaica Tin ore is also being refined at the Thanlyin In 2008, Jamaica was responsible for 7 per cent tin smelting plant. The tin ore for this plant is of global bauxite mining.94 The country mines sourced from the Heinda mine through a joint about 14 million tonnes of bauxite, which it par- venture between the military junta (No. 2 Min- tially exports and mainly uses to produce about ing Enterprise) and the Thai company Myanmar 4 million tonnes of alumina.95 There are no alu- Pongpipat Co Ltd In 2008 production of refined minium smelting facilities in Jamaica. tin and tungsten was around 600 tonnes, which The mining and processing of bauxite is a reportedly was distributed to the domestic mar- major sector of the Jamaican economy, account- ket.90 ing for about 10 per cent of GDP (gross domes- How much tin is mined, refined or exported tic product). Bauxite and alumina are the third in Burma is not known, due to lack of independ- earner of foreign revenue, after remittances and ent information. The US Geological Survey esti- tourism. It is a capital-intensive industry and, mates that production by state-owned mines as a consequence, directly employs only 3,400 was 923 tonnes (tin content of ores and concen- workers.96 Due to the financial crisis, in May 2009 trates) in 2006, based on statistics from the jun- three of the four alumina plants will be closed for ta.91 In 2007 and the first three quarters of 2008, an extended period of possibly 12-18 months.97 the amount of tin mined in Burma has probably risen due to stronger demand and higher tin Producing companies prices. Jamaica has four bauxite mining and alumina Some Asian companies have been looking producing companies which may be supplying into investing in the Burmese tin mining indus- alumina to Dutch aluminium smelters: try. Singapore Tin Industries said it also planned • Jamalco (55 per cent US-based Alcoa, 45 per to set up a smelter with an annual capacity of cent Jamaican government). Jamalco has a pro- 12,000 tonnes in Myanmar in 200892, but to our duction capacity of around 1.4 million tonnes of knowledge the company has not proceeded with alumina per year.98 The company has a refinery this plan. The Tongkah Harbour PCL mining com- at Halse Hall in Clarendon parish. pany from Thailand recently stated it was con- • Windalco (93 per cent Russia-based RUSAL, 7 sidering taking over or forming a joint venture per cent Jamaican government). The produc- with a tin business in Myanmar, to be effected in tion volume of Windalco is 1.2 million tonnes of 2009.93 alumina annually.99 Windalco has two refineries: one at Ewarton in Saint Catherine parish and the other at Kirkvine in Manchester parish. • Alpart (65 per cent RUSAL, 35 per cent Nor- way-based Hydro). Alpart has a production capacity of around 1.65 million tonnes of alu- mina per year.100 The company has a refinery at Nain in Saint Elizabeth parish. • St Ann Bauxite Ltd (SABL) is a Jamaican baux- ite mining company which is owned by a 50/50 joint venture between Canada-based Century Aluminum and US-based Noranda Aluminum. SABL, in turn, is a 49 per cent owner of St Ann Bauxite Partners with the remaining 51 per cent owned by the Jamaican government. Approxi- mately 60 per cent of the bauxite mined at St Ann is shipped to an alumina plant in the USA. The remainder is sold to a single third party. The current annual bauxite production capacity at St Ann is 5.1 million tonnes of ore.101

24 Environmental problems There are several environmental, health and social problems related to the bauxite mining and alumina refineries in Jamaica: • Forest loss. Bauxite mining is the single larg- est cause of deforestation in Jamaica. The bauxite mining industry has stripped thou- sands of hectares of forest. Up to 2006, a total of 7,400 hectares of land had been disturbed since the commencement of mining activi- ties in Jamaica. Only 4,800 hectares, however, had been rehabilitated, and most forests were not restored. For rehabilitation, material from the surrounding hillsides is often used to fill holes, a procedure which destroys hillsides and watershed areas.103 Bauxite mining also affects water quality. Bauxite mining has caused even greater forest destruction by opening access roads.104 Not only are forests cleared in order to make way for these access roads, but once they exist, loggers move in and illegally remove trees in and around the mining areas. According to the Jamaican Bauxite Institute, access roads present bauxite mining’s most serious threat to the forest cover on the island.105 • Air pollution. The bauxite industry is the larg- est emitter of particulate matter and sulphur dioxide in Jamaica.106 ‘Bunker C’ heavy oil is used to process bauxite into alumina in refiner- ies. In 2007 about 9 million barrels of this oil were used for this purpose.107 Bunker C, mostly used for seagoing ships, has a sulphur content of at least 3 per cent. Therefore, the oil refiner- ies emit a great deal of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matter. When it comes in con- tact with moisture, SO2 can result in acid rain, • Red mud pools. Because the processing of Map: adapted which damages crops. Some communities are bauxite produces at least as much residue as from the Jamaican located very near to the four Jamaican refin- alumina, large storage ponds are built next to Bauxite eries. These residents will have more respira- refineries. The Jamalco refinery at Halse Hall Institute map tory and cardiovascular diseases than people in Clarendon, for instance, currently has four of February exposed to cleaner air. Long term exposure to active residue disposal areas (red mud pools) 2007.102 particulate matter is especially unhealthy. San- covering 214 hectares in total.109 The mud dra McLean, living near the Alpart refinery in pools consist of metals (mainly iron ore), water Nain, St Elizabeth, states: ‘You know how long I and strong alkaline substances left over from have flu and it can’t get better? The white acid the use of caustic soda during bauxite process- from the plant is killing us slowly. My niece is ing into alumina.110 The greatest risk of the red suffering from asthma, four to five times a year mud pools is spillage, which may contaminate they go to a hospital.’108 both groundwater and surface water sources, Community health risks due to air pollution such as ponds, streams and rivers. This caus- have been badly monitored and not yet inves- es damage to humans, plants and animals. tigated. The government and refinery-owning For instance, the red mud lake around Mount companies do not report the amount of health- Rosser was used for over 30 years, until 1991, related emissions released into the air by the by the mining company Alcan to collect resi- refineries. This information cannot even be dues from alumina processing. The pond area found in environmental impact assessments. is continuously fed by stormwater run-off from

25 Red mud lake in Jamaica ctober 2007 O laude Fletcher, C ©

the surrounding hillsides. The alkaline water of Cockpit Country. In November 2006, the flows from the lake into neighbouring areas Minister of Agriculture, the Hon. Roger Clarke, and groundwater. According to the US Army renewed Alcoa’s licence. The public outcry that Corps of Engineers, the nearby Moneague Blue ensued prompted the Minister to suspend the Hole was once a good freshwater source, but licences almost immediately. However, the threat has now been contaminated; this is believed to Cockpit Country remains, as the government to have come from the Mount Rosser pond has not made a definite decision not to allow with its high sodium effluent.111 In August 2006, mining in Cockpit Country.116 the pH level for the water in the Mount Rosser pond was 10.2, which is very alkaline compared to normal water that has a pH of 7.0.112 In the coming years the red mud pond at Mount Rosser will finally be rehabilitated.113 • Dust nuisance. Dust nuisance as a result of mining, drying and calsining (decomposition of hydrated minerals) operations is a major problem for communities in bauxite mining and processing areas.114 There may also be high lev- els of dust affecting people in ports.115

Cockpit Country: will it be saved from bauxite mining? Cockpit Country is a mountainous, forested area of western Jamaica, rich in biodiversity and home to the Leeward Maroon people of Jamai- ca. The forest of Cockpit Country is Jamaica’s largest remaining primary forest and a refuge for rare Jamaican animals such as the black- billed parrot and the giant swallow-tail butter- fly. In 2006, Alcoa and its Jamaican joint-venture partner applied for the renewal of a prospect- ing licence, first granted in May 2004, to exclu- sively prospect for bauxite within an extremely large area of western Jamaica, including much

26 Guinea

Guinea in West Africa, one of the poorest coun- tries on the continent, has about one third of the world’s bauxite reserves. Bauxite mining and alumina production provide about 80 per cent of Guinea’s foreign revenue.117 In 2007, bauxite production amounted to 18.5 million tonnes. Since December 2008 Guinea has been led by a military junta which has promised to hold elec- tions in 2009 or 2010. The military seized power after the death of President Lansana Conte, who had ruled since 1984. The new president, Moussa Dadis Camara, said in January 2009 that mining contracts under the last administration had not been in Guinea’s interest. He stated: ‘I commit myself to move ahead with revising the to mining in Sangaredi, CBG operates a port in mining code and mining conventions in force, Kamsar for drying and shipping the bauxite to and with technical, financial and fiscal audits for refineries worldwide.120 the past five years by internationally regarded firms.’118 The Sangaredi Mine in the Upper Guinea Forest is located within one of the world’s most biologi- Sangaredi: mining Guinean forests cally rich – but also seriously threatened – eco- Most bauxite mining takes place in Guinea’s San- systems. Recent biological assessment of the garedi Plateau in the Boké region, a biodiversity area surrounding the bauxite mine and proposed hotspot in the north-west of Guinea. The mines alumina processing facility identified five reptile produce about 13 million tonnes of bauxite species, 17 amphibian species, 140 species of annually, most of the country’s total production. birds, 16 species of mammals, and eight primate The mining is done by the Compagnie des Baux- species, including the endangered West African ites de Guinée (CBG). Halco mining, a joint ven- chimpanzee and western red colobus monkey.123 ture controlled by the mining giants Alcoa (45%, US-based) and Rio Tinto Alcan (45%, Anglo-Aus- New Sangaredi tralian), is a 51 per cent shareholder of CBG. The Mining is expected to increase massively in the Guinean government holds the remainder of the Boké region. In 2005, the Guinean government shares. CBG has exclusive rights through 2038 approved a 75-year investment and concession to bauxite resources in the area.119 In addition agreement with a joint venture of Global Alumi- UNEP

Satellite view of the Sangaredi bauxite mine in is visible as a vast open pit approximately 20 1986 and 2007. The bauxite ore is mined in open km from one end to the other.121 Since opening pits, requiring the removal of vegetation and in 1973, the operation has produced over 260 topsoil. In the 2007 image, the Sangaredi Mine million tonnes of bauxite for export.122

27 Bauxite mining concessions and exploration permits in Guinea

na, BHP Billiton, Dubai Aluminium Company Lim- petroleum coke; a 30-meter-high dam for the ited and Mubadala Development Company. The refinery’s water supply; and a lined storage facil- joint venture has exclusive rights to build and ity for red mud disposal. The total construction operate an alumina refinery within a 690 square costs at completion are expected to be more Train full kilometre mining concession area in the Boké than $5 billion with alumina production starting of bauxite region. The refinery will have an annual capacity in late 2011.124 heading for of 3.3 million tonnes of alumina. The mining con- the port cession contains 19 previously unmined bauxite- Another refinery of Kamsar, bearing plateaus. The investment includes: a In 2005, Alcoa and Alcan also signed a basic where it is shipped for 70-megawatt power plant to be fuelled by coal agreement with the government of Guinea, this export. (likely to be sourced from South Africa) and/or time for the development of a 1.5 million metric tonne per year alumina refinery. Alcoa and Alcan worked with Conservation International on biodi- versity issues related to the refinery plan.125 The location of the refinery will probably be a site near Kabata, north of Kamsar. A detailed feasibil- ity study is expected to be completed in 2009 with a final investment decision made thereafter. Following such a decision, alumina production could be expected to begin in 2012.126

RUSAL In Guinea, the Russian aluminium giant Unit- ed Company RUSAL owns two companies: the Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK complex) and the Alumina Company of Guinea (Friguia complex).127 The CBK complex has an annual capacity of 3 million tonnes of bauxite. It includes the Debele ctober 2008.

O mine, a railway, a mine port and a repair cen- tre. Over 2 million tonnes of bauxite per year

obet, are delivered to the Nikolaev alumina refinery in G

s Ukraine.128 The Friguia complex consists of an alumina eorge

G refinery in the town of Fria (0.6 million tonnes capacity) close to a bauxite deposit. RUSAL wants to increase the plant’s capacity to 1 million photo /

P 129

F tonnes annually. Recently, the Guinean presi- A

© dent Moussa Camara stated that he is consid-

28 ering legal action over a 2006 transaction that gave control of the Friguia complex to RUSAL. 2.3 Copper According to the president, the Guinean gov- ernment was paid a fraction of the amount the company was valued at by consulting firms.130 Chile RUSAL (51%) and the China Power Investment Corp (CPI, 49%) also are investors in an alumina refinery producing up to 2.8 million tonnes of alumina per year, near the RUSAL owned Dian- Dian mine, with a possible future production of 13.4 million tonnes of bauxite annually.131

Bauxite exploration permits (See map on page 28.) The Canadian-based Navasota Resources Ltd has a bauxite mining concession in Guinea, near Sangaredi, and has started exploring mining possibilities.132 In early 2007, China agreed to fund a $1 billion hydro- power dam in return for rights to bauxite con- cessions.133 Mitsubishi (Japan) and Vale (Brazil) have also won exploration permits.134 A Nava- sota Resources brochure pictures the bauxite mining concessions and exploration permits in Guinea.135 There will be little forest left in the western part of Guinea if all these areas are actu- ally mined for bauxite.

Copper is Chile’s most important export prod- uct. In 2007, helped by high copper prices, exports of copper totalled $37 billion, 56 per cent of total exports.136 Copper production in Chile reached 5.6 million tonnes in 2007. The Chilean government expects copper production to rise to 6.7 million tonnes in 2015. Investments by private mining companies and the state-run company CODELCO are predicted to be $18 bil- lion in the period 2008-2012.137

Copper is mined in Chile in about 25 mines. The biggest ones are: the Rio Escondida open pit mine (annual capacity 1.43 million tonnes); the CODELCO North Division including Chuqui- camata, Mina Sur, and Radomiro Tomic Mines (0.97 million tonnes); the Collahuasi open pit mine (0.46 million tonnes); the underground El Teniente Mine (0.43 million tonnes); the Los Pela- mbres open pit mine (0.36 million tonnes) and the Los Bronces Mine (0.3 million tonnes).

Water shortage in Chile It has been calculated that the copper industry in Chile uses 11,500 litres of water per second,

29 Mining in progress at the open pit mine Chuquicamata in northern Chile ctober 2004 O trom, s y N obin R

more than 5 per cent of the country’s water Plans for destructive hydroelectric dams usage.138 In April 2009 the Chile’s Public Works in Patagonia Minister, Sergio Bitar, stated: ‘We are entering a The copper mining sector accounts for around complex water shortage phase in Chile. Water 10% of the total energy consumption of Chile consumption to produce a tonne of copper is (31% of the total electric energy and 5% of other still high and we have to ask for more efficient fuels). The energy used to make one tonne of usage.’ In 2008, Chile suffered one of its worst copper decreased by 8 per cent between 1995 droughts in memory, which affected the agricul- and 2006. The Chilean copper industry uses ture and hydro-electric sectors and prompted about 100 petajoules of energy annually,143 an miners to consider alternatives, such as desali- amount equivalent to the annual household nation plants, to ensure supplies. The copper energy use (natural gas and electricity) of 3 mil- industry has stated that it reduced its water use lion people in the Netherlands.144 from 15,000 litres per second in 2000 to 11,500 Plans to expand the copper industry in Chile litres in 2006 through projects to reuse water mean that its energy use will increase consider- and measures to avoid evaporation by covering ably. In respond to energy demand, five massive reservoirs.139 Increased copper production might hydroelectric dams are planned in Patagonia in however increase water conflicts among sectors southern Chile. The dams – two on the Baker riv- of the economy and, most critically, over avail- er and three on the Pascua river – would damage ability for human consumption.140 Some mining one of the wildest and most beautiful places on companies have started to pump water from earth, by flooding nearly 6,000 hectares of pris- the Pacific Ocean high into the Andes Moun- tine forest. The project also calls for construction tains (where the copper mines are) because of of a 2,000-km transmission line to transport the chronic water shortages exacerbated by climate electricity from the south to Chile’s central and change.141 northern regions, creating a scar across some of Water is often allocated where it brings the Chile’s most magnificent landscape.145 highest economic yield in Chile. Academics and The HydroAysén company that wants to environmentalists argue that Chile’s privatised implement the project is a joint venture between water system is unsustainable because it pro- Endesa Chile (owning 51 per cent of its shares) motes speculation, endangers the environment and Colbún (with 49 per cent of its shares). and allows smaller interests to be muscled out Endesa Chile owns the (privatised) water rights. by powerful forces, like Chile’s mining industry.142 One of Europe’s biggest utility companies – Enel

30 from Italy – controls Endesa.146 Two huge Chilean wood and pulp producers – the Matte Group and Peru the Angelini Group – together control Colbún. Opponents of the HidroAysén dams have Peru’s mining sector accounted for about 60 per joined together in The Patagonia Defence Coun- cent of total export revenues in 2006 and 2007. cil (CDP), an umbrella group of 50 Chilean and Copper accounted for about 40 per cent of the international organisations. In Chile, the cam- exports in the mining sector.151 Approximately paign is called Patagonia Sin Represas (Patago- 1.3 million tonnes of copper was mined in Peru nia Without Dams). Friends of the Earth Chile in 2008.152 Peru has about 10 copper mines, the (National Committee for the Defense of Flora biggest of which is the Antamina Mine in Huari and Fauna, Codeff) is a member of Patagonia Sin (400,000 tonnes). There are copper smelters Represas.147 at Ilo (320,000 tonnes) and La Oroya (65,000 In November 2008, the HidroAysén energy tonnes). company was granted a nine-month extension of the environmental impact assessment phase of the project.148 Environmental authorities ordered dam proponents to respond to overwhelming criticism from the public and government agen- cies in their 10,500-page environmental assess- ment. The company will have to answer over 3,000 comments and observations made on the environmental impact assessment report (EIA) the company produced in August 2008.149

Copper industry and pollution At present, about 90 per cent of the sulphur emissions are captured in Chile’s seven cop- per smelters, compared to 97 to 99 per cent in copper smelters in Western Europe, the USA and Japan. Compared to the situation in 1989, however, the capture of sulphur emissions has increased considerably. There is now less pollu- tion around the copper smelters. This is mainly Many communities in Peru have protested due to environmental regulations and the fact against mining. As in Chile, water shortages are that the sulphur can be profitably used to pro- a major problem. Local communities also expe- duce sulphuric acid. Nonetheless, some smelt- rience few benefits from mining revenues. The ers exceed the Chilean standards for hourly SO2 Peruvian government lacks the capacity and (sulphur dioxide) and annual PM10 (particulate political will to regulate the industry. For exam- matter) emissions.150 ple, the mining sector was exempted from the responsibilities of the newly created Ministry of the Environment; only the Ministry of Energy and Mines is allowed to monitor mining.153 This sec- tion examines two examples of mining projects with serious consequences for humans and the environment.

Rio Blanco copper mine When realised, the Rio Blanco copper mine, planned in the Northern highlands of Piura, will be one of the biggest copper mines in Peru. UK-based Monterrico Metals plc (Chinese Zijin Consortium 89.9 per cent and South Korean LS- Nikko Copper Inc 10.1 per cent) aims to invest in this project.154 Communities have protested against the potential impacts of the huge proposed cop-

31 per mine to their production of organic coffee Run Peru inaugurated a $50 million sulphuric and fruit. Much of Piura is desert or semi-desert acid plant, which is expected to reduce half of and its agriculture is acutely dependent on the the sulphur dioxide emissions from the La Oroya quantity and quality of water draining from metals smelter.161 However, even after more the region’s eastern highlands, where the Rio active emissions from the smelter are reduced, Blanco project is located. The agricultural sec- the expended lead will remain in La Oroya’s soil tor has begun to grow rapidly, with both large for centuries — and there currently is no plan to enterprises as well as small and medium farm- clean it up. ers’ organisations supplying internal and external markets.155 In 2007, referenda were held in the villages of Carmen de la Frontera, Ayabaca and Pacaipampa. The great majority of people voted against mining activity on their lands.156 A report on Rio Blanco by the Peruvian Ombudsperson, released in November 2006, concluded that the implementation of the Rio Blanco project violates community mem- bers’ rights to property, to determine the ways in which their property will be used, and to informed participation in decisions about devel- opment. The Ombudsperson concludes that these violations of rights derive from lack of clar- ity in the regulations and practices of the Minis- try of Energy and Mines.157 In 2004 and 2005, local protests against the project led to violent clashes with police, result- ing in two deaths. In January 2009, a coalition of Peruvian human rights groups released pho- tographs from a 2005 protest that suggested police and security forces had tortured protes- tors. The government said it was investigating the case.158

Copper smelter La Oroya In September 2007, the US-based not-for-profit organisation Blacksmith Institute, which focus- es on identifying and solving pollution-related problems in the developing world, listed the town of La Oroya (35,000 inhabitants) in Peru as one of the top ten most polluted places on earth. A poly-metallic smelter has been the main cause of the released toxins. A survey conduct- ed by the Peruvian Ministry of Health in 1999 revealed blood lead levels among local children to be triple the limits set by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Sulphur dioxide concentra- tions also exceeded the World Health Organiza- tion guidelines by a factor of ten. Vegetation in the surrounding area has been destroyed by acid rain due to high sulphur dioxide emissions. The copper smelter is the main driver of the local economy and able to exercise control over the livelihood of the population.159 The smelter and adjoining copper mine are owned by Doe Run Peru (a subsidiary of the US- based Renco Group).160 In September 2008, Doe

32 Zambia

Zambia is a poor country. Most of its 12 million people live in poverty. Copper mining generates three-quarters of its foreign exchange earnings and the mines are a major employer in the coun- try.162

The copper content of mined ore in Zambia was 560,000 tonnes in 2008, 4 per cent of global production.163 The mining takes place in the so- called African Copperbelt, which stretches along the southern border of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The DRC has also some copper mines, in the Katanga region above the Zambian Konkola underground mine; and the Fitwaola Copperbelt province. mine.165 Recently it built a new copper smelter in Nchanga, with a capacity of 300,000 tonnes Main mining companies annually.166 At Konkola, mine shafts go down as Most mining operations in Zambia are controlled deep as 1,500 metres, where copper content is by foreign companies, with the government of very high.167 Zambia holding a minority share: • In late 2008 the Australia/Canada-based Equi- • Zambia’s largest copper mining company is nox Minerals Ltd started producing copper Konkola Copper Mines (KCM), with an annual from the Malundwe and Chimiwungo depos- capacity of 200,000 metric tonnes of copper.164 its (100 per cent share) in the north-west of The India-based company Vedanta Resources Zambia, outside the Copperbelt province. The owns 79 per cent of the shares, the remain- company expects to produce 170,000 tonnes der is owned by ZCCM-IH (Zambian govern- of copper in 2009.168 The investment was sup- ment 87.6 per cent, private equity holders 12.4 ported through loans by the European Invest- per cent). KCM has several copper mines: the ment Bank and the African Development Bank, open pit and underground Nchanga mine; the among others.

Copper smelter in Zambia on, 1999 s arr-John M erlin M

33 • Mopani Copper Mines (MCM) is 73 per cent treated at various health institutions in Mufu- owned by the Swiss mining company Glencore. lira after drinking contaminated water. People The remaining shares are in the hands of the complained of severe abdominal pains, general Canada-based First Quantum Minerals (17 per body pain, vomiting and other ailments.173 cent) and ZCCM-IH (10 per cent).169 The assets • The environment around the Mufulira smelter is owned by the company include the Mufulira heavily polluted because of regular SO2 releas- mine and Nkana mines, a smelter and a refinery es that affect the land, vegetation, buildings at Mufulira. and people’s health.174 The regional manager • Kansanshi Mining plc is owned by First Quan- for the governmental Environmental Council of tum Minerals Ltd (79.4 per cent). The remaining Zambia puts it as follows: ‘Here in Zambia we 20.6 per cent of the shares is owned by ZCCM- are dealing mostly with sulphide copper...so IH. The company owns the Kansanshi copper during the processing there is a lot of sulphur mine, also produces copper cathodes and has a dioxide that gets released...in some places like sulphuric acid plant. in Mufulira you’ll find that there is a large space • The China Nonferrous Metals Mining Co. Ltd where you can’t grow things because of the owns the Chambishi mine and also runs a fac- acid rain and that kind of thing...”175 tory producing copper cathodes. • On 6 November 2006, one of KCM’s pipelines leaked significant quantities of acidic liquid. The financial crisis The Environmental Council of Zambia reported Since the financial crisis which started in late that KCM ‘significantly polluted Chingola and 2008, thousands of mine workers have been Mushishima streams, as well as the Kafue River, made redundant in Zambia. These workers often causing serious effects on human life and the provided for entire families. A proposed hydro- environment.’176 electric project (the Kafue Gorge Lower Dam) has recently been put on hold.170 The project was Fatal accidents and injuries aimed at providing more energy for the cop- Mining in Zambia is dangerous for workers: per industry, as it is the largest energy user in • The University of Bergen in Norway recently Zambia and most of the energy it requires comes published a short report on injuries and fatal from hydroelectric power plants. accidents in the underground copper mines of In early 2008, Zambia tightened its tax policy KCM. In the period from January 2005 to May towards foreign mining companies, in order 2007, there were 17 fatal accidents (mostly to share in the benefits of high copper pric- caused by falling rocks) and 85 injuries. The es. However, the country has not been able to authors of the study conclude that the fatality profit from the new laws, as due to the financial frequency rate in copper mining in Zambia is crisis both copper demand and the price have high, particularly at underground sites, and that dropped.171 Unfortunately, Zambia has a long his- measures should be taken to reduce the risk tory of not profiting much from its own copper of accidents and to evaluate the reporting sys- industry: problems first were caused by govern- tems of occupational injuries.177 ment mismanagement, then came privatisation • In Zambia, there are many complaints about and low-tax agreements with companies and labour conditions at Chinese companies. In July now the financial crisis has lowered prices. 2006 six workers at the Chambishi mine (owned by the China Nonferrous Metals Mining Co. Pollution Ltd) were shot and wounded after rioting over With support from the World Bank, the Zambian wages. In April 2005, the company caused a government has set up a programme to address massive and unexplained explosion in a factory, its own environmental liabilities and obligations which killed 46 people.178 incurred prior to the privatisation of industries, • At the Mopani Copper Mines, more than 20 and to strengthen the capacity of its environ- workers died in 2005, including six when a cage mental regulatory institutions to improve future carrying miners fell into a shaft, according to compliance by the mining sector with environ- the miners union.179 mental and social regulations.172 That this is needed is illustrated by a few examples: • In January 2008, spillage of an acidic solu- tion used in the leaching process by MCM at Mufulira contaminated underground drink- ing water supplies. About 582 people were

34 arch 2000 M oogte, H e s olland H / s uiber H ob R

Aerial view of Indonesia: the Grasberg mine tember 2008 the Norwegian government stated: the Grasberg ‘The finance ministry has decided to exclude the copper and The Grasberg mine is a large mining complex Rio Tinto Group from the public pension fund gold mine located in West Papua, Indonesia. Grasberg is because of the serious environmental risks.’182 situated 4,000 metres above sea level, and bor- Freeport had already been excluded from the ders on Lorentz National Park, a UNESCO World fund in 2006, because it caused ‘serious damage Heritage Site. Grasberg is an open pit mine, but to the river system and parts of the nearby river- also includes zones of underground operations. ine rainforest and…considerable negative con- In 2008, the mine produced 499,000 tonnes of sequences for the indigenous people residing in copper; copper reserves as of 31 December the area of Freeport’s operations.’183 2008 were 16 million tonnes.180 The mine has the world’s largest copper reserves and biggest gold Environmental problems deposits. It is probably also the most polluting In 2006 Friends of the Earth Indonesia (WALHI) mine in the world. completed an investigative report on the envi-

Freeport The Grasberg mine is operated by PT Freeport Indonesia, 90.64 per cent of which is owned by Freeport McMoRan Copper&Gold Inc. The Indo- nesian government owns the remainder of the shares. Freeport McMoRan has established a special agreement with the Anglo-Australian mining giant Rio Tinto. Rio Tinto holds a 40 per cent interest in production exceeding specified annu- al amounts through 2021, and, after 2021, a 40 percent interest in all production.181 Because of the polluting Grasberg mine, Freeport and Rio Tinto have been excluded from the government pension fund of Norway. In Sep-

35 ronmental impacts of the Grasberg mine. The both water and air, forming sulphuric acid. In report documents severe environmental damage this process the heavy metals that are naturally and clear breaches of environmental law, based present in the ore may be mobilized. The result on a number of unreleased company and gov- is the generation of acid water containing heavy ernment monitoring reports, including an envi- metals, which may lead to considerable pollution ronmental risk assessment never made available of groundwater and water systems. Once this to the public.184 process has been initiated, it may go on for cen- The Grasberg mine discharges very large turies.186 amounts of tailings (the refuse material resulting from processing ore) directly into a natural river Other problems system. Every day, about 230,000 tonnes of tail- Apart from the severe environmental damage, a ings are discharged directly into the Aghawagon frequent source of controversy concerning the River, which feeds into the Otomona River. The Grasberg mine has been the share of revenue Otomona River runs through a plain covered by going to Papuans, the legality of payments to rainforest before flowing into the Ajkwa Estuary. Indonesian security forces who help guard the The tailings release a considerable amount of site, and whether such an operation should be heavy metals into the environment. The rainfor- run by a foreign company. est and wetland area destroyed by tailings depo- Freeport has a long tradition of ties to the sition was formerly a vital hunting, fishing and Indonesian military. In 2008, Freeport paid ‘less gardening area for Kamoro traditional landown- than’ 1.6 million dollars through wire transfers ers. Local communities face water shortages as and cheques to provide a ‘monthly allowance’ to their rivers have become contaminated. Elevated police and soldiers at and around the Grasberg levels of heavy metals in the sediment have also mine. The direct payments are part of 8 million been detected. Freeport has repeatedly claimed dollars Freeport paid in broader ‘support costs’ that riverine tailings disposal is the best solution, for 1,850 police and soldiers protecting Gras- given the difficult terrain, the earthquake threat berg last year. In a 2005 report, the non-gov- and the rainfall.185 ernmental organisation Global Witness alleged The second environmental problem of the Freeport had paid hundreds of thousands of Grasberg mine is acid rock drainage (outflow dollars directly to senior police and military offic- of acidic water). Waste rock is disposed of in ers between 2001 and 2003.187 Company records two valleys adjacent to the mine, amount- obtained by the New York Times show that ing to 360,000-510,000 tonnes per day. Acid from 1998 through 2004, individual command- rock drainage from the deposit sites was first ers received tens of thousands of dollars, in one observed in 1993, and leaching into the ground- case up to $150,000. The company records were water has also been reported, causing pollu- provided by an individual close to Freeport and tion of springs in Lorentz National Park, among confirmed as authentic by current and former Export others. Acid rock drainage is considered one of employees.188 Up till now, Freeport has still not destinations the most serious mining-related environmental disclosed which security forces are given allow- of Freeport’s problems throughout the world. It occurs when ances, how much money they get and whether copper concentrate190 sulphurous minerals come into contact with there is a legal basis for these payments.

Trade links The copper, gold and silver produced by PT Freeport is milled into copper concen- trate (which also contains gold and silver) by Freeport itself. A portion of this cop- per concentrate is then sent to the copper refinery of PT Smelting in Gresik (Indone- sia), but a much larger part is exported for refining else- where.189

36 Chapter 3

Companies reviewed

3.1 Methodology of the review able information with regard to the supply chain responsibility of the companies. In December Seven companies located in the Netherlands 2008, questionnaires were sent to the compa- were reviewed for this report. These are among nies in order to get more information. Most of the biggest Dutch companies involved in the the companies returned the questionnaires and supply chain for tin, bauxite and copper. The provided additional information. There were also reviewed companies are: follow-up meetings and phone calls. All the com- • Cookson/Alpha-Fry Technologies: solder manu- panies were sent the draft report and were able facturer for the electronics industry to comment on it. Where necessary, the com- • Corus: large producer of tinplate for can pro- ments have been adopted into the final report. ducers Cookson Electronics (Alpha-Fry Technologies) • Klesch & Company: owner of the Dutch alu- and Klesch & Company (Zalco and Aldel) were minium smelters Zalco and Aldel the only companies which did not respond at all • Draka: third-biggest copper cable producer of to questionnaires, draft reports, phone calls and Europe emails. The review of these companies consisted • Philips: user of tin in its electronic and lighting solely of reading publicly available information. products • Heineken: producer of beer packed in tinplate cans • Coca-Cola: producer of non-alcoholic bever- 3.2 Cookson/Alpha-Fry ages packed in tinplate cans ­Technologies

The main questions Friends of the Earth Nether- General information on Cookson lands asked the companies to answer were: The Cookson Group is a public limited compa- • Have you mapped out the supply chain of the ny registered in England and Wales and listed mining products? on the London Stock Exchange. The company’s • Have you identified problems related to the total revenue was £2.2 billion in 2008; its trading environment, human rights and labour rights profit was £216 million. Cookson employs over (CSR problems) along the supply chain? 15,000 people in 40 countries. The Cookson • To what extent do you publicly (and/or after Group has three divisions: questioning) report about your involvement in • The Ceramics division supplies products to the mining throughout the supply chain (transpar- steel, glass, solar and foundry industries. This ency)? division’s revenue was £1,265 million in 2008. • What is your general policy with regard to sup- • The Electronics division comprises two sec- ply chain responsibility? tors: assembly materials and chemistry. This • Which steps did you take to ensure better min- division’s revenue was £620 million in 2008. ing practices on labour rights, environment and One of the main products manufactured and human rights? sold within this division is solder for the elec- tronics market. In 2008, the total value of tin The review consisted of reading the latest sus- and silver included within the revenue of the tainability and/or annual reports of the com- electronics division (£620m) was £200m.191 panies, their public statements such as codes Cookson is probably the world’s largest buyer of conduct for suppliers, and any other avail- of tin for electronics solder.192 The only thing

37 Panorama Corus known about Cookson’s tin suppliers is that the Alpha-Fry accounts for 15 to 20 per cent of the IJmuiden Indonesian PT Timah company is one of them, European solder market.197 as Cookson Electronics is listed as one of the In 2004, Alpha-Fry arranged the purchase of debtors in PT Timah’s 2008 financial report.193 tin for the all Cookson’s European companies. • The Precious Metals division supplies fabricat- The company bought both primary and second- ed precious metals (primarily gold, silver and ary (recycled) commodities, stating the ratio as platinum) to the jewellery industry in the US, approximately 50:50. Annually, 12,000 tonnes of UK, France and Spain. The division’s revenue tin, lead and silver were purchased.198 was £318 million in 2008.194 Alpha-Fry buys its silver from the Dutch- based Cookson Drijfhout, also a 100 per cent Alpha-Fry Technologies subsidiary of the Cookson group. Drijfhout is The Dutch company Alpha-Fry Technologies engaged in the purchase and sale of precious BV is a 100 per cent subsidiary of the Cook- metals and related products for the jewellery son group. The company is located in the small business.199 city of Naarden near Amsterdam. The average number of employees at the Naarden company Supply chain policy amounted to 127 in 2007. In its 2007 and 2008 annual reports, Cookson Alpha-Fry ‘s activities consist of buying base made no reference to any responsibilities due to metals and metal alloys and producing the fol- the purchase of raw mining materials, but only lowing products: tin and solder anodes; various referred to the risks related to fluctuations of solder products such as powders, ingots, sticks, price and supply of raw materials: ‘Tin, solvents, bars and wire; solder preforms; printing metal; alumina, graphite, silver and gold are among the lead and tin alloys. In 2007, the costs of buying principal raw materials that the Group purchas- raw materials were 46 million euros. In addition es. The Group’s businesses may be affected by to tin, the company buys silver and lead in lower fluctuations in the price and supply of such raw quantities.195 It can be estimated that Alpha-Fry materials, although purchasing policies and prac- bought around 3,500 tonnes of refined tin in tices seek to mitigate, where practicable, such 2007 (for the calculation, see endnote).196 Alpha- risks and the Group’s geographical and product Fry is the only Cookson company making solder diversity reduces the dependence on any single in Europe and the lion’s share of its production item or supplier.’200 is sold to Cookson companies within Europe. Cookson includes a CSR (Corporate Social

38 ecember 2006 D olen, M Sander van der

Responsibility) tab on its website, supplying 3.3 Corus information such as its Code of Conduct and its Health, Safety and Environmental policy. While General information the company may have made quite some effort Corus is Europe’s second largest steel producer, to ensure sound safety, health and environmental with annual revenues of around £12 billion and practices in its global operations, Cookson does a yearly production of over 20 million tonnes of not yet have a policy on supply chain responsibil- steel, nearly 7 million tonnes of which are pro- ity regarding mining products. Furthermore, no duced in IJmuiden, the Netherlands. The com- reference could be found to international stand- pany employs around 40,000 people worldwide. ards, like the Core Conventions of the Interna- In late 2006, Corus was the ninth largest steel tional Labour Organisation (ILO). producer in the world. In 2007, the company became part of Tata Steel, based in India. Since Questionnaire then Tata Steel has become the world’s sixth Alpha-Fry did not fill in the questionnaire which largest steelmaker. In addition to producing steel was sent to the company in December 2008. in the UK and the Netherlands, Corus manu- After several phone calls with the Health and factures value-added steel products for several Safety manager of Alpha-Fry Technologies in industries: construction, automotive, packaging, March, it was agreed Friends of the Earth Neth- aerospace, energy and engineering.201 erlands (FoE NL) should contact the headquar- Corus Packaging Plus is a division within ters of Cookson in London. This was tried several the Corus group that manufactures packag- times, from 7 April 2009 onwards, but always ing steel. It supplies approximately 1.2 million to no avail. Phone calls were directed to voice tonnes annually to the can-manufacturing indus- mails. Only one time there was email contact. try.202 Corus Packaging Plus has its headquarters After a facilities manager stated: ‘Please forward in IJmuiden, in the north-west of the Nether- me a copy of your report for our comments,’ a lands.203 In IJmuiden, Corus has one of the larger draft report was sent to Cookson by FoE NL. European plants producing tinplate for the can- However, no comments had been received by making industry, with an annual production near- the stated deadline of 1 May 2009. ing 0.9 million tonnes.204 Production of tinplate within Corus also takes place in Trostre (South Wales).

39 Supply chain policy (mining companies, smelters). The company fur- In its Corporate Responsibility Report 2007/2008, ther states that its use of secondary tin (recy- Corus declares its policy principles regarding cled) increased from 30 per cent in 2008 to 65 supplier practices: ‘Our health and safety stand- per cent in 2009. The recycled tin is purchased ards apply equally to contractors’.205 The Corus directly from a European supplier of secondary Purchase Terms for Goods & Services state that material. Corus does not reveal its suppliers, as suppliers need to conform to all applicable laws this is considered business-sensitive information. with regard to health, safety and the environ- Corus expects traders and trade agencies to ment.206 Corus has recently begun implement- respect the Corus Purchase Terms when doing ing the Tata Code of Conduct, which defines the business with tin miners and smelters. Corus ethical identity of the company, but does not yet considers control of compliance a difficult task include its position towards suppliers.207 due to the significant contribution of artisan and The overall picture is that the company does small-scale miners (ASM) to production in emerg- not yet have strict policies in place to encour- ing and developing countries. The company age its suppliers towards environment, human states it does not know of any current social or rights and labour rights. Corus does not require environmental issues related to its sources of tin. that its suppliers comply with the Core Conven- Through APEAL (Association of European tions of the International Labour Organisation. Producers of Steel for Packaging), Corus became Neither does the company monitor suppliers aware of assertions that trade in minerals from in a systematic way, though some checks are the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was made. The Corporate Responsibility Report supporting the civil war, directly or indirectly. As 2007/2008 does mention some multi-stake- a result Corus’ tin procurement process excludes holder initiatives on responsible procurement, tin originating from the DRC. Corus has shown mainly focusing on steel. FoE NL a Request for Quotation on tin purchase. Corus does not provide information to the The document states: ‘Tin ingots from cassiter- public, for instance in its CSR report, on the ori- ite originating from the Democratic Republic of gin of the mining products the company uses in Congo should be excluded.’ Burma, however, is its production process, nor any information on not formally excluded and Corus was not aware the circumstances under which the mining takes that tin from their suppliers might be sourced place. from Burmese mines. The company states that its tin is imported from South America and Asia.210 Questionnaire As a steel producer, Corus annually purchas- A coordinated industry response? es large amounts of iron ore and coal. For this Corus finally stated that sustainable sourcing is report, Friends of the Earth Netherlands (FoE NL) important for the tin plating industry and a sub- only considered Corus’ supply chain responsibil- ject of discussion within APEAL. Through APEAL, ity regarding its tin purchases. Corus filled in the Corus is in contact with ITRI, the organisation rep- questionnaire sent by FoE NL and responded to resenting the world’s major tin producing com- follow-up questions.208 Representatives of Corus panies. ITRI has started a Sustainability Project, IJmuiden and FoE NL also met on 9 March 2009. focusing on artisanal small miners and the Demo- In addition, Corus responded to the parts of the cratic Republic of Congo. In its progress paper draft report that were sent to the company. Of of February 2009, ITRI states: ‘Both ITRI and its the seven companies reviewed, Corus provided members understand the concern of downstream FoE NL with the most additional information. tin users and other stakeholders regarding the Tin purchasing within the Corus group is cen- circumstances surrounding cassiterite production tralised within one business unit, Corus MET BV, and trade in, and from, the Democratic Repub- located in the Netherlands. Corus MET trades in lic of Congo (DRC) and have committed to take aluminium, zinc, tin and nickel. It has a procure- steps to improve and encourage the adoption of ment and risk management function within the appropriate due diligence procedures through- Corus group.209 out the supply chain in that region. A working Corus imports around 3,000 tonnes of tin per group has been established, led by ITRI members year, utilised by Corus Packaging Plus IJmui- Thaisarco and Malaysia Smelting Corporation den for packaging applications, mostly tinplate. Berhad (MSC)’.211 Both companies currently buy Its non-recycled tin is purchased from traders cassiterite from the DRC.212 There was no news on and trade agencies. The company states it does the proceedings of the working group by the time not always know the origin of the tin purchased this report went to press.

40 The draft report was sent to Zalco on 22 April 3.4 Zalco and Aldel aluminium 2009. No response had been made by the time smelters this report went to press.

General information Klesch & Company, a British private equity com- pany, has owned Zalco since May 2007.213 In February 2009, Aldel was also acquired by Kle- sch & Company.214 The Zeeland Aluminium Company NV (Zalco), located near the harbour of Flushing in the south-east of the Netherlands, is a primary aluminium smelter. According to its website the company annually produces 230,000 tonnes of extrusion billets and rolling slabs. In addition, about 100,000 tonnes of anodes are manufac- tured for its own production process and for third parties.215 In 2007, the production level of extrusion billets and rolling slabs was 207,000 tonnes.216 In November 2008, Zalco announced that 141 of the 700 jobs would be cut during the course of 2009. The company has closed half of its 512 electrolysis furnaces.217 Aluminium Delfzijl (Aldel), located near the harbour of Delfzijl in the north-west of the Neth- erlands, is also a primary aluminium smelter. Aldel has long been a subsidiary of Corus. Annu- ally Aldel produces over 115,000 tonnes of new (or primary) aluminium. By re-melting production waste and scrap, another 50,000 tonnes of alu- minium are produced. Aldel employs 450 peo- ple.218 In March 2009, however, Aldel announced it would cut production by 40 per cent and 185 people would lose their jobs. In addition, 120 furnaces would be closed down.219

Supply chain policy In their annual reports, neither company gives any information on the origin of their bauxite, nor on the circumstances under which the mining takes place. While there may be quite some efforts to ensure sound practices regarding internal safety, health and environmental operations, nei- ther company yet has a policy on supply chain responsibility including mining products.

Questionnaire Friends of the Earth Netherlands sent question- naires to Zalco and Aldel on 15 December 2008. Zalco did not fill in the questionnaire, because the company was too busy with a pending reor- ganisation at that time. Corus/Aldel did not answer because Aldel was about to be taken over by Klesch & Company, so Corus was no longer in a position to fill in the questionnaire.

41 lion euros in 2005.222 All Draka’s global copper 3.5 Draka purchases are arranged by its headquarters in Amsterdam. General information Draka is a large cable producer, with an estimat- Supply chain policy ed global market share of 2.5 per cent, making Draka is just starting to develop policies regard- the company the third-largest cable producer ing corporate social responsibility (CSR). The in Europe. Draka operates 68 companies in 30 company doesn’t produce sustainability reports, countries throughout Europe, North and South so far preferring to include CSR information in its America, Asia and Australia and earned a rev- annual report. In January 2009, Draka published enue of 2.8 billion euros in 2007. Draka employs a Group Safety, Health & Environment statement about 10,000 people worldwide. for all its operating companies.223 Almost all Draka has its headquarters in Amsterdam. Draka companies have management systems in In the Netherlands it employs 1,000 people, place for safety, health and environment. While including 500 in its cable-producing affiliates in its headquarters may be making quite some Emmen, Nieuw Bergen and Amsterdam.220 efforts to ensure sound health, safety and envi- Draka’s portfolio includes: producing semi- ronmental practices at its global operations, Dra- manufactures (copper drawing, compounding, ka does not yet have policy outlined on supply optical fibre production); selling cable as a final chain responsibility including mining products. product; and selling cable systems/concepts. In The company states that it mainly buys cop- its manufacturing process the Group uses raw per from suppliers that are ISO-14001 certified. materials like copper, preforms for optical fibre, ISO-14001 is a standard for environmental man- aluminium, PVC and other polymers. These raw agement systems, set by the International Stand- materials account for approximately 70 per cent ards Organisation (ISO). ISO-14001 does how- of total operating costs.221 In its 2005 annual ever not take into account the origin of copper Wooden report the company stated that purchases of products and mining practices, and these are not cable reel copper and aluminium amounted to 650 mil- part of the requirements which Draka’s suppliers Draka have to meet to get the certification.

Questionnaire Instead of filling in the questionnaire on copper mining, the company sent a letter to Friends of the Earth Netherlands including an invitation for a meeting.224 This meeting between representa- tives of Draka and Friends of the Earth Nether- lands took place on 18 March 2009. After the meeting, additional information was provided by Draka. In the Netherlands, Draka processes about 22,000 tonnes of copper annually, accounting for more than 7 per cent of imports of copper and copper objects into the Netherlands. To produce cables, only primary copper is used. Recycled copper is never used to produce cables. The company mainly buys copper rods with an eight- millimetre diameter, to be further processed into thinner wire in its processing plants in the Neth- erlands. Draka states that many processing operations have been carried out between the mining of the copper and its purchase of copper rod; this makes the global supply chain rather complex. ie s Producers of copper cathodes may purchase en f copper ore from several mines and Draka’s cop- per rod suppliers may get their copper cathodes ilieude

M from several plants. This supply chain does not

42 appear to be overly complex to Friends of the Earth Netherlands. 3.6 Philips The company has made enquiries among its suppliers of 8mm copper rods to the Neth- General information erlands. Draka states this survey shows that With a revenue of 27 billion euros in 2008 and the vast majority of the copper their suppli- 121,000 employees worldwide, the Philips Group ers use originates from European mines. This is a giant in the electronics industry. Philips is is explained by the relatively high costs for headquartered in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. transporting copper ore and copper cathodes. The company has three main divisions: According to the US Geological Survey, Euro- Healthcare, Consumer Lifestyle and Lighting. pean copper is mostly produced by Russia and Philips claims to be number one globally in Poland.225 Draka states that a part of its copper home healthcare, lamps, electric shavers, car- may come from Chile, because this country is the diac ultrasound, cardiovascular X-ray, patient world’s main producer of copper. monitoring systems, professional lighting, light- Furthermore, Draka stated it only buys Lon- ing electronics, automotive lighting, electric don Metal Exchange (LME) Grade A certified male grooming products and automated exter- copper and always turns down cheaper offers nal defibrillators. 226 lacking LME certification. Therefore, the compa- ny states it is certain that it does not use copper Supply chain policy mined in the DRC. According to Draka, copper In its 2008 annual report Philips states: ‘We con- mined in the DRC does not get LME certification. sider our suppliers as partners in our sustain- ability initiatives, taking care of the environment and of workers’ lives.’227 Philips requires its sup- pliers to comply with its Supplier Sustainability Declaration of December 2006. This declaration consists of the Electronic Industry Code of Con- duct, made by the Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC), plus a Philips annex on Right of Free Bargaining and Freedom of Association.228 The EICC code of conduct will be renewed in 2009. The present Philips declaration contains,

Philips radio (1931) wl O ite_ N / s ommon C ikimedia W

43 among other standards, similarities with the val- per year, in products put on the market world- ues stated in the Universal Declaration of Human wide. This represents about 0.1 per cent of Rights and the Core Conventions of the Interna- global tin mining. Philips itself only buys tin for tional Labour Organisation. its lighting products, less than 0.05 per cent of The company identifies risk suppliers based annual global production. The remainder of the on the Maplecroft list229 of risk countries with tin used is mostly for solder (on printed wire regard to human rights. These risk suppliers are boards, etc.) in electronic assembly. Philips has monitored through audits, nearly 60 per cent of been outsourcing all electronic assembly to a which are conducted by external auditing bod- number of suppliers of electronic manufactur- ies. ing systems. All of these companies source their A total of 277 initial and continual conform- tin independently. Philips does not buy tin in the ance audits and 295 resolution audits focus- Netherlands; the manufacturing sites for its light- ing on zero-tolerance issues were carried out in ing products are located outside of the Nether- 2008. The company claims all zero-tolerances lands. from 2007 and those from the first three quarters Regarding tin originating from the DRC, of 2008 have been resolved. Most zero-tolerance Philips states: ‘Our suppliers are required to sign issues in 2008 were: emergency preparedness a declaration on non-sourcing from the DRC.’ (blocked fire exits); occupational safety (immedi- The company stated it is not aware at this time ate threats to health and safety); working condi- of the origin of primary tin used in its products. tions (exposure to hazardous substances); work- It also has no knowledge of the amount of recy- ing hours (continual seven-day work weeks); and cled tin used in its products: ‘Recycled tin goes lack of environmental permits. Most limited-tol- back into the chain further than we maintain or erance issues in 2008 were: improper handling/ can maintain.’ Philips previously requested and processing of chemical waste; working hours received a declaration from all its tantalum sup- (above legal limits/60 hours a week); wages and pliers that they do not source from the Demo- benefits (below minimum wage standards and cratic Republic of Congo, as part of the compa- absence of legal overtime payment); environ- ny’s efforts to encourage suppliers to act respon- mental performance objectives not meeting sibly when procuring materials from third parties. legal requirements; lack of industrial hygiene In 2009, Philips will be further investigating its (lack of personal protective equipment); occu- supply chain with regards to tin sourcing. pational injury and illness (no medical treatment facility). Coordinated industry response Philips is quite transparent regarding its Philips stated that the issues raised by FoE NL efforts to improve labour rights and fulfilment are grave and not easily solved due to: the par- of environmental requirements by its suppliers. ties involved; the non-transparent way metals Regarding the metals Philips uses and on mining are traded; and the fact that Philips does not practices, however, the company is less transpar- have contractual relationships with the extractive ent. In its 2008 annual report it only discloses industry. The company states it is actively seek- that it is also an active member of an Electronic ing a coordinated industry response, considering Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC) working this the best way forward. According to the com- group on the health and well-being of people pany, through its active involvement in the EICC working in the mining industry.230 Extractives Working Group, it is contributing to a concerted effort to increase transparency in Questionnaire the supply chain with the means and influencing Philips uses several metals in its electronic prod- mechanisms that are available to the company. ucts. For this report, Friends of the Earth Neth- Philips thinks the EICC would be interested in erlands (FoE NL) examined only Philips’ supply seeing whether there is an analysis for the rank- chain responsibility regarding its tin purchases. ing of tin in front of other metals because of its Philips uses tin mainly as solder in electronic problems related to environment, human rights products, for instance in printed wire boards and labour rights. The EICC has already made a and for lighting. Philips filled in the question- statement on the sourcing of tantalum from the naire sent by FoE NL231 and also met with FoE DRC in February 2009.232 NL on 19 January 2009. On Tuesday 28 April, Philips requested that the Extractive Indus- Philips provided some additional information, in tries Transparency Initiative (EITI) be included in response to the FoE NL draft report. this report. Philips believes the EITI platform is Philips states that it uses 400 tonnes of tin an important way for EICC to engage in inter-

44 sectoral dialogue, as the EITI is closer to the min- ing industry and their initiatives could be a big 3.7 Heineken help in creating further transparency and social responsibility. General information The EITI is a coalition of governments, com- Heineken is one of the world’s largest beer panies, civil society groups, investors and inter- breweries. Its leading brand is Heineken, but the national organisations which aims to strength- Group brews and sells more than 200 beers and en governance by improving transparency and ciders. The company has a global network of accountability in the extractives sector. When distributors and 125 breweries in more than 70 governance is weak, exploitation may result in countries. The revenue of Heineken worldwide poverty, corruption and conflict instead of large totalled 14 billion euros in 2008 and the compa- revenues to foster growth and reduce poverty.233 ny employed 54,000 people. So far EITI has not involved itself much in envi- The volume of beer sold within the Nether- ronmental, human rights and labour rights issues lands was 5.4 million hectolitres in 2008, while with regard to mining. consolidated beer volume of the Heineken Group was 125.8 million hectolitres. Heineken has about 4,000 employees in the Netherlands, excluding the 900 people working at its head- quarters in Amsterdam.234 This report reviews the use of aluminium and tin in the beer cans Heineken sells in the Netherlands.

Supply chain policy Heineken asks suppliers to sign the Heineken Supplier Code, which urges them to comply with internationally recognised standards on business conduct, human rights and the environment, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Core Conventions of the Interna- tional Labour Organisation.235 The Supplier Code outlines eleven princi- ples that Heineken deems most relevant for its suppliers. The company’s principles related to human rights are:

Former Heineken brewery in the centre of Amsterdam , July 2008 s ommon C ikimedia W

45 • Working conditions should allow safe working Friends of the Earth Netherlands consid- practices and support the occupational health ers Heineken a small player in the Dutch mar- of the employees; ket regarding tin and aluminium use. On the • Employees should be treated fairly concerning global market, the picture will be quite different, reasonable working hours, periodic leave and considering that around 2 billion beer cans are remuneration for work performed; filled annually in the Netherlands by beer brew- • Heineken makes allowances for negotiations ers and Heineken is the main exporter of beer in leading to collective agreements; the Netherlands.237 Globally, therefore, Heineken • People are employed based on the principle of uses much larger amounts of tin than it uses for equal opportunity, without distinction to race, the Dutch market. Thus, it is remarkable that the colour, gender, religion, affiliation or origin; company does not have a supply chain policy • Heineken does not participate in child, forced in place regarding the use of tin for cans, while or bonded labour. Philips for instance does have a supply chain On environmental matters the Supplier Code policy, to some extent, for its global metal use. states there should be compliance with all appli- cable legislation and standards. Furthermore, production processes should be designed to make efficient use of available resources and to minimise the environmental impact. Heineken is working towards meeting its tar- get of full implementation of the Supplier Code in the 2010. In 2008, Heineken conducted audits at 25 per cent of its supplier base; these audits are part of the regular global quality audits executed by Heineken personnel and are limited to its direct suppliers. While most suppliers in western Europe have already implemented the Supplier Code, implementation by most of the suppliers in other parts of the world has yet to take place.

Questionnaire Heineken filled in the questionnaire on tin and aluminium use and provided additional informa- tion. Packaging materials are centrally purchased by Heineken and therefore all packaging materi- als are subject to the Supplier Code and Supplier Code audits. In the Netherlands, Heineken236 buys ready-made steel and aluminium cans from Ball, Rexam, Crown and Can Pack can suppliers. Of the cans Heineken puts on the market in the Netherlands, 95 per cent are made of tin- coated steel. Aluminium cans account for the remaining 5 per cent. Aluminium is used for spe- cially shaped cans and lids for the steel cans. The tin content of beer cans put on the Dutch mar- ket is estimated by Heineken at 12.5 tonnes per year. The tin content of Vrumona cans, a supplier of non-alcoholic beverages owned by Heineken, is estimated at 4.5 tonnes. Heineken states it is not aware of any social or environmental problems concerning the min- ing of bauxite and tin. Nor does the company know the origin of the mining products, since only ready-made cans are purchased from vari- ous can suppliers.

46 Advertising 3.8 Coca-Cola poster from 1890: drink Coca-Cola 5¢ General information Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. is the world’s larg- est marketer, producer and distributor of Coca- Cola products. It operates in 46 US states and Canada, and is the exclusive Coca-Cola bottler for all of Belgium, France, Great Britain, Luxem- bourg, Monaco and the Netherlands. Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. has its headquarters in the USA and is listed on the New York Stock Exchange.238 In 2007, Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. had a world- wide revenue of $21 billion and employed 73,000 people. It sold 42 billion bottles and cans. s Coca-Cola Enterprise Netherlands had a rev- enue of 473 million euros in 2007; it employed ommon C 801 people. It sold 576 million litres of bever- ages to the Dutch market, a 20 percent market share of non-alcoholic beverages. Coca-Cola ikimedia W Enterprise Netherlands sells carbonated soft drinks, water, fruit juices, sports drinks, energy Conventions of the International Labour Organi- drinks and iced tea.239 For this report, the use sation. This, including the lack of montoring, of aluminium and tin in the cans Coca-Cola sells makes the guidelines rather weak. was reviewed. CCE Netherlands did not report on the origin of the mining products Coca-Cola uses for its Supply chain policy cans, nor was any information given on the cir- Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. (CCE) has intro- cumstances under which the mining takes place duced guidelines for its suppliers. Suppliers are in its 2007 annual sustainability report or in any required to meet the following standards: other public document. • Laws and Regulations: Supplier will comply with all applicable local and national laws, rules, Questionnaire regulations and requirements in the manufac- CCE filled in the questionnaire on tin and alu- turing and distribution of our products and sup- minium use and provided some additional infor- plies and in the provision of services. mation. • Forced Labor and Abuse of Labor: Supplier will CCE241 buys aluminium, through intermediate not use forced, bonded, military or compulsory parties, at the London Metal Exchange. These labor. Supplier will comply with all applicable parties ensure aluminium supplies to manufac- local and national laws on abuse of employees ture the lids of the steel cans. Tin is used for and will not physically abuse employees. steel cans with a protective layer. Purchased tin • Supplier will comply with all applicable local is already part of the cans CCE buys from its two and national laws on: Freedom of Association can suppliers, Ball and Rexam. According to its and Collective Bargaining; Discrimination; Wag- suppliers approximately 30 per cent of the tin es and Benefits; Work Hours and Overtime; comes from recycled material. Health and Safety; Environment; Child Labor.240 CCE stated it puts 900 tonnes of alumini- All suppliers of cans to Coca-Cola have signed um and 18 tonnes of tin on the Dutch market the guidelines. The guidelines state that sup- yearly. Friends of the Earth Netherlands consid- pliers must also ensure that their suppliers and/ ers Coca-Cola Enterprises a small player on the or subcontractors comply with the guidelines. Dutch market regarding tin and aluminium use. Coca-Cola does not monitor its suppliers. The Globally, however, the company may use large company states it has confidence in the way its amounts of tin. Thus, it is remarkable that the suppliers do business. company does not have a supply chain policy It is noteworthy that CCE does not ask its in place regarding the use of tin for cans, while suppliers to uphold the values stated in the Uni- Philips for instance does have a supply chain versal Declaration of Human Rights and the Core policy, to some extent, for its global metal use.

47 Chapter 4

Dutch government policy regarding the supply chains of companies

An earlier report on mining and trade on CSR benefits for the mining sector. The links with the Netherlands general CSR policy of the Dutch government is In March 2008, Greenpeace Netherlands pub- that companies should be encouraged to vol- lished a report on coal mining with many similari- untarily improve their transparency and supply ties to this one. Dutch power companies import- chain responsibility. Although the Dutch govern- ed 8.5 million tonnes of coal in 2006, of which ment is not currently planning to develop more some 85 per cent originated from South Africa, regulations for companies, they are conducting Colombia and Indonesia. In these countries envi- research into possibilities for chain accountability. ronmental and human rights problems exist in the mining sector. The rights of local communi- 1) New initiative from the Dutch Social ties and miners are often ignored. Furthermore, and Economic Council coal mining causes pollution of drinking water, The SER, an advisory body to the Dutch govern- emissions of the greenhouse gas methane and ment, has recently started an initiative, which brings about forest destruction.242 has the support of the Dutch government, to Following the Greenpeace report, a Dutch enhance the commitment of enterprises to exert member of parliament questioned the Minister a positive influence on the social and environ- of Economic Affairs (Ms Maria van der Hoeven) mental policy of their suppliers.244 Major employ- and the Minister of the Environment and Spatial ers’ associations and trade unions are members Planning (Ms Jacqueline Cramer) on the issue. of this SER-committee that deals with Corporate The ministers answered: ‘We expect Dutch pow- Social Responsibility. er producers to pursue corporate social respon- Every year, starting in 2009, the SER will draw sibility (CSR) and attend to issues in the coal sup- up an annual progress report on the subject of ply chain. We expect them to take action against the supply chain responsibility of Dutch com- situations and circumstances which may be panies. The report will review the number of socially unacceptable. However, at present there companies reporting along described lines, the is no monitoring of the level of sustainability that various subjects that they cover in their reports, Dutch companies pursue regarding the coal sup- best practices, and any problems and challenges ply chain. (…) We encourage Dutch power pro- encountered. Companies will be encouraged ducers to explore opportunities and routes to be to issue public reports on CSR, including supply followed.’243 chain responsibility. Like the Greenpeace report, this report on The SER initiative requires that international tin, bauxite and copper shows that a clear need enterprises use a normative framework to iden- still exists for action by governments and compa- tify what should be expected of enterprises with nies to ensure better mining practices. respect to supply chain responsibility. This frame- work consists of the following: Dutch government policy regarding the • The ILO Declaration on Fundamental Princi- supply chains of companies ples and Rights at Work, reaffirmed in 2008. The Dutch government is increasingly taking This concerns freedom of association, the right initiative to promote supply chain responsibility to collective bargaining, and the ban on forced among companies. The most important initia- labour, child labour and discrimination. tives are reviewed below, with a specific focus • The ILO’s Tripartite Declaration of Principles

48 concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Heineken, which in turn scored considerably Policy (2000). better then Corus. Draka had the lowest score. • The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enter- Coca-Cola, Cookson and the Klesch Company prises (2000). were not reviewed, as they are not Dutch com- • Recommendations of the International Cham- panies. ber of Commerce (ICC) on Supply Chain Corus participated voluntarily in the bench- Responsibility (2007). mark review: it was no longer required to do so, The SER also requires that reporting standards as since its acquisition by Tata Steel it was no be based on guidelines issued by the Dutch longer a Dutch-based company. Corus states it Accounting Standards Board. The Board will participated even though it knew it would have supplement its guidelines by 1 July 2009 with a lower overall score than in earlier years, due recommendations for international supply chain to the fact that its financial figures are no longer responsibility. separately published, but incorporated into the The SER plans to commence an evaluation of Tata figures. the initiative in the second half of 2011 and will complete this evaluation by 1 July 2012. Confi- 3) Procurement policy of the government dent that the necessary progress will be made The Dutch government’s objective is that pur- between now and that date, the Council does chases by the State government are 100 per not believe there is a need to propose legisla- cent sustainable by 2010. Seventy-five per cent tion in this area during that period. However, of purchases by municipalities will be required Friends of the Earth Netherlands thinks that to be sustainable by 2010; provinces and water although voluntary mechanisms might be a good boards should aim for 50 per cent. way for companies to improve their performance The government already has defined mini- on supply chain responsibility, regulations are mum criteria for a range of products, among also needed to ensure all Dutch and European other environmental criteria. Social criteria are companies have to abide by the same rules and still to be defined by the Dutch government. This regulations. is expected to be completed by June 2009. At It is not yet known what the SER initiative the moment, the government is leaning towards will mean to companies involved with unaccept- fulfilment of the ILO Fundamental Principles and able mining in developing countries. There is no Rights at Work and commitment to the Universal obligation for companies to map out their supply Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). ILO labour chain, identify CSR problems along the chain and standards (wages, working hours, working condi- work on solutions for the problems. tions) may provide additional standards for some products.246 It has not yet been decided how far 2) Transparency benchmark on CSR re- Huge porting by Dutch companies Caterpillar In recent years, the largest Dutch companies truck to have been benchmarked annually on the trans- transport parency of their CSR reporting. The latest trans- copper from parency benchmark, published February 2009, the Grasberg mine in reviewed the CSR reporting of 170 companies. Indonesia. One of the ten aspects reviewed was the sup- ply chain responsibility of the companies. The report as well as the Minister for Foreign Trade (Mr Frank Heemskerk) concluded that compa- nies had paid more attention to supply chain responsibility compared to the benchmark of a year ago. However, this could only be concluded for the 20 leading companies – the remainder of the companies had scores that left much to be desired regarding their reporting on supply chain responsibility.245 Of the seven companies reviewed in this ibowo, June 2008

report on their responsibility towards min- W ing practices, Philips scored highest on supply s uca chain responsibility, considerably better than L

49 responsibility reaches in the supply chain and how verification will take place. The environmental criteria do not thus far include criteria related to mining practices. The social criteria may however have some influence on companies that use mining components in their products. For instance, the worst forms of child labour are found in some mining sectors. Companies that want to do business with the government may be required to map out their supply chain and work on alternatives to child labour. FoE NL believes social criteria should include safety and health standards for miners and communities around mines. Governmental procurement policies should set an example. While companies are con- cerned about sourcing materials fuelling the war in eastern Congo, procurement standards for government computers and other electron- ics still include no criteria regarding tin use from the DRC. The same lack of attention to mining practices applies to the aluminium content of cars bought by the government, or the copper content of euro coins that are produced in the Netherlands.

4) Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative To supplement several existing market initiatives, the Dutch government and several stakehold- ers have started the Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH).247 Government, private sector, labour unions and non-governmental organisa- tions want to jointly implement sector improve- ment programmes for timber and other forest products, soy, natural stone products, cocoa, tea and tourism. The government has no special chain initiatives pending with regards to mining products.

50 Chapter 5

Preliminary research on the use of copper and tin resources

Tin: depleting resources? be depleted within 25 years. The reserve base of tin according to U.S. Geo- The 1,000 million tonnes of copper men- logical Survey (USGS) data is estimated at 11 tioned above refers to the known reserve base million tonnes. This means that at the present of copper. The reserve base includes those consumption level, there are nearly 40 years left resources that are currently economically attrac- of virgin tin use, calculating a zero economic tive (550 million tonnes) as well as less economi- growth rate. Assuming a modest annual growth cally attractive to mine.255 of economies at 2 per cent, the well-known sci- The reserve base however does not take into entific environmentalist Lester Brown has sug- account yet unexplored deposits of copper – a gested tin resources could be depleted within significant number of these exist. A preliminary 20 years.248 In the period 1998-2007 tin mining assessment indicates that global land-based production has actually increased 3.7 per cent resources exceed 3,000 million tonnes. Deep- annually.249 sea nodules are estimated to contain another 700 million tonnes of copper.256 An extensive The USGS data on the reserve base do not 2008-study concluded that the Andes Mountains include countries like the Democratic Repub- have 750 million tonnes of undiscovered cop- lic Congo (DRC), Vietnam and Burma. In 1997, a reserve base of 0.5 million tonnes was listed Known reserves in the earth’s crust: tin250 for the DRC.251 The organisation ITRI works on behalf of many of the world’s major tin-produc- Reserve base Percentage ing companies and is dedicated to expanding (million tonnes) tin use.252 Concerning tin reserves, ITRI ‘believes that the supply of tin can be guaranteed for China 3.5 31% significantly longer than the 15-25 years that is Brazil 2.5 22% sometimes quoted in general literature.’ Accord- ing to ITRI, at present it is not possible to obtain Malaysia 1.2 11% any more information than the USGS reserve base. ITRI argues that the tin industry usually Peru 1.0 9% only confirms reserves for a time period of 10 to 20 years.253 Indonesia 0.9 8%

Bolivia 0.9 8% Copper: depleting resources? Globally, only 1,000 million tonnes of copper Russia 0.35 3% are labelled as having the potential to be mined in the future. Global copper mining produc- Australia 0.3 3% tion amounted to almost 16 million tonnes in 2008.254 Does this therefore mean we only have Thailand 0.2 2% 60 more years of copper use to go? Or even Other countries 0.3 3% less, as economic growth may again spur great- er use? Assuming a modest annual 2 per cent around 11 growth of economies, copper resources could

51 per resources, but it also stated that a significant stitutes for the scarce metals. Secondly, large- amount will not be available (urban areas, high scale conversion towards more sustainable forms biodiversity areas, areas with threatened surface of energy would be slowed down by a lack of and groundwater supplies).257 sufficient platinum-group metals, rare-earth met- als and scarce metals like gallium. This includes Will the future take care of itself? large-scale application of high-efficiency solar At the beginning of 2009, the World Bank cells and fuel cells and large-scale electrification released its report ‘Global Economic Prospects, of land-based transport. Finally, to sustain and Commodities at the Crossroads’. The authors increase current production rates, resources have of the World Bank report are rather optimis- to be extracted at ever more distant locations tic about future metal supplies. Here are some (including deep mining and ocean floor min- statements from the report: ing) and at ever lower ore grades which require • Reserves are really a measure of the inventory exponentially more energy to extract. that producers have readily available for future Diederen believes we should impose a co- delivery, rather than a measure of the physical ordinated policy of managed austerity to address quantity remaining of a commodity. metal minerals. Firstly, he defines ‘the elements • The existence of ample (and growing) reserves, of hope’. This is a group of abundantly avail- and a history of significant improvements in the able elements. Iron and aluminium are included, technology with which resources are found and though required energy to extract these might extracted, suggests that supply will continue to grow exponentially due to the availability of rise in pace with demand. lower ore grades only. The elements of hope are • True resource exhaustion is unlikely not least supposed to replace scarce metals, whereby a because, as resources become scarcer, their challenging task is to realise the same function- prices rise, consumption declines, and alterna- ality of products. Another part of the toolbox is tives that once may have been uneconomic are reserved for ‘frugal elements’. These elements substituted for the scarce (and expensive) com- should only be applied in mass for applications modity. in which their unique properties are essential. • Although the quality of newly discovered mines Copper is one of the frugal elements. Finally a tends to be lower on average than older ones, small corner of the toolbox is reserved for the technological improvements have reduced the ‘critical elements’, which should be saved for the cost of producing most metals over the past 50 most essential and critical applications. Tin is one years. For example, production costs of a tonne of these metals.260 of copper between 1985 and 2002 declined by Researchers Gordon, Bertram and Graedel 18 to 28 percent. have estimated that around 200 kilograms of • Supply prospects for metals depend on the copper per capita is needed to supply the serv- competing forces of resource exhaustion and ices which the residents of wealthy nations such the declining quality of new sources, on the as Switzerland, Australia or the United States one hand, and the pace of new discoveries and are accustomed to. Nations such as South Africa improvements in the technology with which and China would have to increase their aver- commodities are discovered and extracted, on age per capita copper stock-in-use by seven or the other.258 eight times to achieve the same level. Gordon, Bertram and Graedel conclude that, with present Or should we care for the future? technology, virgin stocks of copper appear inad- The scientist André Diederen, working for Dutch equate to sustain a developed-world service research institute TNO, has quite different views level for all the Earth’s peoples. There are not than the ones expressed in the World Bank enough copper resources for global adaption of report.259 He states that during the next few dec- the lifestyle of wealthy nations.261 ades we will encounter serious problems mining many important metal minerals at the desired Recyclable copper reservoir extraction rates. Amongst these are all precious The European Copper Institute – representing metals (gold, silver and platinum-group metals), the world’s mining companies and the Europe- zinc, tin, indium, zirconium, cadmium, tungsten, an copper industry – states in its press informa- copper, manganese, nickel and molybdenum. tion kit of January 2009: ‘Copper is 100 per cent The implications of metals scarcity might recyclable, with no loss of its performance. It is affect our entire industrial civilization. Firstly, estimated that 80 per cent of the copper pro- other metal minerals will not be acceptable sub- duced by mankind is still in use.’262

52 ay 2007 M u, B itty K / s euter R The Chinese Therefore, let us consider how recycling extraction of virgin copper. According to the village Guiyu could contribute to a sustainable cycle. Global Bureau of International Recycling, the creation of is one of production of copper from mining and recy- secondary raw copper only requires 15 per cent the biggest e-waste cling in the period 1900-2007 was 500 million of the energy needed to produce copper from centers of 263 266 tonnes. If 80 per cent of this copper would primary raw materials. Decisions to recycle the world. indeed still be in use, a maximum global cop- however will be made on the basis of total recy- Copper per reservoir above the ground of around 400 cling costs (including personnel costs), compared and tin are million tonnes exists. Estimates on in-use stock to the costs of virgin copper. The next section recycled under very for North America and Western Europe show will show that the recyclable copper reservoir is unhealthy 264 this figure may be too optimistic. Much of the still being poorly extracted. conditions for copper in these regions has been disposed of the workers. in landfill: it was not and probably never will be Recycling rates for copper recycled however. In 2006 the International Copper Study Group In a 2007 study, Gómez, Guzmán and Tilton (ICSG) published an extensive study on how state that the input of secondary copper dur- much copper was recycled in Western Europe ing the production of copper is not increasing, in 1999, in comparison with the copper content though every year more and more copper con- of products that entered the recycling system in tent in waste should become available world- Western Europe (exports of used products were wide. The authors of the study note that recy- excluded). ICSG determined the so-called ‘end- cling rates are declining. According to them this of-life recycling efficiency rate’ was between 63 is caused by decreasing prices of new copper and 67 per cent.267 since the early 1970s, largely driven by primary copper producers successfully reducing their The following table shows the recycling rates production costs. Virgin copper has apparently according to ICSG for all waste categories: become cheaper than recycling home-grown copper.265 Some factors hinder the recycling of copper: From an environmental point of view, the 1. Not recyclable. The copper content of dissi- recycling of copper is more beneficial than the pative applications such as powders or chemi-

53 Recycling rates copper, per waste category, Western Europe 1999 268

Available Recycled Not Recycling for ­recycling copper ­recycled rate (ktons) (ktons) (ktons)

C&D: construction and demolition waste 755 535 220 71%

IEW: industrial electrical equipment waste 442 359 83 81%

INEW: industrial non-electrical equipment waste 506 394 112 78%

ELV: end-of-life vehicles 141 86 55 61%

WEEE: waste electric and electronic equipment 462 224 238 48%

MSW: municipal solid waste 144 47 97 33%

Dissipative uses (powders and chemicals) 82 0 82 0%

Total 2,532 1,645 887 65%

cals (82,000 tonnes) is, in general, not avail- If not dumped, the copper will probably be able for recycling back into the copper loop.269 recycled to some extent. The Netherlands also Also, small bits of some copper products may exports used cars to Eastern Europe and Africa, be lost to the environment during use, for of which the recycle rate is not known. instance due to wear of car brakes and water 5. Not collected. In 2007 there was an extensive pipes.270 review of the EU directive Waste of Electrical 2. Lost into metal recycling loops. In the 2006 and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) by United ICSG study it was estimated that 144,000 Nations University.275 The university calculated tonnes of copper went into steel and alumin- how much WEEE waste should have accumulat- ium recycling loops in Western Europe. In the ed in the EU-27 in 2005. It was calculated that case of aluminium, copper is usually regarded 8.3 million tonnes of WEEE waste should have as a valuable addition to aluminium casting become available. However, only 2.2 million alloys. In the case of steel, copper trapped in tonnes, 27 per cent, were actually collected the steel (for instance, small and medium-sized within the EU. The collection figures of Norway electric motors in car-shredding steel) is seen and Switzerland were compared with those of as decreasing the quality of steel.271 A study the EU-27 as a reference. The two countries based on samples taken nationwide from scrap turned out to have better collection rates than in Japan showed copper content in steel scrap the EU-27, with the exception of Sweden. to be at worrying levels, decreasing the qual- ity of newly made steel.272 Some new recycling Tin recycling techniques might be able to increase separa- Recently ITRI announced: ‘We are particularly tion of copper.273 pleased to be able to suggest a provisional fig- 3. Disposal and other losses. This category ure of 27 per cent for the recycling rate of tin – forms the biggest portion, 661,000 tonnes, of something that has not been possible in the past lost recycling in the 2006 ICSG study. Disposal due to lack of information’.276 means landfill. Other losses are mainly incinera- The industry-led Intelligent Manufacturing tion slag used as road fill or construction mate- Systems (IMS) program states: ‘The use of such rial. scarce metals as silver and tin requires stimu- 4. Exports. ‘E-waste’ (waste electrical and elec- lating the collection and recycling of waste of tronic equipment) in particular is oftentimes electric and electronic equipment. Especially the exported to countries like China, India and nowadays low recycling rates of tin call for more West Africa. Because many of the e-waste effective technologies to recycle solders from exports are illegal274, it is not clear how many used printed-wiring-boards.’277 are exported and how much copper is recycled. About 14 per cent of tin use is for chemi- Some e-waste might be eventually dumped. cals.278 Tin chemicals have end uses that are

54 nearly all dissipative: therefore, the tin content is not recyclable.279 For the year 2007, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that of all the TVs, cell phones and computer products ready for end-of-life management in the USA, 18 per cent were collected for recycling and 82 per cent were disposed of, primarily in landfills.280 The figure for collection however includes exports of e-waste to developing countries. Greenpeace estimates that the hidden flow of e-waste escap- ing responsible recycling in the US may be as much as 80% or more.281 In the Netherlands, 1.9 billion beer cans and 1.2 billion soft-drink cans were filled in 2006. Most of the beer was exported. Within the Neth- erlands, refillable glass makes up 64 per cent of the beer market, cans 26 per cent and non-refill- able glass 9 per cent.282 Within Europe 66 per cent of steel packaging is recycled. The recycling rate for the Netherlands was 83 per cent (steel and aluminium packaging).283 Today, the nomi- nal tin coating on each side of tinplate is only 0.000381 millimetres. Thus, the economics of de-tinning make it not nearly as profitable as it once was.284 While production waste of tinplate is usually recycled, it remained unclear when this report went to press to what extent the tin of used cans is actually recycled.

55 Annex A

Abbreviations

Aldel: Aluminium Delfzijl APEAL: Association of European Producers of Steel for Packaging ASM: artisan and small-scale miners CBG: Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinée CBK: Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia CCE: Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc. CNDP: Le Congrès National pour la Défense du Peuple Codeff: Friends of the Earth Chile, National Committee for the Defense of Flora and Fauna CODELCO: Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile, National Copper Corporation of Chile CSR: Corporate Social Responsibility DRC: Democratic Republic of Congo EICC: Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition EITI: Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative FARDC: Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo FDLR: Forces Democratiques de Liberation du Rwanda FoE NL: Friends of the Earth Netherlands GDP: Gross Domestic Product ICC: International Chamber of Commerce ICSG: International Copper Study Group IDH: Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative ILO: International Labour Organization IMS: Intelligent Manufacturing Systems ISO: International Standards Organisation ITRI: organisation representing the world’s major tin producing companies KCM: Konkola Copper Mines LME: London Metal Exchange MCM: Mopani Copper Mines MONUC: United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo MSC: Malaysia Smelting Corporation Berhad OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development SABL: St Ann Bauxite Ltd SER: Social and Economic Council, an advisory body to the Dutch government SO2: sulphur dioxide UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USGS: U.S. Geological Survey WALHI: Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia or The Indonesian Forum for Environment WEEE: Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment WHO: World Health Organisation Zalco: Zeeland Aluminium Company NV ZCCM-IH: Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Investment Holdings

56 Annex B

Questionnaires sent to the companies

Questionnaire Questionnaire on resource use and Your company and tin mining and your companies’ import of alumina December 2008 December 2008

Your contact details: Questionnaire: Please describe or send available documents Questionnaire: about your company’s Corporate Social Respon- Please describe or send available documents sibility policy, including information on human about your company’s Corporate Social Respon- rights, labour rights and environmental issues. sibility policy, including information on human How is the purchasing of processed bauxite (alu- rights, labour rights and environmental issues. mina) organised within your company? How is the purchasing of tin organised within What is the amount of alumina processed in the your company? Netherlands into your products? What is the amount of the metal tin, processed To what level does your company know where in the Netherlands into your products? the bauxite has been mined of the alumina your How much of the metal tin, processed into your company imports? And where is the bauxite products in the Netherlands, is recycled tin? processed into alumina? Please name countries To what level does your company know where of origin, mining companies, mines and factories. the not-recycled tin has been mined? Please Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers name countries of origin, mining companies and of alumina to your company? mines. Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social To what level does your company know where and environmental criteria (based on your Code the recycled tin originates from? Please give spe- of Conduct for example) on the way bauxite is cifics on country and factory level. mined and processed? Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers a) If yes: Please, describe further. of tin to your company? b) If no: Why not? Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social Are you aware of any social or environmental and environmental criteria (based on your problems concerning the mining of bauxite and Code of Conduct for example) on the way tin is processing into alumina, before the alumina is mined? imported by your company for further process- a) If yes: please, describe further. ing? If yes, please specify. b) If no: Why not? How much of the aluminium, processed into your Are you aware of any social or environmental products in the Netherlands, is recycled alumin- issues concerning the extraction of tin that is ium? used in your products? If yes, please specify. If your company also uses recycled aluminium, How does your company ensure no tin is can you elaborate where the recycled aluminium obtained from Burma and some mines in the originates from? Please give specifics on country Democratic Republic of Congo? and factory level. What is the position of your company on What is the position of your company on resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle etc.)? Please elaborate. etc.)? Please elaborate.

Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009. Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.

57 Questionnaire resource use Questionnaire on the and the mining of copper mining product aluminium December 2008 December 2008

Your contact details: Your contact details:

Questionnaire: Questionnaire: Please describe or send available documents Please describe or send available documents about your company’s Corporate Social Respon- about your company’s Corporate Social Respon- sibility policy, including information on human sibility policy, including information on human rights, labour rights and environmental issues. rights, labour rights and environmental issues. How is the purchasing of copper organised with- How is the purchasing of aluminium for cans in your company? organised within your company? What is the amount of copper, processed in the What is the amount of aluminium used into cans Netherlands into your products? by your company in the Netherlands? How much of the copper, processed into your To what level does your company know where products in the Netherlands, is recycled copper? the bauxite has been mined from which the alu- To what level does your company know where minium eventually is made? Please name coun- the not-recycled copper has been mined? Please tries of origin, mining companies and mines. name countries of origin, mining companies and Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers mines. of aluminium to your company? To what level does your company know where Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social the recycled copper originates from? Please give and environmental criteria (based on your Code specifics on country and factory level. of Conduct for example) on the way bauxite is Could you provide us with a list of the suppliers mined and aluminium is produced? of copper to your company? a) If yes: please, describe further. Does your company ask suppliers to fulfill social b) If no: Why not? and environmental criteria (based on your Code Are you aware of any social or environmental of Conduct for example) on the way copper is problems concerning the mining of bauxite and mined? production of aluminium used for the cans of a) If yes: please, describe further. your company? b) If no: Why not? If yes, please specify. Are you aware of any social or environmental How much of the aluminium, processed into cans issues concerning the extraction of copper that in the Netherlands, is recycled aluminium? is used in your products? If yes, please specify. If your company also uses recycled aluminium, What is the position of your company on can you elaborate where the recycled alumini- resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle um is obtained? Please give specifics on factory etc.)? Please elaborate. level. What is the position of your company on Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009. resource use (reduce, recycle, cradle to cradle etc.)? Please elaborate.

Please fill in and reply before January 15th, 2009.

58 Endnotes

All mentioned website links were still working on 16 and 17 April 2009.

1 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009 (the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) was excluded in their figures), http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf Figures from the DRC included through: 1) ITRI (organisation working on behalf of the worlds’ biggest tin producing companies), ‘back- ground information sheet Cassiterite Production and Trade in the Democratic Republic of Congo, October 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/Sustainability/ITRI%20DRC%20 information%20sheet%20v1.pdf 2) British Geological Survey, ‘World Mineral Production 2003–2007’, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/free_downloads/home.html#WMP 2 ITRI, ‘Long-term Trends in Tin-in-Concentrate Production, 1970 – 2006’, http://www.itri.co.uk/POOLED/ARTICLES/BF_TECHART/VIEW.ASP?Q=BF_TECHART_288264 3 Sandeep Joon, research analyst with SMC Comtrade Ltd, article ‘Tin: The unsung metal that shines far too high’, June 2008, http://www.commodityonline.com/ndtv/news/topstorydetails.php?id=9424&cont=2 4 ITRI, ‘data on tin use in 2007’, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_TECHART/view.asp?Q=BF_TECHART_309008 5 Informations-Zentrum Weißblech, ‘tinplate areas of use’, http://217.113.39.66/Usage.375.0.html 6 Article, ‘China cuts tin export quotas’, 22 October 2008, http://www.chinamining.org/Policies/2008-10-22/1224640918d18388.html 7 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL as viewed on 10 April 2009 8 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli- cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm 9 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu- ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773. pdf 10 AWR Lloyd, ‘Mining Journal Annual Review, Thailand’, October 2006 and August 2005. http:// www.awrlloyd.com/pdf/MiningJournalAnnualReview%28Oct06%29THAILAND.pdf, http://www. awrlloyd.com/pdf/ThailandMiningSectorforMiningJournalAnnualReview%28Aug05%29.pdf 11 PT Timah website, ‘Leading Tin Companies’, http://www.timah.com/images/stories/ir_kontribusi/leading%20tin%20companies.pdf 12 Somchai Thamprasertwong, Thaisarco, phone interview on 23 November 2007. In a report by Finn- watch ‘Connecting components, dividing communities. Tin Production for Consumer Electronics in the DR Congo and Indonesia’, December 2007, http://www.finnwatch.org/pdf/DRCwebversio.pdf 13 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009. 14 The average price of a ton of refined tin was around $15,000 in 2007. Website London Metal Exchange, http://www.lme.co.uk/tin_graphs.asp One Euro was worth 1,37 dollar on average in 2007, http://www.x-rates.com/d/USD/EUR/hist2007.html

59 Assumed is that 85% of the 46 million Euro worth raw materials bought by Alpha-Fry, was refined tin. This results in an estimation of 3,500 tonnes of tin imported by Alpha-Fry in 2007. 15 Corus IJmuiden, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 6 March 2009. 16 Website European Aluminium Association, ‘A Brief Introduction to Aluminium, 1999, lecture pre- pared by Toralf Cock, Skanaluminium, Oslo, http://www.eaa.net/eaa/education/TALAT/lectures/110001.pdf 17 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, bauxite and alumina, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf 18 Website aluminium manufacturer RUSAL, ‘Aluminium Industry’, http://www.aluminiumleader.com/en/serious/industry/ 19 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, aluminum’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/aluminum/mcs-2009-alumi.pdf 20 Commodities Now, Jim Steel (Refco), ‘Aluminium: Growing Demand & Fund Activity’, December 2003, http://www.commodities-now.com/content/market-areas/metals-and-mining/ma-article-9.pdf 21 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009. 22 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009. 23 Website aluminium manufacturer Alcoa, ‘San Ciprián Smelter’ http://www.alcoa.com/locations/ spain_san_ciprian/en/about/profile.asp 24 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2009, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm 25 Wikipedia, ‘copper’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper 26 Copper Development Association Inc., ‘Copper Supply & Consumption 1987–2007’, copper con- tent of world mine production 2007, http://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/pdfs/annual_data.pdf 27 Website International Copper Study Group, ‘The world copper factbook 2007’, calculated from fig- ures 1960-2007, page 64. http://www.icsg.org/images/stories/pdfs/2007worldcopperfactbook.pdf 28 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘copper statistics’, November 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/copper.pdf 29 R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America v.103, n.5, 31 January 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html 30 Website Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland, http://www.rijnland.net/baggeren_in_rijnland/bagger- en_algemeen/vervuiling_van/informatie_per_stof/koper 31 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu.pdf 32 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007, page 117. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/weee/pdf/final_rep_unu.pdf 33 European Copper Institute, Press pack, January 2009. http://www.eurocopper.org/files/corporatepressinfokit_uk080109(1).pdf 34 Figures from Statistics Netherlands, http://statline.cbs.nl/StatWeb/dome/?LA=NL, as viewed on 10 April 2009. 35 Personal communication Martin de Koning, public affairs manager Draka Holding, 18 March 2009. 36 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs. gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf 37 ITRI, ‘Timah profit and production fell in 2008’, 28 January 2009. Refined tin means pure tin after smelting. Tin-in-concentrate is a term used for tin before it is smelted. http://www.itri.co.uk/

60 pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309480 38 ITRI, ‘PT Timah invests in offshore production’, 5 Nov 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/ BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_295869 39 Reuters, ‘Indonesian police stop Timah’s suction dredge vessels’, 18 March 2009, http://in.reuters. com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idINJAK47393220090318 40 The Jakarta Post, article ‘Timah to spend $21.3 million to buy new vessels’, 6 January 2009, http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/01/06/timah-spend-213-million-buy-new-vessels.html 41 Reuters, ‘Indonesia’s Timah slows investment on project delays’, 28 January 2009, http://uk.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/dUKJAK36890220090128?sp=true 42 Ocean Engineering, article ‘A bucket wheel dredge system for offshore tin mining beyond the 50 m water depth’, 2002. 43 Website IHC Holland, ‘Cutter Suction Dredger PULAU TUJUH latest in a long tin line’, 2005, http://www.ihcholland.com/fileadmin/documents/news/news_archieve3/pd163_18_19.pdf 44 ITRI, ‘PT Timah invests in offshore production’, 5 Nov 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/ BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_295869 45 BusinessWeek, Special Advertisement section ‘Indonesia, sustaining the commodity dividend’, 2008. 46 Website PT Timah, ‘Integrated Tin Mining’, http://timah.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=28&Itemid=38 47 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years ended december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009. 48 Reuters, Ed Davies and Fitri Wulandari, ‘Indonesian tin industry hits a slump’, 21 October 2008. 49 ITRI, ‘Koba Tin boosts mine production’, 6 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_ NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308912 50 Reuters, ‘Indonesia’s Koba Tin faces 2nd illegal mining probe’, 29 February 2008, http://www.reu- ters.com/article/environmentNews/idUSJAK16405120080229 51 PT Timah (Persero) TBK and its subsidiaries, consolidated financial statements for the years ended december 31, 2008 and 2007 and independent auditor’s report, 20 March 2009. 52 ITRI, article ‘New Bangka smelter starts commissioning’, September 2007, http://www.itri.co.uk/ pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_294306 53 Reuters, ‘Indonesian tropical island torn apart by tin mining’, 8 April 2007, http://www.reuters. com/article/environmentNews/idUSSP9517220070410?sp=true 54 Clive Aspinall, M.Sc., P.Eng. PT., report ‘Small-Scale Mining in Indonesia’, on behalf of the Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Develop- ment (WBCSD), September 2001. 55 Antara news, ‘Coral reef in Bangka Belitung damaged’, 9 April 2007, http://www.antara.co.id/en/ arc/2007/9/4/coral-reef-in-bangka-belitung-damaged/ 56 Clive Aspinall, M.Sc., P.Eng. PT., report ‘Small-Scale Mining in Indonesia’, on behalf of the Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the World Business Council for Sustainable Develop- ment (WBCSD), September 2001. 57 Wikipedia, ‘coral reefs’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef 58 Agribusinessweek, ‘Philippines’ Coral Reefs on the Verge of Extinction’, 12 July 2008, http://www.agribusinessweek.com/philippines-coral-reefs-on-the-verge-of-extinction/ 59 University of Bangka Belitung, Indra Ambalika Syari, head of fisheries research, article ‘Stop the environmental damage to land and Sea in Bangka-Belitung now’, 23 January 2009, http://www. ubb.ac.id/menulengkap.php?judul=Hentikan%20Kerusakan%20Lingkungan,%20di%20Darat%20 dan%20Laut%20Bangka%20Belitung%20Sekarang%20Juga&&nomorurut_artikel=267 60 Walhi, press release ‘Menghisap Timah Memanen Bencana’, 6 March 2009, http://www.walhi.or.id/websites/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=66:menghisap- timah-memanen-bencana&catid=53:pembuangan-limbah-tambang-ke-laut&Itemid=14 61 Resource Consulting Services, Nicholas Garrett and Harrison Mitchell, report ‘ Trading Conflict for Development, Utilising the Trade in Minerals from Eastern DR Congo for Development’, April

61 2009. 62 International Rescue Committee (IRC) , factsheet ‘Congo Crisis’, 2007, http://www.theirc.org/resources/2007/congo_onesheet.pdf 63 United Nations, ‘United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC), mandate’, http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/missions/monuc/mandate.html 64 Global Witness, ‘Recommendations on due diligence for buyers and companies trading in minerals from eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and for their home governments’, November 2008. 65 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli- cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm 66 Resource Consulting Services, Nicholas Garrett and Harrison Mitchell, report ‘Trading Conflict for Development, Utilising the Trade in Minerals from Eastern DR Congo for Development’, April 2009. Email from Carina Tertsakian (Global Witness), 29 April 2009. 67 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli- cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm 68 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu- ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773. pdf 69 United Nations, letter from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursu- ant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, 10 December 2008, http://www.undemocracy.com/S-2008-773. pdf 70 Reuters, ‘DR Congo’s curious peace deal with ex-Nkunda rebels’, 26 March 2009, http://www.nation.co.ke/News/africa/-/1066/553236/-/item/1/-/7ehe1tz/-/index.html 71 Nicholas Garrett, report ‘Walikale – Artisanal Cassiterite Mining and Trade in North Kivu – Impli- cations for Poverty Reduction and Security’, 1 June 2008, made for Communities and Small-Scale Mining, http://www.artisanalmining.org/index.cfm 72 Nicholas Garrett, The Extractives Industries Transparency Initiatiative (EITI) & Artisanal and small scale mining, EITI, Draft, October 2007. 73 United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) and World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), Factsheet ‘Kahuzi-Biéga national park, Democratic Republic of the Congo’, http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Kahuzi-Biega.pdf 74 Robbins, M. & Williamson, L. 2008. Gorilla beringei. In: IUCN 2008. 2008 IUCN Red List of Threat- ened Species, www.iucnredlist.org 75 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Bolivia’, October 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bl.pdf 76 ITRI, ‘Bolivian government supports tin production’, 27 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309421 77 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Bolivia’, October 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bl.pdf 78 ITRI, ‘Bolivian state tin companies could merge’, 6 April 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_311385 79 IPS, article ‘Labour-Bolivia: Childhood in the Pits’, José Luis Alcázar, 4 October 2005, http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=30525 80 Anti-Slavery International, ‘Compliance with ILO Convention No.182 on the Worst Forms of Child Labour (ratified in 2003), The worst forms of child labour in Bolivia, July 2006, www.antislavery.org/ archive/briefingpapers/ilo2006bolivia_childlabour.pdf 81 International Labour Organization (ILO), International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), ‘Worst forms of child labour’,

62 http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/WorstFormsofChildLabour/lang--en/index.htm 82 Center for International Studies and Cooperation (Canada) and Fundacion MEDMIN (Bolivia), report, ‘Child labourers in the Bolivian mining sector: their perspective’, March 2006. 83 Official Journal of the European Union L 66/1, ‘Council regulation (EC) No 194/2008 of 25 Febru- ary 2008, renewing and strengthening the restrictive measures in respect of Burma/Myanmar and repealing Regulation (EC) No 817/2006’, 10 March 2008, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:066:0001:0087:EN:PDF 84 Friends of the Earth Netherlands, report ‘Sanctioned but not stopped. Research on timber trade between the European Union and Burma’, February 2009, http://www.milieudefensie.nl/english/publications/Birmarapportdefinitief.pdf 85 ITRI, ‘China production slumps in December’, 22 January 2009, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_309315 86 Asian Metal Ltd., ‘2008 Annual Report on Tin Market’, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/ en/2008xi_en.pdf 87 Of the refined tin exports in 2008 by China 41 per cent went to the Netherlands and 36 per cent to Japan, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2008xi_en.pdf Of the refined tin exports in 2007 by China 27 per cent went to the Netherlands and 27 per cent to Japan, http://www.asianmetal.com/report/en/2007Sn_en.pdf 88 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Singapore’, August 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-sn.pdf 89 The new light of Myanmar, article ‘Secretary-1 attends opening of OG ward at Lashio General Hospital, Lonni Tin Smelting Plant in Longhtan’, 28 January 2003, http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ NLM-2003/enlm/jan28_head1.html Online Burma/Myanmar Library, http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs2/copperMetal.pdf 90 Online Burma/Myanmar Library, http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs6/NLM2009-01-17.pdf 91 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2006 Minerals Yearbook, Burma’, April 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2006/myb3-2006-bm.pdf 92 Reuters, ‘Singapore’s Tin opens smelter in Indonesia’, 14 february 2008, http://in.reuters.com/article/asiaCompanyAndMarkets/idINJAK24365320080214?sp=true\ 93 Reuters, ‘interview-Thai Tongkah sees higher ‘09 profit, hunts for mines’, 14 April 2009, http://news.alibaba.com/article/detail/markets/100066660-1-interview-thai-tongkah-sees-high- er-%252709.html 94 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, Bauxite and Alumina’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2009-bauxi.pdf 95 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Minerals Information’, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/ 96 Jamaica Bauxite Institute, ‘Jamaica’s bauxite & alumina industry’, 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/JBI_An%20Overview_of_Jamaica%27s_Bauxite_Industry.pdf 97 Dr. Carlton E. Davis, Cabinet Secretary of the Government of Jamaica, Speech ‘The Global Eco- nomic and Financial Crisis and the Jamaican Bauxite and Alumina Industry’ at the ILO Tripartite Caribbean Conference on the Theme: Promoting Human Prosperity beyond the Global Financial Crisis - Seeking Sustainable Solutions Through Social Dialogue, Kingston, Jamaica, April 1 – 2, 2009, http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/portal/images/stories/contenido/pdf/ILOinCaribbean/Meetings/GFC09/ Davis2-GFC.pdf 98 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa’s roots in Jamaica’, http://www.alcoa.com/jamaica/en/home.asp 99 Website RUSAL, ‘Windalco’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/windalco.aspx Website Windalco, http://www.windalco.com/About%20Us/history.htm 100 Website Hydro, ‘Temporary production shutdown at Alpart’, 18 March 2009. http://www.hydro.com/en/Press-room/News/Archive/2009/03/Temporary-production-shutdown-at- Alpart/ 101 Website Noranda Aluminum Holding Corporation, http://www.norandaaluminum.com/StAn-

63 nBauxite/ 102 Government of Jamaica, Ministry of Mining and Telecommunications, ‘The National Minerals Poli- cy: Sustainable Development of the Minerals Industry’ , DRAFT January 2009. 103 House of Representatives Jamaica, Economy and Production Committee, findings and recom- mendations of examining of the Bauxite/Alumina Industry in Jamaica during 7 meetings in the period December 2007 – December 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ECON%20&%20 PRODN%20REPORT%202008%20BauxiteAlumina.pdf 104 Inter Press Service, ‘Environment-Jamaica: Bauxite Mining Blamed for Deforestation’, 6 April 2001, http://forests.org/archive/samerica/bauxmini.htm 105 Tommy Johansson, ‘Jamaican Deforestation and Bauxite mining, applying the Coase theorem’, Master’s Thesis, Lulea University of Technology, 2003. 106 Marbek Resource Consultants in association with Claude Davis & Associates, ‘Country Environ- mental Assessment for Jamaica’, submitted to the Inter-American Development Bank, DRAFT, January 2007, www.iadb.org/IDBDocs.cfm?docnum=871957 107 Website Petroleum Corporation of Jamaica, http://www.pcj.com/dnn/Statisticsbyactivity/ tabid/143/Default.aspx 108 Jamaica Observer, Karyl Walker, ‘Dust, stench and claim of impotence: Pollution killing us, say communities near bauxite plants - Firms insist waste not toxic’, 11 February 2007, http://www.cor- pwatch.org/article.php?id=14348 109 Conrad Douglas & Associates Ltd., ‘Environmental Impact Assesment for Proposed Construction of New Dry Residue Disposal Area by Jamalco’, 20 April 2007, on website of National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaican Government, http://www.nepa.gov.jm/eias/Clarendon/Jamalco-DRDA6/EIA%20for%20Proposed%20Construc- tion%20of%20New%20Dry%20Residue%20Disposal%20Area%20%28DRDA%206%29%20by%20 Jamalco%20-%20April%202007.pdf 110 Environmental Engineering Science, Sameer Khaitan, David A. Dzombak and Gregory V. Lowry. ‘Chemistry of the Acid Neutralization Capacity of Bauxite Residue’ Volume 26, Number 00, 2009. Windalco, presentation ‘Introduction to Windalco’, June 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ WINDALCO%20Presentation%20to%20MCOC%20%28Membership%20Mtg%20-%205%20 June%202008%29.pdf 111 US Army Corps of Engineers, ‘Water Resources Assessment of Jamaica’, February 2001, http://www.sam.usace.army.mil/en/wra/Jamaica/Jamaica%20WRA%20-%20English.pdf 112 RPS Group plc and Alcan inc., ‘Mount Rosser Rehabilitation Project’, November 2006. 113 Jamaican government, Jamaica Information Service, press release ‘Red Mud Pond at Mount Rosser to be Rehabilitated’, 6 June 2007, http://www.jis.gov.jm/development/ html/20070606t120000-0500_12173_jis_red_mud_pond_at_mount_rosser_to_be_rehabilitated.asp 114 House of Representatives Jamaica, Economy and Production Committee, findings and recom- mendations of examining of the Bauxite/Alumina Industry in Jamaica during 7 meetings in the period December 2007 – December 2008, http://www.bunting.org.jm/pdfs/ECON%20&%20 PRODN%20REPORT%202008%20BauxiteAlumina.pdf 115 Conrad Douglas & Associates Ltd., Environmental impact assessment for 2.8 million metric tonne per year efficiency upgrade at Jamalco, 2004, on website of National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaican Government, http://www.nrca.org/eias/Clarendon/Jamalco/cover.pdf 116 Cockpit Country Stakeholders Group in association with Jamaica Environmental Advocacy Net- work (JEAN) , fact sheet ‘ save Cockpit Country’, 2007, www.jamentrust.org A lot of information on Cockpit Country, including a petition to save the area from bauxite mining can also be found at www.cockpitcountry.org 117 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of African Affairs, February 2009, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2824.htm 118 BBC news, ‘Guinea announces mining reforms’, 15 January 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7831850.stm 119 Website Halco Mining, http://halcomining.com/en/home.asp

64 120 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa in Guinea’, http://www.alcoa.com/guinea/en/home.asp 121 UNEP-inlay on Google Earth and UNEP, ‘Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment’, 2008, pag- es 192 and 193 http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/PDF/en/Africa_Atlas_Full_en.pdf 122 Website Mining Technology, ‘CBG Bauxite (Aluminium Ore) Mining Operations, Guinea’, http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/cbg/ 123 UNEP-inlay on Google Earth and UNEP, ‘Africa: Atlas of Our Changing Environment’, 2008, pages 192 and 193, http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/PDF/en/Africa_Atlas_Full_en.pdf 124 Website Global Alumina Corporation, http://www.globalalumina.com/oper_overview.php The Social and Environmental Assessment (SEA) for the project be found on: http://www.guineaalumina.com/index.php?id=40 125 Website Conservation International, Centre for Environmental Leadership in Business, http://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/alcoa.xml 126 Website Alcoa, ‘Alcoa in Guinea’, http://www.alcoa.com/guinea/en/refinery_project/background.asp 127 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘2007 Minerals Yearbook, Guinea’, December 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2007/myb3-2007-gv.pdf 128 Website RUSAL, ‘Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia (CBK)’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/kindia_factory.aspx 129 Website RUSAL, ‘Friguia alumina refinery (Guinea)’, http://www.rusal.ru/en/fria_factory.aspx 130 Bloomberg, ‘Guinea Weighs Action Against Rusal Over Alumina Plant’, 13 April 2009, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601116&sid=aEnL3CUu63gY&refer=africa 131 Website RUSAL, ‘UC RUSAL and China in the global aluminium industry: potential for co-opera- tion’, September 2008, http://www.rusal.ru/UploadedFiles/22.09.2008_CRU_Eng.pdf 132 Website Navasota Resources Ltd., http://www.navasota.com/s/Overview.asp 133 Reuters, ‘Guinea wants more benefit from bauxite, PM says’ , 13 February 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/companyNews/idUSL1317093520080213 134 Mining Top News, ‘Japan, Brazil cos win Guinea bauxite permits’, 9 August 2006, http://www.miningtopnews.com/japan-brazil-cos-win-guinea-bauxite-permits.html 135 Navasota Resources Ltd., brochure ‘Developing a World Class Bauxite Deposit in Guinea,West Africa’, Fall 2008, http://www.navasota.com/i/pdf/NAV-4pgr-Feb4-09.pdf 136 SOFOFA, Federation of Chilean Industry, ‘Chilean Economy in figures 1987 – 2007’, http://www.sofofa.cl/english/figures_2008.pdf 137 COCHILCO, Chilean Copper Commission , ‘Investment in the Chilean Copper and Gold Mining Sector Estimations for 2008-2012, Revised to August 2008’, http://www.cochilco.cl/Archivos/destacados/20081211230704_918-investment-chilean-copper- gold-mining.pdf 138 Ana Zúñiga, Chilean Copper Commission, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division, ‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, April 2008, http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf 139 Reuters, ‘Chile calls on miners to further cut water use’, 6 April 2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/rbssEnergyNews/idUSN0648821120090406 140 Ana Zúñiga, Chilean Copper Commission, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division, ‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, April 2008, http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf 141 Reuters, ‘As South American rivers dry up, miners tap ocean’, 21 February 2008, http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSN21383591 142 New York Times, ‘Chilean Town Withers in Free Market for Water’, by Alexei Barrionuevo, 14 March 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/15/world/americas/15chile.html?_r=1 143 Ana Zúñiga, Director of the Research and Policy Planning Division Chilean Copper Commission, ‘Water and Energy Management in the North of Chile’, april 2008, http://www.ctwmi.com/ppt/s2/Ana_Zuniga_Cochilco.pdf 144 Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Statistics Netherlands, and University of Wage-

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68 http://www.klesch.com/downloads//Corus%20Press%20Release%20050209.pdf 215 Website Zalco, http://www.zalco.nl/index_en.php 216 Zalco, Financial report 31 December 2007. 217 Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant, Ben Jansen, ‘Zalco schrapt 141 banen’, 19 November 2008, http://www.pzc.nl/regio/zeeland/4066436/Zalco-schrapt-141-banen.ece 218 Aldel, Sustainability report 2007 (in Dutch), http://www.aldel.nl/Inhoud/Frame-nl.htm 219 ANP (Netherlands national news agency), ‘Aluminium Delfzijl schrapt 185 banen’, 21 March 2009, http://www.nu.nl/economie/1936396/aluminium-delfzijl-schrapt-185-banen.html 220 Newsletter Van de Groep & Olsthoorn, interview with Klaas Roskam, director human resources of the Draka cable companies in the Netherlands, October 2007, http://www.vandegroep.nl/images/Nieuwsbrief%20okt.%202007.pdf 221 Draka, Annual report 2007. 222 Draka, Annual report 2005. 223 Draka, Group Safety, Health & Environment Statement, January 2009, http://www.draka.com/dra- ka/lang/en/nav/Sustainable_business/Corporate_Social_Responsibility/SHE_statement.pdf 224 Draka, letter Annette Schermer (manager safety, health and environment) to Friends of the Earth Netherlands ‘Questionnaire copper mining’, 12 February 2009. 225 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf 226 Philips, annual report 2008. 227 Philips, chapter from annual report 2008, http://www.annualreport2008.philips.com/downloads/ files/Philips2008_WeCareAbout_PeoplePlanetPartners.pdf 228 Philips, ‘Supplier Sustainability Declaration’, December 2006, http://www.philips.com/about/company/businesses/suppliers/suppliersustainability.page 229 Maplecroft website, Maplecroft is a source of quantitative and comprehensive ‘extra-financial’ and global risks indices, maps and data. This includes human rights, political risk, government risk, climate change, resource security, health and other areas of macroeconomic and societal risk, http://www.maplecroft.com 230 Philips, chapter from annual report 2008, http://www.annualreport2008.philips.com/downloads/ files/Philips2008_WeCareAbout_PeoplePlanetPartners.pdf 231 Philips, mr. Jan Roodenburg, senior vice-president supply, development and sustainability, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin mining’, 7 April 2009. 232 Global eSustainability Initiative (GeSI) and Electronic Industry Citizenship Coalition (EICC), ‘GeSI and EICC Statement on Mining of Metals’, February 2009. 233 Website Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), http://eitransparency.org/eiti/summary 234 Heineken N.V., Sustainability report 2008, http://www.heinekeninternational.com/content/live/ files/downloads/CorporateResponsibility/8773_Heineken_Sust_090409_FINAL.pdf 235 Heineken Supplier Code, 21 December 2005, http://www.heinekeninternational.com/content/ live/files/downloads/CorporateResponsibility/Heineken%20Supplier%20Code.pdf 236 Heineken, Hans Kroes, safety, health and environment manager Heineken Nederland Supply ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin and bauxite mining’, 9 March 2009. 237 BCME (Beverage Can Makers Europe), ‘European can market report 2006/2007’. BCME repre- sents the three major beverage can producers in Europe: Ball Packaging Europe; Crown; Rexam Beverage Can Europe + Asia, http://www.bcme.org/upl_dnl/1101/Pages%2048-62.pdf 238 Website Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc, http://www.cokecce.com/pages/homeContent.asp 239 Coca-Cola in Nederland, Maatschappelijk jaarverslag 2007. 240 Coca-Cola Enterprises Inc., Supplier Guiding Principles 241 Coca-Cola Enterprises Nederland, Robert Seegers, Public affairs and communication manager Nederland, ‘answers to questionnaire of Friends of the Earth Netherlands on tin and bauxite min-

69 ing’, 16 March 2009. 242 Greenpeace Netherlands, report ‘De wereld achter kolenstroom. De dubieuze herkomst van steenkool voor Nederlandse kolencentrales’, 2008, (The world behind coal power, the question- able origin of coal used in Dutch electric power plants). http://www.greenpeace.nl/news/steenkool-laat-wereldwijd-spoo 243 Dutch minister of Economic Affairs and Dutch minister of Environment and Spatial Planning, ‘answers to the questions raised by the Dutch parliamentarian Ms Wiegman-Van Meppelen Schep- pink (ChristenUnie)’, in Dutch language, 18 April 2008, http://static.ikregeer.nl/pdf/KVR31800.pdf 244 The Social and Economic Council of the Netherlands (SER), ‘Statement on International Corpo- rate Social Responsibility’, December 2008, http://www.ser.nl/en/Publications/Publications/2008/~/ media/Files/Internet/Talen/Engels/2008/b27428/b27428_en_statement.ashx 245 Dutch minister of Foreign Trade, Letter to the Dutch parliament, 29 January 2009, 26485:64 Report PricewaterhouseCoopers on behalf of the Ministry of Economic Affairs, ‘Transparency Benchmark 2008, CSR-reporting’, January 2009. 246 Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning, ‘sustainable procurement, operationalization Social Criteria (draft)’, 9 March 2009, http://www.senternovem.nl/duurzaaminkopen/Criteria/sociale_criteria/index.asp 247 English part of website Dutch Sustainable Trade Initiative (IDH), http://www.duurzamehandel.com/page/Information_in_English 248 Lester R. Brown, ‘Plan B 2.0: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble’, Earth Policy Institute, 2006, http://earth-policy.org/Books/PB2/PB2ch6_ss4.htm 249 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘tin statistics’, 30 October 2008, http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/tin.pdf 250 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, January 2009, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/mcs-2009-tin.pdf 251 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summaries, tin’, February 1997. In 1998, this reserve base wasn’t included in the data anymore, while it could not have been produced or appeared in the category ‘other countries’. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/tin/660397.pdf 252 ITRI, brochure ‘Working with the Tin industry for a prosperous and sustainable future’, 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/SITE/UPLOAD/Document/ITRI_Brochure_12pp.pdf 253 ITRI website, ‘Long-term Availability of Tin’, http://www.itri.co.uk/POOLED/ARTICLES/BF_PARTART/VIEW.ASP?Q=BF_PARTART_296468 254 U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, copper, January 2009. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/mcs-2009-coppe.pdf 255 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summary, appendixes’, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2008/mcsapp2008.pdf 256 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Mineral Commodity Summary, appendixes’, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/2008/mcsapp2008.pdf 257 U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2008-1253, ‘Quantitative mineral resource assessment of copper, molybdenum, gold, and silver in undiscovered porphyry copper deposits in the Andes Mountains of South America’, 2008. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2008/1253/ 258 The World Bank, ‘Global Economic Prospects, Commodities at the Crossroads’, 2009. 259 Dr. A.M. Diederen, Msc., TNO Defence, Security and Safety, ‘Metal minerals scarcity: A call for managed austerity and the elements of hope’, 10 March 2009. 260 Dr. A.M. Diederen, Msc., TNO Defence, Security and Safety, ‘Metal minerals scarcity: A call for managed austerity and the elements of hope’, 10 March 2009. 261 R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, PNAS v.103, n.5, 31 january 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html 262 European Copper Institute, Press pack, January 2009. http://www.eurocopper.org/files/corporatepressinfokit_uk080109(1).pdf 263 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘copper statistics’, November 2008,

70 http://minerals.usgs.gov/ds/2005/140/copper.pdf and Website International Copper Study Group, ‘The world copper factbook 2007’, page 64. http://www.icsg.org/images/stories/pdfs/2007worldcopperfactbook.pdf 264 It was estimated that in 1999 Western Europe (EU-15 included Switzerland and Norway) had a copper reservoir in use of around 78 million tonnes of copper and alloys. In 1999, the copper reservoir increased by around 2 million tonnes of copper and alloys. (source: Martin Ruhrberg, ICSG, ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. The copper stock in use in North America (USA, Canada and Mexico) for the year 1999 was cal- culated on 70 million tonnes of copper, being in use providing services. Around 56 million tonnes were estimated to have been placed in landfills. (source: R. B. Gordon, M. Bertram, and T. E. Graedel, ‘Metal Stocks and Sustainability’, PNAS v.103, n.5, 31 january 2006, http://www.pnas.org/content/103/5/1209.full.pdf+html 265 Resource Policy, article ‘Copper recycling and scrap availability’, Fernando Gómez, Juan Ignacio Guzmán, John E. Tilton, August 2007. 266 Bureau of International Recycling, http://www.bir.org/aboutrecycling/index.asp 267 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland. 268 The recycling rate of C&D scored low due to disposal before entering recycling treatment. The recycling rate of ELV scored probably low due the reuse instead of recycling of some copper com- ponents. WEEE scored low due to disposal before entering recycling treatment. MSW suffered mainly disposal but also poor recycling performance. 269 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland. 270 Lars Landner and Rudolf Reuther, book ‘Metals in Society and in the Environment: A Critical Review of Current Knowledge on Fluxes, Speciation, Bioavailability and Risk for Adverse Effects of Copper, Chromium, Nickel and Zinc, 2004, chapter 3. Metal Cycles in Defined Geographical Areas, table 3.1. Principal uses of copper in the world, in 1990 (Joseph, 1999, Graedel et al., 2002). 271 Martin Ruhrberg, International Copper Study Group (ICSG), ‘Assessing the recycling efficiency of copper from end-of-life products in Western Europe’, Resources, Conservation and Recycling 48 (2006) 141–165. Western Europe included the EU 15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland. 272 Luben Savov, Elena Volkova, Dieter Janke from Institute of Iron and Steel technology in Freiberg (Germany), article ‘Copper and tin in steel scrap recycling’, in RMZ – Materials and Geoenviron- ment, 2003. 273 Website information on a Clean Scrap Machine, http://www.resteel.nl/en/index.htm 274 The European Union Network for the Implementation and Enforcement of Environmental Law (IMPEL Network), ‘Enforcement of EU Waste Shipment Regulation, learning by doing’, final report, June 2008. And: Greenpeace International, report ‘Toxic Tech: Not in Our Backyard, uncovering the Hidden Flows of e-Waste’, February 2008. 275 United Nations University (UNU), report ‘2008 Review of Directive 2002/96 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment’, August 2007. 276 ITRI website, ‘ITRI reports new data on global tin use and recycling’, December 2008, http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308811 277 The Intelligent Manufacturing Systems (IMS) program is an industry-led, global, collaborative research and development program. Its members are drawn from eminent representatives from both industry and academia in each region. Government observers and the knowledgeable person- alities in manufacturing, also participate. The IMS organisation is currently comprised of five regions including the European Union, Japan, Korea, Switzerland, and the United States of America. http://www.ims.org/sites/default/files/254.4.4.18%202006%20March%20IMS%20Newsletter.pdf 278 ITRI website, ‘ITRI reports new data on global tin use and recycling’, December 2008,

71 http://www.itri.co.uk/pooled/articles/BF_NEWSART/view.asp?Q=BF_NEWSART_308811 279 1) U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Tin recycling in the United States in 1998’, James F. Carlin jr., 2001, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-433/of01-433.pdf 2) Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). ATSDR is a federal public health agen- cy of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. It states: ‘The major commercial applica- tions of tin chemicals are as PVC heat stabilizers, biocides, catalysts, agrochemicals and glass coat- ings,’ http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp55-c5.pdf 280 U.S. Environmental protection Agency, website, ‘Statistics on the Management of Used and End- of-Life Electronics’, http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/conserve/materials/ecycling/manage.htm 281 Greenpeace, report ‘toxic Tech: Switching On to Green Electronics’, February 2008, http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/international/press/reports/Switching-on-Green-Electron- ics.pdf 282 BCME (Beverage Can Makers Europe), ‘European can market report 2006/2007’. BCME repre- sents the three major beverage can producers in Europe: Ball Packaging Europe; Crown; Rexam Beverage Can Europe + Asia, http://www.bcme.org/upl_dnl/1101/Pages%2048-62.pdf 283 APEAL, the association of European producers of steel for packaging, represents 92 % of the total steel production for packaging in Europe. Its members are ArcelorMittal Packaging, Corus Packaging Plus, Rasselstein and US Steel Kosice. http://www.apeal.org/file.asp?filetype=doc/04/003/002/2007_apeal_recycling_press_release_-_ uk.pdf 284 U.S. Geological Survey, ‘Tin recycling in the United States in 1998’, James F. Carlin jr., 2001, http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/of01-433/of01-433.pdf

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