DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 043 627 TF 002 056
AUTHOR Nelson, Harold F.; And Others TITLE Instructional Uses of Videotape;A Symposium. INSTITUTION Speech Communication Association, New York, N.Y. PUP DA' Mar 68 NOTE 22p.; Reprinted from "Speech Teacher," Vol. No. 2, March 1968 AVATLAKE FROM Speech Communication Association, Statler Hilton Hotel, new York, N.Y. 10001 ($0.3!,,10 or more $0.30, prepaid)
EDRS PRICE enRs Price ME-$0.25 PC-$1.20 DESCRIPTORS 'Audiovisual Aids, *Audiovisual Communication, Closed Circuit Television, *College Instruction, Discussion Experienc, Equipment Evaluation, Fvaluatic,n Techniques, Group Discussion, Instructional Aids, *Instructional Technology, Public Speaking, Sensitivity Training, *Speech Education, Speech Instruction, Teacher Education, *Video Tape Recordings
ABSTRACT This collection of seven articles for the college teacher of speech relates soecific ways that videotape has been used in training teachers and in teaching the fundamentals of speech, advanced public spoakina, and discussion. /nclue,ed are articles by (1) Harold E. Nelson, who explains how videotape is used in college speech classes to aid in acauiring speech skills, (2) Samuel oecker, John Bowers, and Pruce Gronbeck, who present the advantages and Aisadvantages of using videotape to teach group discussion, (1) James v. Gibson, who identifies and evaluates some ways to use videotape in *hc. elucation of speech teachers,(4) nonovan J. Ochs, who describes an instructional unit on television used in an advanced public speaking course at n large university, (9 R.V.F. Peynolis, who discusses the technilues for utilizing videotape employed by a small college,(0 Adeline G. Firschfield, who explains a study using videotaped speeches for self-ratings, class-ratings, and ratings by a team of -fudges, and(") John H. Pennybacker, who discusses available equipment and sets guidelines for the evaluation of different types and sites of videotape recorders. (I'll) U S. DEPA RTfA 1111T OF litAtT11.10VC AT ION II WELFARE OFF OCR OF IDUCATION THIS DOCUMTINT HAS tEN REPRODUCCD sorts, AS 'TIMID /ROTA mot pi AsoN OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING 0 POINTS OP 5IIV1 OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NEM. SAPIKY UPRISEN, OFFKiAE OFFK1 OF EDU- CATION POSITION OR POLICY PIRVIISSPOH tO PEPRODuct Tmrs COPT RJGHli ttRiAL HAS SUN GRANTID INSTRUCTIONAL USES OF VIDEOTAPE: A SYMPOSIUM TO IRK AND ORGANIATIONS OPIRAING UNDER *DIM MENDE W.TH THI US c.rrict Of ItOT,:ATTONFuRtHIP REPRODUCTION Harold E, Nelson OGISID1 THE IRK SVSTIAT IttItuiRtS POI AIIISSRON 01 tHt COPYRIGHT °WWII 1. VIDEOTAPING THE SPEECHCOURSE
EDITOR'S Non. The teacher of speech now ening. At Purdue University videotape has man)teaching aids athis disposal.In. mottling was used during the Spring fill nosators and salesmen ate most eager to Semester of 1964 in the beginning speech (N) classrooms'withthesetools. In face of these pressures the Important concern to those on course. It was found that "...video- .;ie filing lint Is how to Integrate the new ap taping of speeches svould be most val re\maths and Instrumcnis Into effective teach. uabletostudentsortheirsecond 4' Ing programs and how to use budgets wisely.speeches when they are over the initial This simposIum attempts to preside answers confusion of their first speech and are to some of these questions.It considers how just starting to think about the initial CI sacral successfulteachers have made use of %NU sidcotape. In the main the articles are inten criticism of their delivery."' The Air tionally practical andrelatespecifically how Force Acaci.,.. v has also used video -tap- sideotape has been used in tedching fundame4. ing in teaching speech, and the cadets tale of worth. adsanced p_sblic speakingdis- in response to a questionnaire indicated cussion. and teacher training. Two of the an thatthey found critiques were more ticks hale used an experimental approach. The meaningful when accompanied by the final one discusses mailable equipment. play-back of the sideo-tapts; 707 of the responses indicated fae playback NY innovation in the educational aided "very much" and :8% found they process is usually met with skep- aided a "moderate amount."' In a study ticism on the part of teachers that ale conducted at the Speeds Communication concerned with what these new devices Center at the University of Wisconsin or procedures might detract or do to at Milwaukee by Frandsen, Larson, and alter teaching effectivenesA. In the field Knapp, it was concludes' "The results of speech the use of atiiio taping is now of this study pros ide ad'.itional support, commonly accepted as a means that can both objective and s...sjective in nature, aid in the acquiring of speaking for the use cif videotape hi tindery-ad- Video-taping. however, is still subject to time speechinstruction, and strongly some scepticism by sixedi teachers as a suggest that the instructor effectiveness teaching aid. The question concerning as a communicator mays enhanced by the teaching effectiveness of this new using this suppotting device it he re- mode is a critical one, and is admittedly serves his comments until after the stu one that is difficult to evaluate. Not even dent sieves the replay of his own speak those who sell the videotape equipment ingbehavior.""At SouthernIllinois will claim it is a teacher but merely a john liendaton, 'Using Mirror TV to tool. Teach Speaking.' NA ?R lowurt, X111 Many speech departments have been Dm 100, using video-taping in their classes, and I Chester 4. Caton and George K. lecher, 'Teaching Speech with Telesision." N.4t3 Jour- in mein cases the results bast been heart.ma, VA' (Nos.-Dot. ig6s), *Paper preparedforpresentationatthe llaroid E. Nelson (Ph D., 'University of Iowa. fewifcrenct of the Directors of the Katie Cows, e9f;jisProfessor of Speech at Pcnnstittania of the Mid-Worm Uninrsitics;Lawrence, 1\11 State University. Kansas, tanner IS, 1967. Reprinted from: The Speech Teacher, Vol. 17, No2, March, 1968 Copyright 1968, Speech Association of America University a set of video-taped inform-discussions were played back to the en- ative speech models has been deveioped tire class to be critiqued and graded. By to aid in training teachers and students using a studio setup other than the class- to rate speakets.4 At Penn State speechroom we avoided having the class see instructors may use video- taping facili-and hear the initial taping as well as the ties on a voluntary basis. Both fixedplayback. However, some of the stu- studio and pot table cameras and record- dents claimed the studio taping was un- ing. equipment are available as well asrealistic in that it did not provide them trained personnel to man the equipment.with an audience. Other students liked In using any teaching aid it is neces-the studio set-up because they feltit sat y thatitmeetducequestions: helped pupate them for television ap- I)Is it of aid in better teaching andpearances in their later professional or motivating the student in acquiring thecommunity life, Most of the students skill being taught? a) Is it reasonably agreed that their speech faults became economical of instructor's time? 3) Is the more obvious when played back to them cost of the equipment within the range byvideo-tape.Many indicatedthey of the institution? did not believe the criticisms until they F.valuating how effective the use ofobserved them themselves. videotape is in teaching speech skills and Other student reactions included the how economical it is of instructor's time following: is the crux of the question. The author "... when criticizedI'll agree, but used videotaping as an aid in teachingwhen 1 see and hear my faults I'm more the basic speech course. The class wasapt to do something about it." asked on a voluntary basis if they would "I'd like to view the video tape scith like to use video-taping, and it was de-the instructor. The class siewings and cided to use it in a discussion assignment criticisms are too hasty." at the mid-point of the (noise. The stu- "I'm inclined to heed my own seem dents felt that a soup experience l ingly more realistic analysis of my speech ft.re the camera would subject them to after viewing the video tape as opposed kss "camera fright" than a solo perform- to the listener's unreasonable one." ance. However, none of them in relating their obsersl.t,ont later indicated that ". .I liked it in that it gave me a they experienced any undue anxiety bybasis for comparison." tit's taping situation. In order to econ- ". .. I'm not sure how valuable it is omize on class and instructor time thefor such elements as cottent or organi- four discussions (5-6 students on eachzation, supporting materials. etc., but it panel) were taped in a television studiois of help in checking on delivery." Outing class time. 11'hi'te the taping of "It is my opinion that the added ten- one panel was being accomplished, thesion cauxd by thisprocess and the other panels were organizing and pre-trouble it entails in organizing is not paring for their taping with the helpevenly balanced by the small benefits it of the instructor. After the videotapingdelivers." had been accomplished, the four panel "... frequent taping would eliminate curiosity and novelty and make experi- Robert I.Kibkt, Lang L Ratter, and Roy if. Enoch, The lkitloptivni and reclini.ence more objective ani beneficial." ;nary Awcinitnt of a Sct of Video taptd in. .'.. helpsme to see your point and infinitive Speech Models." Central States St ash Journal, XVIII (Soittntxt 10;) 2;5. I hope it''so helps you to see mine." In tic vse of video-taping, these ten-less concerned with themselves. Many tative conclusions also seemed justified.students spent more time in preparation The easiest faults to point out in bothfor their video taped speeches than for face-to-face speaking situations as welltheir usual classroom speeches. Whether as taped are those involved in delivery,.-epeated use of video taping would sus- but speech content can be analred andtain this practice would have to be ob- even replayed on tape for detailed ob-served. servation. In an earlier use of closed Presently a study is underway at Penn circuittelevisionatPenn StatetheSine in which two sections of the basic speeches given in one section were ob-speech course will use video-taping as a served in other sertions as models ofsupplementary device in speech cridditn. both delivery and content. The SouthernIn one situation the student speaker will Illinois study referred to earlier involvedvfci:t the tape with his instructor and in viewingtheentireprocessnot justanother will view it with one of his class. delivery. Undoubtedly the novelty effectmates. A questionnaire will be used to helps in motivating the students to ac.obtain some evidence as to which type claim the use of video tape. There iscritique sessions is of greatest benefit to perhaps enough 'ham" in everyone thatthe student. he like to see himself on film or on Video-taping equipment is undoubt- video tape. The use of video tape foredly a teaching aid that lends itself cf. several speaking assignments would helpfestively to the speech classroom. With to make its use more objective and lessplanned use it need no add materially dramatic. Some students who seemedto the teacher's contact hours with the rather reticent and shy in class appearedstudent. Most students seem enthusiastic to lose this apparent "stage-fright" inabout the use of sideo-taping. Their con- front of the camera. Perhaps sharing at.tinuedenthusiasmwiltundoubtedly tention with the camera, the same asdepend upon the intelligent use of this with visual aids, tended to make themteaching aid. SYMPOSIUM: Samuel L. Becker, John Waite Bowers, and Bruce E. Gronbeck H. VIDEOTAPE IN TEACHING DISCUSSION
NE of the major problems in theof a beginning discussion course during teaching of discussion is the multi-thefall and spring terms of 1966.67, faceted one of developing sensitivity ineach meeting for a 75mlnute class pe students. We say mulfaceted becauseriod twice a week. All class discussions the student must become sensitive to awere videotaped and played back for variety of phenomena. Ile must firstthe class. The videotape was viewed by become sensitiveto the discussionit.participants Immediately following half selfwhat is happening, the directionhour discussions; videotapes of longer in which the discussion is going, whatdiscussions were viewed at the next meet is needed to get it moving and keep iting of the class. Thus, most students moving in a productive direction. Ile discussed and saw themselves almost once must become sensitive to others with a week. Two image orthicon cameras whom he discusseswhat they are trying to say, their knowledge of and attitudeswere used to pick up each discussion In toward the matters king discussed, anda studio at the University of Iowa Tele theirreactionstowardotherpartic-vision Center. The videotape was re- ipants, especially toward him. Probablycorded on a quadrature machine. The most difficult, he must become sensitiveuse of this broadcast quality equipment to himselfwhat he knows and doesmeant that an electronics engineer was not know, the effects of his knowledgeneeded to supervise technical aspects of and attitudes on his perceptions andeach recording. We believe that the ad- behavior, and his behaviors while interditionalcostsfor personnel and top acting with others. We believe that usingequipment was more than compensated videotape with discussion classes in thefor by the increased picture and sound ways that we have used it at the Uniquality obtained. Using a television stu- versity of Iowa increases the speed atdio, rather than the usual classroom, also vatich and the degree to which we canmade possible better control of sound help students acquire thesekinds ofand, hence, better quality sound on the sensitivity.t Videotape.* Videotape was used with two sections One of the ttitirisrns tetthers some- Samuel t..Itecitt "h., University of lows,times make when television is used in tgt) h rrofmot of Speech at the Universitytheir courses is that they lose mud.' of of Iowa. John %Vete bowers (Ph.D.. Unitas!, of Iowa. We) It Associate Prokisot ofSpeech the control of instrction to the tele- at the University of Iowa. Brine E Otonbed vision director who, in most cases, iarat/y Unintsity of lows, tgliS) is in Instrac- tot of Spetet at the Unirtrsity of Mkhipn. controls the visual stimuli to which the hi denting the tiles of videotape describedstudents are exposed. We ovatame this below. we wets inilvented by out experiences In the toa. when we metimented at the Vni lenity of Iola with the we of tqerition lot *An additional advantage of there condi fuelling political science and literature courses lions was that videotapes could be trantletred by the discussion nwtiod, and by the marteatity through the kinescope proms to *6 nil- recent elperitnas at Wayne State University lit-octettoured notion pictures and used tot and Antioch College. other teaching potpows. problem by having each instructors sit Logic Recitation in the television control room with the Metadiscussion Signal Reaction Miss the Point director and, in effect, direct thedi- Stereotype Morale Support rector. (WW could have had the instruc- Polarised Unproductive Aggression tor direct the recording session, but he Orientation nproductive Clique would then have been so involved in Railroading Jnclea r the technical aspects of the production Slides with positive comments which were that he could not have concentrated on shown with a smile weir: what the student di.:-ussants were doing.) Back on Track peda- Sictadiscussion The instructorcontrolledfive Clear Morale gogical devices during each seuion. Consensus Productive Aggression r.lie e..uld request individual shots of par- Dialogue Productive Clique ticipants engaged in noteworthy productive Have Consensus Support or reactive behavior. For example, he might Imaginative Tension Relict ask the director to show one participant Logic who was doodling while another was talk. ing, a closeup of another participant at- 3. Without stopping the discussion and un- tentivelyleaningforwardobviouslyen. known to theparticipants, aninstructor couragingthespeaker,twoparticipants could have the audio portion faded down whisperir.gwhileanother hadthefloor, and then make critical comments which were and a close-tip of a speaker's hand netyousty recorded on the videotape. For example, he jiggling a pencil as he talked.4 might say: ''You've been talking for fifteen a. The instructor could request superimposi minutes with no direction, as far as I can Lion, at the bottom of the videotaped plc- tell. You talk abor' surveys, and then you lure, of slides designed to be positively,rr talk about rive seep philoophical ques- negatively reinforcingtotheparticipants. tions, and then you're on surveys again, and lie had thirty.eight slides from which he then you're on timetables with no attempts could select by calling the !Appropriate num- atestablishing generalizations or reaching ber. On each slide seas a word o: tsar and consensus or systematically moving the dis- a line drawing et 1.face, smiling when be- cussionforward in other ways. Somebody haviorsweretobepositivelyreinforced, should be saying,'Look, what do these frowning when behaviors were to be neg. things mean?'" Or the instructor might fade atiselyreinfornd.Fortaatnple, whet a down the sound of the discuseon and say: speaker used a non scluitat, a frown and "Finally, Jim has tried alittle nnetadiscus- the word I sIGIC titre superimposed under 'ion. lies putting things in the perspective his fate. Or, when a speaker used specific of the discussion. It's about time somebody instances in an especially effective way, a did." smile and the word SUPPORT were shown s. From the control room, an instructor could under his Image. iv hen a student had no use a loudspeaker system to interrupt the support where it was obviously needed, the udents and talk directly to them. tor ex word SUPPORT and a frown were super- ample, at one time one instructor said to imposed.Slideswithnegativecomments an especially shy student: lank, this die- which were shown with a frown wire: cimion has been going on fur fotty-Art min- Animism Diskigue utes, and you haven't said a word. I an tell Anumed Consensus Digression that you want to sometimes. Were going to Authoritatian Dismissal Reaction keep the camera on you until you say soot- Pegging Question Evasive Reaction thinganything." Clowning Have Consensus 3.Later, while the students were viewing the Dead Abstracting Laissetaitt taped discussion, with its critical visual and The ir.stnxtor ass Proferat Powers &It- oral comments, the instructor could stop Ing the fall semester, Mr. Groesbeck dutirg the the tape at any time to make additional Wring- comments, to amplify those on the tape, I Cf. The Studrnt at Sjeakrt and Listener (Yellow Springs, Onto: Antioch Carte and or to answer questions which students asked the Jack Wolfram foundation, 1066). about th. diectmion. Evaluating the relative effectivenessthis sort cf instruction to that found in of various methods of teaching discus-the usual course in discussion. This con- don is difficult. We have no standardelusion is based upon our observations measures and possibly no universallyof the in- and out-of-class behaviors and accepted behavioral goals. However, wecomments of students in both types of attempted to measure some aspects ofsections and upon the responses of mu- student sensitivity to discussion processes.dents in both types of sections to an in- These data are now being analyzed andformal questionnaire at the end of the will be reported it a later date. In nofirst term.6 sense, however, was this a wellcontrolled 3. Obviously, this method of instruc- experiment. We were interested only intion results in each discussion taking exploring some of the problems andmuch more time since, in effect, each possibilitiesfor using videotape withis gone through twicethe original plus discussionclasses and evaluating thethe playback. Though some time may outcomes of these explorations. On thebe...wedby more efficientcriticism basis of our observations, we can offer(especiallythose criticisms which are the following tentative conclusions: superimposed on the tape), .he instruc- i.Initially, the techniques we havetor is forced to have fewer discussions described will seem frightfully complexduring the term or to cut down on and cumbersome to any instructor whoother aspects of the course. tries them. lie will he cast Into a new ..This method is expensive. In addi- role in which he is supervising a tele-tionto the instructor and engineer, vision production team as well as teach-equipment and tape depreciation, it re- ing a class. lie must learn enough aboutquires a director, an audio operator, a the television medium to know what kvideo vontrol operator, and two camera- technically reasonable and what is not.men. Though mcst, if not all, of the Ile must loin to see what is coming increw members may be students work- the discussion, as well as what is goingfrig for experience only, the time and on at the moment and what has passed,cost of organizing and supervising their so th it he can forewarn the director.work is substantial. We can see no way His responses must be quick. When heto bring down the cost of this method sees something occurring in the discus-of instruction even to approximate the sion, he must cal! for the slide to super.cost of the more usual methods of teach- impose or call for the sound to be low-ing discussion. ered and his mike opened before the In spite of the disadvantages noted, discussionhas moved on. Otherwise,we are convinced that the use of video. his visual or oral comments will be sep-tap:, in the teaching of discussion shows arated on the videotape from the aspectsufficient promise that we must con- of tire discussion being commented upon,tinue exploring its possibilities. leading to confusion rather than clarifi- cation or reinforcement for th: students. SIM; result should be skwed with caution GenerP.Iir!ng from our somewhat lim-because of a number of confounding futon In this svenpatison, Including different in.ttructots ited sample of two instructors, we haveand different types of discussion assignments. concluded that most will adapt quicklyto addition, the sa.noks of students *MI* small. to this new teaching technique. Also, out Rndinv. is tonitaty to the ttsulu gen- erally obtained when college students are ex- s. Stunts seem to respond well toposed to most types of teksited instruction. It this mode of learning. We have con-has usually been found that college students prefer mote "tonventkesal" means el frostrvc- cluded that the bulk of them bill prefer lion. SYMPOSIUM: Jame: W. Gibson III. USING VIDEOTAPE IN THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS TWENTIETH century technologying is a scaled down teaching exercise has made itfeasible for teacherin which a small unit of material, Pe~ traininginstitutions to purchase andhaps five to semi minutes in length, is use television and videotape recorlerspresented, recorded, and subsequently as a primary instructional aid in prepar-critiqued. ing elementary and secondary school The teacher of a methods course in teachers. Persons familiar with video-speech may have students prepare a five tape recording commonly list as its ad-to seven minute teaching unit on meth- vantages:(s)comparatively low cost,ods of support for main ideas. Their pres- (a) immediate opportunity for replayentations are recorded on video tape of tapes, and (3) almost indefinite tapeand rerun immediately fortheir ob. re-use capability. Experimentation withservation. Replaying of therecorded videotape in teacher education has beenmicro-teaching experience is most effi- limited, but Popham reports that oncient when during the follow up the tests evaluating the effectiveness of sev-supervisor points out one or two specific eral media approaches the highest scoresbehaviors warranting comment.* The were made by subjects exposed to video-probability of improved studentper- taped instructional stimuli' formance is increased when students re- Despite the demonstrated utilizationsteach the same unit a short time I :ter, of videotape recording in teacher train-integrating the suggestions offered by ing programs* its potential tuts in speechthe instructor. teacher education have not been dis- Convincing evidence of the effect of cussed. This paper attempts to identifymicro-teaching appears in the Ste "ford and evaluate selected methods for the useUniversity research which reports that of the medium in teacher education. micro-teachingperformancepredicted )-teaching. The teacher trainingsubsequent classroom performance..It program can effectively integrate video-is possible to integrate the micro-teach- tape recordings whenitoperatesining approach suggested for any of the micro-teaching situations.Micro-teach-units typically developed in the speech methods course, units ranging from yoke Jaws vv. Gibson (Ph D., Ohio State Vnitenity, 196s) it Amaciate Prof. mor of Speech and Draand articulation to parliamentary pro- math Art. University of Missouri. cedure. t James Popham, Instructional Video Tapes in Teacher Education," A) Commtotiet. Model teaching fates.Itis widely 1:01 Rohr, XIV (Tall 1966), glt3 ;6. agreed that performance models are r See Herbert &butler,MiltonGold andamong our most effective teaching in- Darold The the of Ttinision for Irn frextint Teacher Training and for tonprotingstruments. As teachers of speech, we in- Ititalbrt,of Rodent. Teach ing Perfornornet-- Phtte1,follbrorernessiof Salami Teaching, (XXIV t and Stroud, oft. tit U. S.Office of Education, Grant No. tgooig IRO:1,m N. Rush and Dwight W. kik*, (New 'fork: Bunter College, )964 and James M. -Micro-Teaching.ControlledPracticeinthe Cooper and Thomas Stroud,The Stanford Training of Teachers" (paper read at the Santa Micro-Teaching Clink, 1966"(Stanford, Cal. Barbara Conference on Teacher Education of ifornic Starford I:oh-mite School of Edoca-The Poled Poottdation, Santa (tartan, California, doe, 1966), It(Mimeographed). April to, too, struct our stuurnts to read speeches ac-the taped speeches rated "good," one claimed as classics. The preparation ofrated "average," and one rated "poor" teachers can follow the same generalto project for the class. During the show- route. When a student mirtoueaches aing of each of the tapes the instructor unit ih an unusually effective and cre-should stop the tape when a behavior ative tnanner, his performance should be criticalto effective communicationIs extracted from the video tape and pre-exhibited by the speaker. When the dart- served for replay to methods classes in culties occur, the instructor should de- succeeding resins.Followingthispro- scribe the nature of the problem and cedure for several quarters or semestersrelate It to total speaking performance. mules in the development of a libraryBoth positive and negative behaviors of model per fot nnnces, and the instruc- should be identified. After students have tor tray use die tapes to illustratet-rt observed the dace tapes of speaking per- effectivemeti.)41 of teaching oralin- formance and have been exposedto terpretation, or any of the other units Expertevaluativecomments onthe included in the methods course. speeches, they should be required to en- Eater training.Studies of the rating gage in the rating of speeches themselves. ofspeecheshavedemonstratedthat Another set of taped speeches could the individual tends to be unre- be presented to the class and the stu- liable, whether compared with otherdents might then be directed to rate raters or with himself over a period ofeach of he three communications, using time. Progiams for rater training harean exper!mcntally validated speech rat- beenlimited to only two investigatiens.6 ing instrument, such as the Price' or Both studies Itave implications for theGilkinson and Knower' scale. After stu- use of sicker taped model comtnunica-dent rating, the tapes should bere- tions in training teachers to judge stu-playedwith accompanying instructor dentspeakin3pet formance.Stridentevaluation of the ireasking behavior. Stu- speeches in an introductory speech course dentratingsofspecificcategories of may be tccorded and these recordingsspeech behavior should be examined, then edited and scored by a group ofaid students whose ratings vary signifi- speech teachers or by the insttuctor him-cantly from the evaluations rendered self. The model tapes for rater trainingwhen the model tapes were selected would posses., greater saliditvf several should receive appropriete attention and speech experts participated in the eval-insliuction from theteacher ofthe uation process. The instructor should methods course. retain three groups of speeches. repre- 7 raining incriticism.The previously senting models of "good," "inerager" described tapes of speaking performance and "poor'. speaking, and subsequentlyalso might be used for t*.rining in speech use them a s training devic-es. A criticism Thorough discussions of the minimum of three tapes in each principles of reinforcement and learn- got/ will suffice for training purposes.ing psychology should precede any stu- The instructor should select one ofdent participationincriticism. After
$See John iVaite Bourn, "Training Speech asvilliarn K. Rice, "Detixation of a Rating Raters WithFilms," Speechrestful, MI leak for Public Speaking." Unix-emits 01 Wis- (Struembet 1954), its -egt, and Robett J. kb-consin. Communication andPublic Adding kr andLanBarker."TrainingRaters Through Experimental Laboratory, JR-oo4, Apriltirer. Video Taped Instruction" (paper read at the f A. Craig Baird and Franklin It. Knower. Speech Amociation of America Contention, Los General Speech (New York: MxGrase.ffill, ts63). Angeles, California, December 17. t96,7). P. 14- rating the "model" speeches, each stu-provement in speech. Tea.hers of speech, dent should be directed to present artas well as instructors in other disciplines, oral critique of the speech. Student en-are probably unaware of their own class- thusiasm for critiques of taped speechesroom verbal behavior. The extent of may be limited because of the studentthis problem in intern teachers may be perception thatthe perfonnances arereduced using an adaptation of the Am- merely laboratory specimens. This dim-idon-Ifunter technique. During the mi- culty may be reduced if the instructorcro-teaching situations, the role played assumes the role of student speaker dur-classroom interaction(studentteacher ing the evaluation period. Because stu-question and answer activity) could be dent reactions to speech classroom crit-analyzed using the Flanders Verbal In- icism are reasonablypredictable, theteraction Category System, or another role !slaying instructor should raise themethod for interaction analysis. After types of questions, comments, and ob-the micro-teaching unit has been taped, jections typically introduced by studenttherepla shouldinvolveinstructor speakers when perfortionces are eval-identification of the nature of pupil and 'rated. Thus, a more realistic trainingteachertalk.This Identificationalso situationfortheprospectiveteachershould involve suggestions, by the in- could be developed. structor, of the type a questions which IfterbalinteractionTraining.Thewould stimulate interaction, the type query of Amidon and Hunter, "Why isturd timing of teacher approval or dis- it that teachers tend to do most of theapproval of student behavior, and iden- talking (about 7o per cent in the av-tificationof situations where teacher erageclassroom,accordingtoplan-initiated ideas are appropriate. derr),"# is relevant to instructional ins- It should be remembered that the ob- jectise:.in replay of micro units must Brena,nd Amidon and IlirabeihHunter, friProt4nic Tfdelling l5c A no lysis of CIA reetorn be clearly delineated in the mind of the 1'14141 lnictnefion (Noe York: }foil, Rilehitt instrucor, because replay for interaction and \Virtuosi, i966), p. e,
Nleast twice and sometimes weekly use the video sessions to teach the stu- duringthepastfour semesters,dent standards for analyzing and crit- every student enrolled in a speech per-icizing oral presentations. But perhaps formance course delivered his speechone of our most importaw. aims is to before the video camera and then viewedprovide the student with an image of his presentation. Some 1800 students athimself as a speaker which is closely Loras College have taped and replayedrelated to that which his audience sees nearly 25,000 speeches on our videotapeand hears, a real image which he can recorder.' Tha: is what we set out toevaluate more objectively and can com- do when we purchased our VTR equip-pare with other speakers more meaning- ment; that is what we have tried to dofully. since; and th's is how we have gone Although videotaping sessions offer about the task. educational advantages not readily pro- We have noted that a speaker whovided by other teaching aids, we did not views himself on television can experi-want the taping experiences to be so ence a sense of achievement in seeingmuch "special events" as we wanted how well he has performed, a sense ofthem to be natural, integral speaking embarrassment inseeing how poorlyassignments. he has spoken, and sometimes a sense To create an unstudio-like speech lab of utter amazement at simply seeingwhich would retain its classroom char- and hearing himself. These may be de-acter, we equipped a classroom with sirable though admittedly limited goals.acoustical ceiling tiles, sound deflecting And these are often our major goals forwalls, and excellent overhead lighting. a student's first video recording. MoreWe added enough armless chairs to ac- often, however, we attempt to design ourcommodate our largest speech class. In video assignments around goals of ap-the front center we placed a regular propriate platformbehavior,effectiveclassroom lectern and a microphone on use of visual aids, or direct and dynamica stand.2 In a front corner, facing the audience contact. For the purposes ofrows of chairs, we mounted our 23" comparison, we may make an expositorytelevision monitor. Among the chairs, assignment late in the semester similarwe positioned our television camera. On to one given and recorded earlier ina long table across the rear of the room, the course, so that signs of growth andwe arranged our video tape recorder, promise, areas of persistent trouble, andg" television monitor, domestic and for- an occasional new problem are moreeign recording tapes, and master elec- easily recognized. And we attempt totrical switches. Thus, the class members
2 The speech lab equipment consists ofp. R. V. E. Reynolds is Instructor of Speech, LorasShure "Dnidyne III" mla-ophont, a 23" Setchell- College, Dubuque, Iowa. Carlson stoo-SD monitor, a g" Panasonic tran- Loras College has a stutient body of s600. sistor monitor, a Concord MTC-is automatic The Speech Department has four faculty mem- television ca:aera, and a Concord VTR-boo solid ben. state video tape recorder. sit in a mass of chairs, the speaker facesone speech. Since one shot appraisals of his live audience, and the instructor sitsa speaker's performance can be too strin- unobtrusively in the rear of the roomgent or too charitable, we feel that an writing his critique and pushing a fewovernight break increases the probabil- recorder buttons. ity that our evaluations during replay The student's first videotaping experi-will be more balanced and thorough. ence occurs early in the semester, by theToo, we may mention and draw atten- second week of class, and is usually histion to what a speaker and other speak- second speaking assignment. We men-ers will do as we have already seen and tion that the speech will take place inheard those speeches and have written the speech lab, will be videotaped, andcriticisms of them. Since the student that afterwards the student will be ablespeaker is limited to a small area ad- to see and hear his own performance.jacent to the lectern and microphone, We briefly suggest some of the advan-and since the camera adjustment is set tages to be gained from the procedure.for the class period, we have few engi- If questioned about clothing for theneering or directing details to be con- televisionappearance, we replythatcerned with other than threading the whatever is worn that day will be suit-videotape and getting the equipment able. Our aim is to prepare the studentfunctioning properly. Hence, we con- for the assignment but not to add sig-tinue our practice of writing individual nificantly to his apprehension and stagecritiques of each speaker while he is fright problems. For subsequent videotalking live, making a special note of appearances, we are more explicit inthe tape counter setting when the stu- what is to be attempted and expected.dent begins his speech. We try to extend the lessons of previous For the speaker the camera is just an- tapings and may give the student crit-other member of the live audience be- icizing duties while he is listening andfore him. He is not distracted by any observing. bright lights, or roving canwra, or hot Our regular classroom procedure formonitor. During live speeches, the large, speaking assignmentsisto hear one-classroom-size monitor is dark, so that the to five-minute speeches for one to threelistening student tends to his observing class periods. We may comment orallyand criticizing the presentation. After after every few or after all the speeches.some training in evaluating speeches, a We do write critiques on an .lysis sheetsstudent may be asked to write an anal- for each speaker, giving each student hisysis of his own speaking immediately copy of the written remarks, and filingafter he has been videotaped but prior a duplicate copy for later conference use.to viewing any playback; he will use his During his listening time the studentanalysis when he sees himself as a speaker initially notes the more obvious weak-during replay. nesses and strengths of speakers, and Playback sessions are handled vari- later he writes detailed analyses of hisously, but generally we will begin by speaking colleagues. reviewing the main objectives of that In the videotaping sessions, we con-particular assignment. The student then tinue these practices with only minorwatches himself and his classmates on alterations. We prefer to record all thethe large,classroom-size monitor. We students in a class for a given assign-usually reduce the audio volume during ment before replaying or criticizing anyreplay so that our running comments can be heard more easily. We may com-simple. We keep a log of every use of ment intermittently, or we may dubthe videotape recorder, noting when the the tape's audio track; we will base ourinstrument is used, for how long, by remarks on what we have previously ob-whom, and any trouble which may ap- served and written on the performance,pear. For statistical purposes, we also plus whatever else seems relevant andindicate how many students are involved. helpful. Some of our comments are di-Often we detect potential trouble before rected to the student whose image isit grows too big. When a problem does before us to emphasize what we havedevelop, our log provides information already written on his analysis sheet.in depth. Since the VTR. is especially Some of our comments are for the in-sensitive to dust and dirt, we keep all struction of the class as a whole. Weour equipment covered (a plastic drop may stop the tape for a fuller explana-cloth) whenever it is not in use. Every tion of what is or is not occurring. Wehour during use, we depress the auto- may go back and repeat some portionmatic head cleaner button, and after of the tape. We tr y skip ahead to viewevery eight hours of use, we clean all and comment on selected moments ofrotating heads with a commercial head each speech. Whether he is eye-mindedcleaner.Althoughthemanufacturer or ear.minded, the student who sees andclaims portability as a feature of our hears himself and simultaneously hearsVTR, we have yet to move any of the commentary on what he is doing or howequipment out of the speech lab. A well he is doing it, more easily identifiesmaster on-off electrical switch helps us his personal practice with the generalto keep every piece turned off when not theory of speech making. Too, he doesin service. more than merely half-believe our post- speaking comments. As more money becomes available, we hope to add to the equipment in our During replay the student is free tospeech lab: a zoom lens attachment, a comment or to ask questions regardingdolly for the camera, and reels and reels the behavior on the screen, and he oftenof recording tape. We want to collect does. At the end of the replay, the stu- sample speeches, records of thebest dent may enter into the general discus. sion about the assignment, about thespeeches, illustrations of ineffective pres- performances, about the criticisms, orentations. about the videotaping experience. These Eventually we want to give each stu- discussionsimmediatelyfollowingre-dent his individual reel for recording plays are usually lively, immensely pop-and viewing his performances. And we ular, andwe hopesomewhat helpfulmight even dream of a speech center to the student. Student opinion of thewith several well equipped speech labs. video experience is highly favorable, and When we purchased our first piece of the student is Rely to demand evenequipment, we determined three objec- more video time. He seldom misses atives:s) simplicity and ease of use, e) speechassignmentscheduledintheeffective use of the aid as an integral speech lab. portionofourspeechperformance A student may also request additionalcourses, and 3) diverse and extensive viewing of his own speaking. He mayuse of the aid for enhancing oral pres- use the video equipment for practice.entations. And thatis how we have Our care and maintenance system isgone about our task. SYMPOSIUM: Adeline Gittlen Hirschfeld
VI. VIDEOTAPE RECORDINGS FORSELF-ANALYSIS IN THE SPEECH CLASSROOM
UPON viewing himself on the tele-different instructors were videotapedas vision screen a typical studentrethey delivered one and one-half totwo acted: "You discover things aboutyour-minute extemporane'us speeches de- self you want to start changing, andmay-scribing vividly renter )ered personalex- be, also things that are better thanyouperience. By trial and error, time-saving thought."' Videotaping isa logical ex-and relatively tension-freeprocedures tension of the speech teacher's long ad-were developed, and twenty or more stu- vocacy of audiotape recordings for stu-dents were easily recorded ina fifty- dent self-analysis. The added visual di-minute period. mension permits the studentto see the The placing of the initial recording effect of his projected personality, there-varied: two groups were videotaped in by relieving the teacher of the oftendif-the second week of the semester and ficult responsibility of pointing itout tothree were delayed until the seventh him. Motivationto improve isthusweek. In playbacks students evaluated transferred to the student himself. not only their own presentations but These observations are the results ofother students' speeches as well. Each testing videotape recordersat Waynespeech was viewed and scored imme- State University in a 1964-1965 studydiately on a rating chart duringa re- made under an NDEA Title VIgrant.play of the audio portion (forrecap of Answers were sought to the followingpossible missed details). questions: (1) Is videotaping worth the In a tog study of audiotape self- investment of time, effort, and money?analysis, Clarence Nystrom and Roberta (a) How objective are students in eval-Leaf found that merely listening to re- uating themselves? (3) Is thereany ad-cordings effected no more improvement vantage in using classmate evaluations,than not using them at all, and sug- and how accurate are they?(4) Howgested that students require assistance in early can these diagnostic recordings beidentifying speechassets and faults.2 made? (5) Can the average beginningAccordingly, a speech rating chart was speech student bear the possibletraumadeveloped for the present study using not only of facing a TV camera, butdescriptive questions on sixteen accepted also of seeing and hearing himself inspeech criteria (see Table I) plus a gen- the presence of his fellow students? eral rating. Since videotaping is directed toward improvement of delivery,the Procedures. Five sections of randomlychart was heavily weighted in this item. selected speech students taught by three The rating chart also included two Adeline Hirschfield(Ph.D., Wayne State Uni-open-ended questions on personality, so versity, 1965) is Assistant Professor of Speechthat speakers could learn about any at Oakland University. Student quotationsare drawn froma 2 Clarence L. Nystrom and Roberta Leaf, Fall1967 experienceat OaklandUniversity"The Recording Machine as a Teaching De- using a Sony videotape recorder in the speechvice," Quarterly Journal of Speech, XXV (Oc- classrocm. tober 1939), 433438. TABLE I COMPARISON OF AVERAGE RATINGS BY ITEM: SELF, CLASS, JUDGES Student Rating Early Group Late Group Questionnaire Item Self ClassJudges Self ClassJudges
1.Eagerness to communicate 4.23 4.30 3.53 3.86 4.20 3.43 2.Physical expressiveness 3.20 3.6o 3.33 3.40 3.83 2.93 3.Physical control 3.26 3.90 3.23 3.03 3.83 3.23 4.Stage fright 3.33 2.5o 2.6g 2.66 2.23 1.83 5.Sincerity 4.23 4.43 3.70 4.16 4.16 3.56 6.Adaptation to audience 4.23 4.16 3.5o 3.90 4.03 3.20 7.Opening 4.00 4.10 3.6o 3.8o 4.10 3.53 8.Body 4.16 4.30 3.60 3.8o 4.0o 3.13 g.Conclusion 3.56 3.96 3.46 3 40 3.63 2.53 to.Fluency 3.73 3.93 3.43 3.30 4.03 3.36 it.Conversational style 3.73 4.10 3.66 4.00 4.23 3.63 12.Grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary 3.83 4.13 3.53 3.86 3.90 5.46 ts.Vocal responsiveness 3.83 4.03 3.66 3.80 3.76 3.30 14.Pleasant voice quality 3.40 4.20 3.30 3.53 4.10 3.43 15.Articulation 3.5o 4.10 3.00 3.16 3.96 3.23 16.Accent-degree 1.90 1.36 1.20 2.03 3.80 1.90 17.General rating 3.60 3.8o 3.50 3.40 3.66 2.96 Average(all items) 3.96 4.06 346 3.63 3.96 3.26 5 =A (decidedly yes), 4 =B (moderately yes), 3 = C (somewhat or in between), 2 =D (moderately no, or hardly), and 1 =E (decidedly no). uniquecharacteristicswhichothersconsistent pattern of rating: classmates viewed as assets and also find out whatrated highest, followed by the student kind of first impression they tended tohimself, and judges rated lowest. There make. For recording the latter informa-were two notable exceptions:(t) stu- tion, raters were asked to cast the speakerdents observed more stage fright in their into an appropriate TV role. speaking than classmates or judges, and Ratings were immediately tabulatedoften expressed surprise that so little of and made available to each student forwhat they felt inside was observed by comparison of his own self-rating onthe audience; and (2) of special signifi- each criterion with the average ratingcance to the voice and diction teacher of his classmates. To measure the ob-was the tendency for students to ob- jectivity of student raters, all videotapedserve more accent and regionalism in speeches were subsequently rated bytheir own speeches than did classmates teams of three judges, and their averagedor judges. In my experience, this is not ratings on each criterion served as theas true of audio recordings alone. yardstick for "accuracy." Expectations that early(first or sec- Results and Discussion. On the five-ond week) recording time is preferable point scale of the rating chart, studentwas confirmed by this experiment. Ob- evaluations of their own and their class-jectivity of self-analysis did not markedly mates' speeches were fairly accurate-differ between the second and seventh within a point of the average of judges'weeks, and, of course, the earlier self- ratingsin almostallcategories(seeanalysis gives additional weeks for im- Table I); and this objectivity seemed toproving recognized faults. be unaffected whether the initial record- As for the stage-fright factor, this was ing was made in the second or seventhnot found to be highly significant even week of the class. in the original experiment at Wayne An interesting phenomenon was aState University, where recordings were made in the TV studio. When, as at (2) Repeated observations and iden- Oakland University, the portable equip-tificationof speech criteriainclass- ment is brought into the familiar settingmates' speeches are sound learning ex- of the classroom, fear is reduced to theperiences for beginning speech students. level of the typical individual reactionAs one student aptly wrote, "By actively to a classroom speech. At any rate, theparticipating in the evaluation, we must original experiment did not demonstratebecome more aware of the essential ele- any significant lessening of stage frightments of a good speech. ...It was an when recording was delayed until theexcellent means of introducing us to the seventh week. art of communication." On the other hand, seventhweek re- Not all the findings in this study are cording slightly increased tendencies forreflected in the statistics. We found dur- acquaintankeship bias and overrating ofing the pilot phase, in a trial and error classmates' speeches. A count of the sep-search for the best procedures to use, arate instances in which ratings of class-that a sample of a student's natural, un- mates exceeded judges' ratings by morememorized, conversational speech is not than one point on the five-point scalealways easy to record. And if the stu- showed this occurring 8 per cent of thedent can look at himself and say, "That's time in the secondweek recording groupnot the way I usually talk;I was too as compared to 15.3 per cent in the sev-scared!" the experience is pointless. On enth-week group. the basis of what we learned from some These combined endings would tendearly mistakes, then, these recommenda- to recommend TV recordings atthetions for procedures are strongly urged: earliest possible time. (t) assignment of a personal narrative to Though some experimenters allowreduce student fear of forgetting;(2) students to see only their own playbacks,assurance that evaluations of the TV my experiencestronglyrecommendsspeech will not be part of the final classmate evaluation of the videotapedcourse grade; and (3) maintenance of a speeches, for two reasons:(1) Those offriendly, casual atmosphere during the us who have seen ourselves on film andrecording and playbacks, even on the TV are not surprised at student de-part of the cameraman. scriptions of the experience as "shatter- ing" and "shocking." Some sensitive stu- When students in evaluative question- dents react with real despair, sometimesnaires were asked for their opinion of only partially mitigated by seeing thatthe TV experience, the overwhelming they are not that much worse than theirresponse was one of enthusiasm. Ninety classmates. Though they tend to crit-per cent even called it "enjoyable." The icize their classmates for being "overlyfollowing student quotation is a fairly friendly and kind" in their assessments,accurate summation of these subjective these opinions often prevent the studentreactions: from following his first impulse to giveIt is an interesting and shattering experience. up. "In judging myself, I had tried toMost people have certain ideas on how they be as impartial as possible, and thuswish to appear to others. When I found out concluded thatI was dull and quitethat the "image" was definately [sic] not get- ting across my first thought was, "what am I amateur. My reaction to the class's as- doing wrong?" When this question is answered, sessment and comments upon my talk and when a conscious effort is made to overcome was one of surprise in that they were soparticular problems, then a videotape replay kind and generous." becomes an instrument of learning. SYMPOSIUM: John H. Pennybacker VII. EVALUATING VIDEOTAPE RECORDERS
THE educator who has become ac-manufacturing themintheUnited customed to a measure of stand- States,the Ampex Corporation and ardization in audio-visual equipment'RCA, and it is possible to interchange may find himself baffled when he turnstapes between the two different models. to the relatively new field of televisionThere arethreedistinctivetypes of recording. It is unfortunate that, in thequadruplex recorders: black and white, area of lower-priced, helical-scantele-low-band color, and high-band color. visionrecorders,theindustryhas In recent years a second type of tele- adopted no standards and no singlevision recorder has been introduced. It manufacturer has achievedthe dom-is generally called helical-scan recycling inance necessary to impose standards.and uses either one or two recording As a result, the prospective purchaserheads. The tape is kept in contact with finds a bewildering array of choices. Thisthe head or heads for a longer period by article attempts to clear up some of thewrappingitaround a center drum confusionsurroundingtelevisionre-within which the heads rotate. No agree- cording equipment. ment has been reached on standards for The first recording equipment to behelical scan machines and many varieties marketed employed two-inch wide tapeare available. and a spinning wheel rotating on a plane In choosing a tape recorder, the pur- at right angles to the direction of tapechaser should consider seven important movement. Four recording heads werevariables. mounted on the wheel in such a way as 1. Price. Videotape recorders range in to permit one head to make contact atprice from $i,000.00 to $ too,000.00. The the top of the moving tape as the secondlargest break in this range lies between head lost contact at the bottom. Onlyhelical-scan and quadruplex machines. one head was thus in contact with theThe top price of helical-scan is in the tape at any given time and the informa-neighborhood of $15,000 and the lowest tion was placed on the tape in a seriesprice for a quadruplex recorder is ap- of diagonal stripes caused by the com-proximately $22,000.00. bined action of the moving head and 2. Compatability. An unfortunate re- the moving tape. sult of the variety of helical-scan re- These recorders,called quadruplexcorders available is the fact that tapes machines, are still used commerciallycannot be interchanged betweenre- and produce the best recordings forcorders manufactured by different firms. broadcast purposes. There are two firmsIndeed, in many cases it is not possible to interchange tapes between different John H. Pennybacker (Ph.D., Ohio State Uni- models produced by the same manufac- versity,1962) senes as Associate Professor of Speech andClosedCircuitTelevisionCoor- turer. Ampex guarantees that a tape dinator at Louisiana State University. made on any of its machines using two- I Eight, 16 or 35 mm film; 3' %, 71/2, and 35inch tape can be replayed on any other IPS audio tape recorder; 78, 45, 551/2 and s6 RPM disc recordings, etc. Ampex helical-scan two-inch recorder, and that all one-inch tapes in its line areelectronic editing equipment that per- interchangeable. Not all manufacturersmits erasing and simultaneous re-record- make this guarantee. ing. Such editing requires a measure of Such incompatability seriously limitsskill and practice, however, and if ex- the degree to which institutions can ex-tensive editing is forseen the user should change tapes and the flexibility of utili-consider film and subsequent dubbing zation within an organization. As a re-on tape. sult, anyone planning to build a tape ('Maintenance. The potential buyer library or to set va tape exchangeof television recording equipment often must investigate carefully to insure thatoverlooks the question of maintenance. all recorders to be used will play hisThe electronics involved are quite com- tapes. plex and any system using television 3. Broadcast vs. Closed-Circuit Quality.recording extensively should include the The Federal Communications Commis-cost of at least one full-time engineer in sion has imposed certain standards onits budget planning. Maintenance con- the electronic characteristics of any tele-tracts are available, but service under visionsignalthatisbroadcast(sentthese contracts, which include no pre- front point to point through space withventive maintenance, can cause time- no physical connection between). Forconsuming deLys and the possibility of closed-circuit uses (systems which carryseeing the recorder taken back to the signals on co-axial cable) it is not neces-shop. sary to meet these standards. Some avail- The mechanical problems of main- able recorders produce a picture that istenance and replacement of recording acceptableforclosed-circuit uses butheads, maintenance of the tape transport not for broadcast. If it is anticipated thatmechanism, and operation of the re- broadcast quality tapes will be neededcorders must not be overlooked either. at any time, however, the user mustTelevision recordersare much more spend the extra money to meet F.C.C.complex than audio machines and, gen- requirements. erally, should not be turned over to 4.Portability. Although almost allstudents for operation without close su- helical-scan machines are advertised aspervision. "portable," they vary widely in size and The problems surrounding electronic weight. Some can be carried easily by aandmechanicalmaintenance,unfor- reasonablystrong man; others cometunately, are most critical in the lower- mounted in wheeled carts and may bepriced machines, most of which do not rolled easily from room to room; stillhave the interlocking safety features that others are cumbersome and difficult toprotect more expensive recorders from carry and are best left mount& in amishandling. central place (or in a small van or sta- 7. Color. For most educators, the use tion wagon). The use should evaluateof color is on the far horizon. It is pos- his needs carefully to be sure. he is get-sib:e today, however, to purchase helical- ting the degree of portability he desires.scan recorders that can be converted to 5. Editing. As a practical matter, it iscolor when it becomes necessary. Poten- impossible to cut and splice helical-scantial buyers who see the possibility of recording tape as you would audio tape.turning to color at a later date should some expensive models come equippedcheck carefully to be sure their ma- with, or have available as accessories,chines can be so converted. A careful evaluation of needs in theVR66o-B at a price of approximately light of the seven variables discussed$8,000.00. Sony produces the PV-Isoo above may help euucators choose be-line at a price competitive with the tween the confusing variety of televisionAmpex 66o-B. Both recorders produce recorders availabletoday. Institutionsa broadcast quality signal to meet F.C.C. planning high-volume broadcasting onstandards, but tapes made on the two an educational television station or themachines are not interchangeable. Re- distribution of course material through-corders in these lines are portable, re- out a school-system by means of channelsquiring two strong men to carry one. in the 2500 megahertz band(Instruc-They can be mounted on carts for trans- tional Fixed Television Service) shouldportation. The Ampex 66o-B includes seriously consider purchasing the quad-electronic editing, and similar equip- ruplex machines which have become thement is available as an option in the standard of the broadcasting industry,Sony line.Maintenance requirements produce an excellent broadcast qualityarelessthanthoseofquadruplex picture, and offer the best compatabilitymachines and, properly operated, these available? Editing it possible on theserecorders have proven quite durable. machines and, with proper equipment, a These two-inch recorders represent the skilled operator can physically cut and"top of the for helical scan ma- butt splice quadruplex tape. chines. They are widely used and li- The major disadvantage of the quad-braries of tapes are being built and ex- ruple,: recorder isthe price, rangingchanged around the country. One of from a low of approximately $22,000.00these two manufacturers will, in the next to $100,000.00 for a top-line, high-band,few years, probably become dominant color recorder. All such recorders areand force a measure of standardization complex, both electronically and me-on the two-'Itch format. chanically, and require the services of skilledvideo-tape engineersfor max- Tape recorders using one-inch tape imum efficiency. are more difficult to classify. Ampex Las Although some models are mountedrecently announced a new line with a on wheeled cabinets for "portability,"price range of $995.00(the VR 5000 all of them are large and heavy andavailable in February of 1968) to $16,500 should be installed in a studio or large(the VR 7800 -16). Between these ex- truck, tremes lie the VR 6000, VR ry000, and Helical-scan recordersoffermoreVR 7500 lines. The manufacturer guar- variety.Generally speaking, theyfallantees that tapes made on one of its into ante major groups, depending onone-inch recorders can be replayed on the width of the tape usedtwo-inch,any other line of one-inch recorders it one-inch, and one-half inch. makes, and, with the exception of the Ampex and Sony manufacture theVR 5000, that all will produce a broad- two most commonly used two-inch tapecast quality signal. 'Weights vary, but recorderlines.Ampex producesthethe VR 5000 will probably be quite port- able and other models may be mounted 2This is not to say, however, that quadru- piex compatability approaches perfection. Tapes in carts. Editing is available only in the made on a black-and-white, high-band, or low- 7800 line. band color machine must be repkyed on sim- ilar machines. Also, a recorder thatis out of Two other firms in the United States alignment may produce a tape that it can play alsomanufacture one-inchrecorders. but which will give other recordersagreat deal of trouble. The MVR Corporation (formerly Mach- tronics, Inc.) recently entered the market ever,is the fact that their durability with the MVR-65, a broadcast-qualityover eLtended use has yet to be proven recorder selling forSt t,000.00. Tapesand mechanical and electronic mainte. are compatable only with other ma-nance may be troub'esome. Institutions chines in the NIVR-65 line, but editingconsidering the use of these recorders equipment is available. At 85 pounds, should begin by buying only one or two the machine is reasonably portable. and keeping a careful record of head and The Diamond Power Comany manu-tape life, hours of use, and hours of factures its DP-2 and DP3 in the one -"down time" for maintenance. inch line. The DP-3 produces a broad- If the one-half inch model proves it- cast quality signal, while the DP-2 doesself, it can quickly find its place in the not. Editing is available for both. instructional media spectrum as a truly Sony has also entered the one-inchpoi table television tape recorder that field.The Sony EV 2oosellsforcan be used easily in the classroom for $4,000.00, and the tapes are pla)abletecor'"ng and immediate replay. Such only on other recorders in the same line. userequires neither broadcast quality It does not produce a broadcast quality nor interchangeability and would be in- signal, and editing equipment is avail-valuable in skills courses or in the train- able. ing ,f teachers, interviewers, councellms, If recorders using the one.:11c1. fotmat clinicians, etc. measure up to the expectations of their Tilt: major manufacturers of these one- manufacturers, itis possible that theyhalf inch recorders are Japanese firms: eventually will be more widely used thanSony, Concord, and Shibaden. General two-inch machines. The extensive tapeElectric distributes recorders tinderits libraries being built up on two-inch tapename, but these am produced by Sony. across the country, however, will meanWestinghouse has also entered the field that the two-inch recorder will newr bewall a machine produced by a Japanese supercedett completely (Ampex is guar-firm, but at this writing we were unable anteeing ttiatits 66o-B will remain into determine the name of the origiaal pr,.._!uction no matter how widelyits manufacturer. one-inch line is accepted). In a field as fluid and fast-moving as The one-half inch model has vet toelectronics, it is inevitable that any sur- see extensive use by educators. The ma-vey of available products will omit an jot advantages of the recorders ateimportant manufacturer or a new line theirprice(inthe $1,000 to $1,500with different features. As X, result, the range) alid their pottability. They canpotential purchaser of a u ision tape easily be carried into the classroom andrecorder may find himself faced with used for recording and immediate play-varietiesofmachinesnotdiscussed back with a minimum distuption of classabove. The major divisions (quadruples routine. On the other hand, computabil-and helical-scan, two-inch, one-inch, and ity even between many machines of theone-half inch formats) and the general same line is questionable (although Sony advantages and disadvantages of each does guarantee interchangeabilitybe- will continue to apply, however, and we tween its one-half inch recorders), theyhope that this article will serve for some do not produce a broadcast quality sig-time as a rough guide through the shift- nal, and no editing equipt,.itis avail-ing sands of the television recording in- able. Their major disadvantage, how.dustry.