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Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes, , and other large waterbirds in the Bangweulu Swamps,

Technical Report · February 2003 DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.26628.32647

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Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes, Shoebills, and other large waterbirds in the Bangweulu Swamps, Zambia

WORKING PAPER #5 ZAMBIA CRANE AND WETLAND CONSERVATION PROJECT

Bernard Kamweneshe Richard Beilfuss Kevin McCann Paul Zyambo

February 2003

International Crane Foundation WORKING PAPERS OF THE ZAMBIA CRANE AND WETLAND CONSERVATION PROJECT

1. Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes and other large waterbirds on the Kafue Flats, Zambia (Kamweneshe and Beilfuss 2002) 2. Population and distribution of Kafue and other large mammals on the Kafue Flats, Zambia (Kamweneshe, Beilfuss, and Simukonda 2002) 3. Wattled Cranes, waterbirds, and large mammals of the Lukanga Swamp, Zambia (Kamweneshe and Beilfuss 2002) 4. Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes and other large waterbirds and large mammals on the Liuwa Plains National Park, Zambia (Kamweneshe, Beilfuss, and Morrison 2003) 5. Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes, Shoebills, and other large waterbirds in the Bangweulu Swamps, Zambia (Kamweneshe, Beilfuss, McCann, and Zyambo 2003)

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv

FOREWORD...... iv

1.0 Introduction...... 1

2.0 Overview of the Bangweulu Swamps...... 4 2.1 Climate and hydrology of the Bangweulu Swamps...... 5 2.2 Vegetation of the Bangweulu Swamps ...... 6 3.0 Survey methods ...... 8

4.0 Results...... 10

5.0 Disscussion ...... 17 5.1 Population trends ...... 17 5.2 Population structure...... 19 6.0 Shoebills and other waterbirds of international concern...... 20 6.1 (Baleniceps rex) ...... 20 6.2 Grey Crowned Cranes ( regulorum)...... 21 6.3 Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor) ...... 21 6.4 () ...... 22 6.5 (Ciconiidae)...... 22 7.0 Conservation of Wattled Cranes and other waterbirds at Bangweulu....23

8.0 References ...... 24

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are especially grateful to the Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund and the Whitley Foundation for providing core funding for the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project and the aerial surveys described in this report. The International Crane Foundation and South Crane Working Group also provided additional funding and in-kind support.

We are very grateful to Dave Gunns of Dullstroom, , for generously volunteering his plane and piloting skills for the July 2002 aerial surveys.

We wish to sincerely acknowledge the Zambia Wildlife Authority for their help in procuring the authority to fly over Bangweulu Basin from the Department of Civil Aviation and Zambia Airforce. We thank the World Wildlife Fund Country Office for their support of this project.

Cover photos by Richard Beilfuss.

FOREWORD

The Zambia Crane and Wetlands Conservation Project (ZCWCP), under the auspices of the International Crane Foundation-USA and South Africa Crane Working Group, aims to conserve cranes and their wetland habitats in Zambia. The ZCWCP is part of a regional program that is investigating the role of Wattled Cranes as a flagship for wetland conservation and management in Southern Africa. The ZCWCP works in close collaboration with other government and non-government organizations in Zambia, especially the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Partners for Wetlands Program and the Zambia Wildlife Authority, for the benefit of the people and wildlife that share Zambia’s wetland resources.

This report, "Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes, Shoebills, and other large waterbirds in the Bangweulu Swamps, Zambia" provides the results of a recent aerial survey to estimate the population and distribution of Wattled Cranes and other waterfowl of international importance in the Bangweulu Swamps. Views expressed in this report are intended to stimulate discussion and debate on the status of the wildlife and wetlands in Bangweulu Swamps in Zambia. Readers are encouraged to provide comments to the authors for incorporation into similar research in the future.

iv 1.0 Introduction

The (Bugeranus carunculatus) is the largest, rarest, and most wetland-dependent of the African cranes, and is classified as a global endangered species. Most Wattled Cranes occur in the extensive floodplains of southern Africa’s large river basins (most notably the and Okavango basins), although they are also found in the smaller isolated dambos of parts of Zambia, , and South Africa (Figure 1). An isolated population of Wattled Cranes also occurs in the highlands of , and may soon be classified as genetically distinct sub-species (Ken Jones, pers. comm.).

Figure 1. Distribution of Wattled Cranes (shaded area) in southern Africa, showing core population in the floodplains of Zambia and northern extending to south-eastern , south-eastern DRC, western , central , and north-eastern , with more isolated populations in the highlands of Ethiopia and South Africa (map taken from Bento 2002).

1 The current status of Wattled Cranes in Zambia and elsewhere in southern Africa is uncertain. Urban (1985, 1996) estimated the global population of Wattled Cranes at about 13,000-15,000 , with 7,000–11,000 birds occurring in Zambia. However, the IUCN (The World Conservation Union) Red Data Book suggests that the global population is only about 7,000 birds (Collar and Stuart 1985). A recent coordinated international survey effort in Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia suggests that the population is probably about 8,000, with no more than 4,500 Wattled Cranes in Zambia (Beilfuss et al. 2003). Wattled Cranes are distributed throughout most of Zambia (Figure 2), and are resident in all major wetland systems of Zambia. The Bangweulu Swamps, along with the Kafue Flats and the Liuwa Plain, are the most important wetlands for Wattled Cranes in Zambia and among the most important in Africa.

Figure 2. Distribution of Wattled Cranes in Zambia, according to their recorded presence in quarter degree squares (from Dodman 1996).

2 The population of Wattled Cranes in the Bangweulu Swamps is of particular interest because the Bangweulu Basin is among the least disturbed large wetland systems in southern Africa. There are few developments and no major dams or water diversions in the headwaters draining to and adjoining swamps, nor affecting outflows that eventually drain to the basin. The human population density is low across most of the swamps and primarily is limited to mobile fishing communities. In undisturbed floodplain systems elsewhere in Africa, the breeding cycle of Wattled Cranes has been linked to the natural flood cycles of rivers. Wattled Crane pairs are “triggered” to nest as floodwaters begin receding after peak flooding. Nesting in deep open water after the major flood rise and crest ensures that nests will be protected from predators and wildfires but will not be drowned by further rising floodwaters. As floodwaters slowly recede, Wattled Cranes raise their single chick on the pulse of exposed plant and life (Konrad 1981), especially tubers of the Eleocharis spike rushes (Beilfuss 2000, Bento 2002). When flooding patterns are erratic or mistimed due to water development projects, Wattled Crane pairs may not be induced by hydrologic conditions to initiate nesting. Where nesting is attempted, unanticipated water level rises can drown nests and food sources. Rapid water level drawdown in the floodplains may expose nests to wildfires and predators and limit food availability. Thus, the Bangweulu Swamps offer an excellent opportunity to assess the status and ecology of Wattled Cranes in a relatively undisturbed habitat. The limited development in the Bangweulu Swamps is in sharp contrast to other important crane areas in Zambia, such as the Kafue Flats, where large dams (Itezhitezhi and Kafue Gorge) and dense human settlements threaten the crane population (Douthwaite 1974, Konrad 1981, Howard & Aspinwall 1984).

In 2000, the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project (ZCWCP) was launched to address these concerns by investigating the status and ecology of Wattled Cranes in Zambia. The ZCWCP is part of a regional program, Water, wetlands, and Wattled Cranes: research, conservation, and capacity building in southern Africa, that is investigating the role of Wattled Cranes as a flagship species for wetland conservation and management in the region. The ZCWCP works in close collaboration with other government and non-government organizations in Zambia, especially the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Partners for Wetlands Project and the Zambia Wildlife Authority, for the benefit of the people and wildlife that share Zambia’s wetland resources. In July 2002, the ZCWCP, in co- operation with the Zambia Wildlife Authority (ZAWA), International Crane Foundation (ICF), and the South African Crane Working Group (SACWG), undertook a comprehensive survey of Wattled Cranes and other important species in the Bangweulu Swamps. In this report we assess the population and distribution of Wattled Cranes, Shoebills, and other waterfowl of international importance. We also describe the hydrological and ecological characteristics of the area as they may affect Wattled Cranes and the overall biodiversity and productivity of the swamp.

3 2.0 Overview of the Bangweulu Swamps

The Bangweulu Basin is located in northern Zambia between 29° 30’ E and 30° 40’ E and 10° 45’ E and 12° 40’ S, about 1,158 m above sea level (Figure 3). The basin is roughly circular with an area of approximately 30,000 km2. The Bangweulu wetland system is among the largest and most diverse systems in southern Africa, with more than 11,900 km2 of seasonally flooded plains and permanent swamps. It is comparable in size and complexity to the and Zambezi Delta (Hughes and Hughes 1992).

The vast Bangweulu Swamps, which literally means “Where the Water Meets the Sky” in local languages, has very distinct origins and characteristics from the Rift Valley lakes of the same region. Unlike the steep, deeply troughed, and isolated lakes that lie along the rift fault line, a subtle warping of the earth’s crust produced the broad, shallow alluvial pan that underlies the Bangweulu basin with its six interconnected lakes and open water areas, Bangweulu, Kampolombo, Kang’wena, Bwalilupe, Chale and Chifunabuli. The largest of these areas, Lake Bangweulu, is 80 km long by 41 km wide with an open water surface area of more than 273,000 ha (Hughes and Hughes 1992).

The complex of lakes, swamps, and floodplains – in which channels appear and disappear and seem to flow in different directions among an unbroken horizon of papyrus and shallow waters – provides no visual relief and no bearing or direction. During his explorations, the famous Doctor David Livingstone mistook the huge Bangweulu complex to be the source of the Nile. However, the Bangweulu system is actually the headwaters of the Great Congo River. The Bangweulu swamps are fed by a number of rivers draining from the northwest slopes of the Muchinga Escarpment and the southeast slopes of the Rift Valley Highlands, most notably the Chambeshi River. The swamps outflow southwards to the , which flows south for another 180 km before turning a wide arc to the east and north and flowing into Lake Mweru-Wantipa, forming the boundary between Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo over much of its course. Lake Mweru-Wantipa drains to the branch of the Congo enroute to the Atlantic Ocean.

The Bangweulu system is protected in part by Isangano National Park (established in 1972), covering areas northeast of Lake Bangweulu to the Chambeshi River, and the Bangweulu and Chambeshi Game Management Areas south and southwest of the lake. Human settlements in the swamps and floodplains are largely restricted to higher ground on islands and riverbank areas. Much of the Wattled Crane range is totally devoid of human settlements, except for scattered fishing camps that are abandoned and rebuilt each year.

4 Figure 3. Map of Zambia showing the location of Bangweulu Swamps.

2.1 Climate and hydrology of the Bangweulu Swamps

The climate of the Bangweulu basin includes three distinct seasons, a cool dry season from April to August, a hot dry season from August to October, and a warm wet season from November to April. Maximum and minimum temperatures in the Bangweulu region range from 19-36o C in October and 0-21o C in July. Average annual rainfall over the basin is about 1,100-1,500 mm, with significant year-to-year variability. Average annual evaporation is more than 2,100 mm.

Rainfall patterns are controlled by the movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ. The ITCZ is the convergence of three distinct air currents, the South East Trade Winds of the Indian Ocean that cover Mozambique and Zimbabwe, the North East Monsoon (an extension of the air stream flowing out of the Asiatic High from the Arabian Sea that covers the East African coast), and the Congo Air (a monsoonal in-draught across the west coast of Africa that covers the Zambezi basin from a north easterly direction). The convergence between the South East Trade Winds and the Congo Air is generally aligned in an east-west direction, while the convergence between the North East Monsoon and the Congo Air lies in a north-south alignment. From November to March, the ITCZ moves south over the southern part of the basin. The convergence is identified with a shallow trough of low pressure. The trough may deepen at times, or closed centers of low pressure may develop in areas where convergence is intensified. These troughs move slowly as a function of surrounding pressure changes, but may remain near stationary for extended periods of time. When centers of low pressure form equatorial lows over southern Angola or northern Botswana, conditions are favorable for the moist Congo

5 Air to move in and produce large rainfall events across the area. From April to October, the ITCZ shifts north and the Bangweulu basin is influenced by a zone of high pressure with warm, sunny conditions (Balek 1977).

The dominant feature of the Bangweulu system is the seasonal flooding regime, which influences every aspect of the local environment and economy. By January each year, vast areas of the Bangweulu floodplains are inundated from local rainfall and runoff. Peak water levels occur in March when the inflow from the Chambeshi and other rivers draining the surrounding catchment spills across the seasonally flooded plains (6,800 km2) and into the permanent deepwater swamps (5,000 km2) (Figure 4). Waters recede slowly during the dry season, reaching their lowest level in October/November, leaving only the central basin permanently under water. Mean annual outflow to the Luapula River is about 440 m3/s. The extent of the floodwater inundation and the rate with which it rises and recedes varies from year to year.

Figure 4. A hydrological model of the Bangweulu Swamps (from Debenham 1948).

2.2 Vegetation of the Bangweulu Swamps

The Bangweulu Basin is covered by a mosaic of many different vegetation types. The extent and location of each vegetation community is generally determined by the soils and flooding regime, with clearly defined vegetation zones that relate to the depth and duration of the flooding.

The Bangweulu Basin can be classified into five main distinct vegetation zones: 1. Upper mainland woodland; 2. Fringing open woodlands; 3. Termitaria and fringing grasslands; 4. Seasonal floodplain; and 5. Water meadow/permanent swamp. The upper mainland woodlands are composed of miombo (Bracystegia spp.) and associated species. Trees are widely spaced with a grassy understory

6 dominated by Hyparrhenia spp. and Andropogon eucomis. The mainland woodland occurs mostly at an altitude greater than 1,000 masl on well- drained soils. Between the upper woodland and the lower plains, a belt of fringing open woodland occurs that is dominated by woody species such as Pterocapus angolensis, Parinari spp., and Combretum spp.

A zone of termitaria (a generic term for all the different habitats in which termite mounds created by Macrotermes and Odontotermes spp. are prevalent) is found mostly between the open woodlands and seasonal floodplains (Photo 1a). Termites ingest silt or clay to extract humus from it and use their droppings to build the mounds, leaving complex structures of mostly grey clays, often several meters in diameter. The termite mounds rise above the peak flood levels in the surrounding floodplain, enabling islands of dense tree and shrub growth. Dominant tree species found on the termitaria often include Cassia singuena, Combretum spp., Erythrina abyssinica, Parinari spp., Phoenix reclinata, Rauvolfia caffra, Syzygium cordatum, S. guinense, Uapaca spp., Vernonia spp., and Vitex doniana.

Inside the belt of termitaria, a mosaic of seasonal floodplains, water meadows, permanent swamps, and open water lakes cover the vast low- lying plain. The open waters support dense beds of submerged and floating macrophytes. Along the shoreline, zones of emergent vegetation occur in shallow water on sandy soils, dominated by Eleocharis dulcis and other sedges. communis is also widespread on slightly shallower swamps, raised banks, islands, and levees. On muddy shores, is dominant. Saplings or small trees of Syzygium cordatum and Ficus verrucolosa and the shrub Hibiscus diversifolia occur on the papyrus mats. Seasonally inundated areas at the back of the landward margins of the papyrus swamps are dominated by grasses, often semi-floating mats of Vossia cuspidata in combination with and Echinocloa stagnina. The deepwater floodplain areas, including permanently inundated areas, are covered by semi-floating swards of grasses and sedges that collapse when water recedes and form thick mats that completely cover the moist, black alluvial clay soils (Fanshawe 1971) (Photo 1b).

Photos 1a & 1b. Vegetation zones at Bangweulu include (a) termitaria and (b) seasonal floodplain (photos by Ben Kamweneshe).

7 3.0 Survey methods

In July 2002 a twelve-hour aerial survey was commissioned for the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project. The goal of the survey was to: • estimate the total population, population structure, and distribution of Wattled Cranes in the Bangweulu Swamps; • characterize the wetland substrates used by Wattled Cranes; • estimate the population of Shoebill Storks and other waterbirds of international concern in the Bangweulu Swamps; • assess ecological factors that may affect the management of Bangweulu Swamps, including the presence of permanent settlements, fishing camps, livestock grazing, bushfires, and poaching activity.

Given the vast extent of the Bangweulu Swamps, a total count of Wattled Cranes and other species of interest was virtually impossible, and sampling techniques were necessary. A core survey area was delineated on 1:50,000 maps of the Bangweulu Swamps, based on the results of previous Wattled Cranes surveys by Howard and Aspinwall (1984) and Kamweneshe (unpubl. data). A three-hour initial reconnaissance flight was then undertaken in a six seat Cessna 206 aircraft to cover areas outside of the core survey area, especially the margin of Lake Bangweulu, floodplains east of the Chambeshi River, and termitaria and seasonally-flooded grassland areas to the north of the core Bangweulu Swamps. The survey team recorded all observations of Wattled Cranes, Shoebill Storks, other storks, ibises, spoonbills, Spurwinged Geese, and other large birds that could be accurately identified from the aircraft. Most of the waterbirds, including all Wattled Cranes and Shoebill Storks, were observed within the boundaries of the core survey area while the survey team was flying to the reconnaissance areas. Therefore, the team was confident that that core survey area covered a significant proportion of the total population of Wattled Cranes and Shoebill Storks at Bangweulu.

The main survey was designed to provide approximately 40-53% coverage of Wattled Cranes in the core survey area, based on the assumption that Wattled Cranes could be accurately identified up to a distance of 750-1,000 m on each side of the plane, depending on vegetation characteristics. Twenty-three transects, oriented east-west and spaced two nautical miles (3.7 km) apart, were flown. Survey flights were flown at 90 m above ground level, at an average speed of 100 knots. The pilot and the navigator used an in-cockpit Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) system to navigate (Table 1).

8 Table 1. Technical details of the July 2002 aerial survey

Dates of survey 9-11 July 2002 Aircraft type Cessna 206 (high wing) Total flying time 12 hours Average speed 120 km/hour Average height 90 m Pilot David Gunns Navigator Richard Beilfuss Observers Richard Beilfuss, Ben Kamweneshe, Kevin McCann, Matthew Bokach, Paul Zyambo Orientation of transects east-west

Five observers, two located on the left side of the plane and three located on the right side, recorded all observations of Wattled Cranes, Shoebill Storks, other storks, ibises, spoonbills, Spurwinged Geese, and other large birds that could be accurately identified at a distance of up to 1 km from each side of the aircraft. Where Wattled Cranes were observed in pairs, the pair location was marked using a handheld GPS unit, and observers searched for evidence of nests or chicks. Cranes observed in groups of three birds were marked as families. Where large concentrations of cranes were observed, the aircraft circled the population several times until an accurate estimate of the number of cranes and population structure of the group was obtained. Observers photographed large flocks with slide and digital film, and later projected the images to double-check estimates of the population and structure of the flocks. A brief boat survey of waterbirds was also conducted based out of Shoebill Camp in Chikuni Game Management Area. During the boat survey, observers listed those species that were not identified from the aerial surveys.

The total population estimate for Wattled Cranes was calculated based on the conservative assumption that we observed 50% of all singletons, pairs, chicks, and small flocks (≤10 birds) and 100% of all large flocks (>10 birds) during the surveys, based on the total survey area coverage described above. We therefore extrapolated our counts of singletons, pairs, chicks, and small flocks by multiplying these counts x 2, but did not extrapolate our counts of large flocks. The total population estimate for Shoebill Storks was based on the assumption that we observed only 25% of all singletons, pairs, chicks, and small flocks during the surveys (i.e., 500 km on each side of the plane). Shoebill Storks rarely flushed during the surveys and were significantly more difficult to identify in complex vegetation than Wattled Cranes. We therefore extrapolated our counts of Shoebill singletons, pairs, chicks, and small flocks by multiplying these counts x 4. No large flocks of the Shoebill Storks were observed during the survey.

9 4.0 Results

The number of Wattled Cranes singletons, pairs, chicks (including juveniles), and flocks observed on each transect, and the total estimated number of Wattled Cranes on each transect, is shown in Table 2. A total of 743 cranes were counted, giving an estimate of 1,030 Wattled Cranes for the Bangweulu Swamps. The frequency of observed group sizes is given in Table 3. Twenty-one percent of the observed population was in pairs or threesomes; the remainder was in flocks of various sizes or singletons. We did not observe any small chicks. Chicks that may have been present during the survey might have gone into hiding at the sound of the aircraft, but all pairs observed were conservatively assumed to be without chicks. The thirteen threesomes observed were assumed to be groups, with one postulated to be a juvenile from the previous breeding season. In some but not all cases we were able to observe the immature on the juveniles. Twenty-four singletons were observed during the surveys. Many of these singletons may have been paired with a partner that was incubating and out of view, but they were only counted as a single bird.

Several large flocks of 40, 45, 56, 70, and 151 birds were observed at the southern margin of the Bangweulu Swamps, especially on the dry Chimbwi floodplains in Chikuni Game Management Area. Table 4 lists the number of nests observed on each survey transect. Actual nests observed (with or without ) are listed as “confirmed nests”, whereas observations of Wattled Cranes in sitting posture are given as “unconfirmed nests”.

Estimated numbers of other selected waterbirds observed in the Bangweulu Swamps are shown in Table 5. We observed a total of 51 Shoebills from the air, in groups of one to three individuals. Four individuals were observed on nests. We observed 18 Saddlebill Storks, including five pairs with three birds on nests. No Grey Crowned Cranes were observed during the survey. Bangweulu is also important for waterfowl, and spectacular concentrations of Anatidae have been observed at Bangweulu. Waterbird diversity is maintained in part by the annual flooding and drawdown cycle that creates a variety of open water bodies on the plains, and the heavy grazing activity of Black lechwe that tends to create open, herb rich communities in the place of tall, closed stands of perennial grasses. A complete list of other waterbirds (as defined by the Wetlands International list of sub-Saharan waterbird species) observed during the air and boat surveys is given in Table 6.

The Bangweulu Basin supports a diverse mammalian fauna despite the high human population densities of the surrounding areas. The most abundant mammal is the Black lechwe (Kobus leche smithemani) an endemic semi- aquatic sub-species of the Red lechwe, endemic to the Bangweulu (Photo 2). Also relatively common are tsessebe (Damaliscus lunatus), sitatunga, (Tragelaphus spekei), oribi (Ourebia oribi), Cape buffalo (Cyncerus cafa), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), otter (Aonyx capensis), reedbuck (Redunca arundinum),

10 (Hippopotamus amphibius) and Nile (Crocodilus niloticus). Other species that are seldom seen in the area include the sable antelope (Hippotragus ), elephant (Loxodonta africana), wild dog (Lycaon pictus), hyena (Crocuta crocuta), and (Canis adustus). Until recently, an isolated population of lions occurred in Bangweulu that were well adapted to hunting in deep swamps and known to have a much darker mane than typical lions of Zambia. The last known lion of this population disappeared in the early 70s, most likely due to hunting.

Photo 2. Black lechwe on the peripheral floodplain in Bangweulu (photo by Richard Beilfuss).

The swamps have relatively few species due to high water levels and the homogeneity of the vegetation over extensive areas. In contrast, the floodplains support the densest wildlife populations, with the largest concentrations found in the area around Cafye and Chikuni islands and on the Kalasa Mukoso plains. In these areas the wildlife have developed annual migration patterns that follow the fluctuating water levels, moving towards the central swamps during periods of low water levels and onto the surrounding plains during times of high water.

11 Table 2. Total number of Wattled Cranes counted and estimated for each survey transect and for the Bangweulu Swamps, July 2002.

Transect Coordinates Singles Pairs Juveniles Flocks Total Total number count estimate 1 11020‘S 30000‘E- 11020’S 30030’E 2 0 0 0 2 4 2 11022’S 30030’E- 11022’S 29059’E 0 2 1 4 9 18 3 11024’S 29058’E- 11024’S 30030’E 1 0 0 0 1 2 4 11026’S 30030’E- 11026’S 29057’E 1 0 0 0 1 2 5 11028’S 29056’E- 11028’S 30030’E 0 2 0 0 4 8 6 11030’S 30030’E- 11030’S 29055’E 2 5 1 0 13 26 7 11032’S 29054’E- 11032’S 30030’E 2 3 0 0 8 16 8 11034’S 30030’E- 11034’S 29053’E 4 3 0 0 10 20 9 11036’S 29052’E- 11036’S 30030’E 2 5 0 0 12 24 10 11038’S 30030’E- 11038’S 29051’E 1 2 0 0 5 10 11 11040’S 29050’E- 11040’S 30030’E 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 11042’S 30030E 11042’S 29049’E 0 1 0 0 2 4 13 15044’S 29048’E- 15044’S 30030’E 3 2 0 5 12 24 14 15046’S 30030’E- 15046’S 29047’E 0 4 1 10 19 38 15 15048’S 29046’E- 15048’S 30030’E 0 2 1 20 25 30 16 15050’S 30030’E- 15050’S 29046’E 1 7 1 9 25 50 17 15052’S 29046’E- 15052’S 30018’E 0 6 0 19 31 48 18 15054’S 30018’E- 15054’S 29046’E 1 7 3 96 114 168 19 15056’S 29046’E- 15056’S 30020’E 0 8 3 24 43 86 20 15058’S 30020’E- 15058’S 29046’E 1 6 2 377 392 422 21 12000’S 29046’E- 12000’S 30018’E 1 6 0 0 13 26 22 12002’S 30018’E- 12002’S 29047’E 2 0 0 0 2 4 23 12004’S 29047’E- 12004’S 30018’E 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total observed 24 71 13 564 743 Total estimated 48 142 26 814 1030

12

Table 3. Frequency of observed group sizes of Wattled Cranes on the Bangweulu Swamps, July 2002.

Group size Frequency of observation Sum of birds in group 1 24 24 2 58 116 3 13 39 4 1 4 5 5 25 6 2 12 9 3 27 10 4 40 14 1 14 20 2 40 40 2 80 45 1 45 56 1 56 70 1 70 151 1 151 Total 743

13 Table 4. Wattled Cranes nests observed on each transect flown in the Bangweulu, July 2002. Confirmed nests include all nesting platforms observed, with or without eggs. Unconfirmed nests include all observations of Wattled Cranes in sitting (presumed to be incubating) posture.

Transect No. Confirmed nests Unconfirmed nests 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 7 0 0 8 0 0 9 2 0 10 3 0 11 2 3 12 3 3 13 0 0 14 2 2 15 3 3 16 2 2 17 3 1 18 1 1 19 5 0 20 0 0 21 0 0 22 0 0 Total 26 15

14 Table 5. Estimated numbers of selected waterbirds observed on the Bangweulu Swamps.

Species common name Scientific name Estimated number Eastern White Pelecanus onocrotalus <10 Whitebreasted Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo <50 Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus ~2000 Grey Ardea cinerea >200 Ardea goliath <100 Purple Heron Ardea purpurea >200 Great Egret Casmerodius albus >1000 Intermediate/Little Egret Egretta spp. >10,000 Egret Bubulcus ibis 100s Shoebill Balaeniceps rex ~200 Yellowbill Mycteria ibis <10 African Openbill Stork Anastomus lamelligerus >30,000 Saddlebill Stork Ephippiorhynchus senegalensis <40 Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus 100s African Spoonbill Platalea alba 100s Spurwinged Goose Plectropterus gambensis <5000 African Skimmer Rhynchops flavirostris >10

15 Table 6. Other waterbirds (based on the Wetlands International list of sub- Saharan African waterbird species) observed during both aerial and boat surveys in July 2002.

Common Name Scientific Name Blackheaded Heron Ardea melanocephala Black Egret Egretta ardesiaca Squacco Heron Ardeola Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus Hammerkop Scopus umbretta Yellowbilled Anus undulatata Fulvous Duck Dendrocygna bicolor Whitefaced Duck Dendrocygna viduata Knob-billed Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos Egyptian Goose Alopochenaegyptiacus African Pygmy Goose Nettapus auritus Redbilled Teal Anas erythrorhyncha Hottentot Teal Anas hottentota Black Crake Amaurornis flavirostris African Actophilornis africanus Lesser Jacana Microparra capensis Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus Redwinged Pratincole Glareola pratincola Long-toed Plover Vanellus crassirostris Blacksmith Plover Vanellus amartus Crowned Plover Vanellus coronatus Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Malachite Kingfisher Corythornis cristata Africa Pygmy Kingfisher Ceryle picta Greyheaded Gull Larus cirrocephalus Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer African Marsh Harrier Circus ranivorus

16 5.0 Discussion

5.1 Population trends

The estimated number of Wattled Cranes in the Bangweulu Swamps (1,030 birds) is lower than previous counts. In the early 1980s, Howard and Aspinwall (1984) estimated a population of 1,718 birds (Table 7). Later surveys by Kamweneshe in 1991 and 1993 estimated a population of 1,367- 1,453.

Table 7. Comparison of past and present Wattled Crane survey results for the Bangweulu Swamps.

Year Population estimate Source 1984 1,718 Howard and Aspinwall (1984) 1991 1,367 Kamweneshe (unpubl data) 1993 1,453 Kamweneshe (1996a) 2002 1,030 Present survey

We are uncertain whether this latest count represents an actual decline in the number of Wattled Cranes over the past two decades, however, or is due (at least in part to) differences in survey techniques and inter-annual variations in the population. The July 2002 aerial survey was the first attempt to systematically survey for Wattled Cranes at Bangweulu, and the survey design differed from previous efforts. In the past, surveys were conducted for the primary purpose of censusing large mammals, especially the Black lechwe. Because Wattled Cranes tend to occur in close association with Black lechwe, observers counted cranes in addition to large mammals during those surveys. While such surveys offered an excellent opportunity to collected data on Wattled Crane distribution and numbers, there were difficulties in interpreting the survey results. Howard and Aspinwall (1984) noted, for example, that no attempt was made to estimate the Wattled Crane population in the entire Bangweulu Swamps because the proportion of suitable Wattled Crane habitat occurring in the defined strata for large mammals was not known1. More importantly, these surveys used random transects to estimate Wattled Crane (and mammal) numbers, and both the proportion of the survey area covered (about 20%) and the actual number of birds observed were significantly lower than during the present survey. The accuracy of the estimate using random transects depends on whether large flocks were encountered during the surveys, and how those large flock data were subsequently extrapolated. Kamweneshe (1996a) observed only 468 individuals in extrapolating a total population of 1,453 Wattled Cranes, so there is significant uncertainty in that estimate. As discussed above, our survey is assumed to provide between 40-53% coverage of pairs and small flocks, and 100% coverage of large flocks. If we assumed only 40% survey

1 During the July 2002 survey only a few Wattled Crane pairs were observed in peripheral areas of the Bangweulu Swamps that were not covered by previous surveys and overall about 95% of all Wattled Cranes observed occurred within previous surveyed areas.

17 coverage of Wattled Cranes at Bangweulu, regardless of flock size, our population estimate for Bangweulu Swamps would be 1,858 birds (i.e., higher than any previous estimates). Conversely, if we assumed 53% coverage without extrapolating the counts for any large flocks, our estimate would be only 998. Although we cannot know for certain whether past survey data is comparable to the present survey, our future surveys will be based on the uniform transect method and will be directly comparable.

The difference between current and previous estimates of Wattled Crane numbers may also be due to inter-annual shifts in distribution. Wattled Crane numbers appear to fluctuate year-to-year at many of the large floodplain systems in Southern Africa, including the Kafue Flats, Liuwa Plain, and Okavango Delta. Large irruptive flocks have been observed in the region, such as the sudden appearance of more than 2,500 Wattled Cranes in the Zambezi Delta of Mozambique in 1990 (Goodman 1992). Wattled Cranes may migrate to or from the Bangweulu system in different years, depending on whether local hydrological conditions support suitable breeding or feeding grounds (Beilfuss et al. 2003). During the drought of 2002, Wattled Cranes quickly abandoned their territories in the Kafue Flats and concentrated in large numbers in the few remaining wet areas on the floodplain (Matthew Bokach, pers. comm.). A more severe drought, such as occurred during the period when the 1991 and 1993 surveys at Bangweulu were conducted, could have resulted in the total desiccation of southern floodplains and subsequent desertion of such areas. These changes may have created the potential for significant movement of flocks northward to Bangweulu, where hydrological conditions were more favorable. Wattled Crane movement between Bangweulu and other northern province wetlands, such as Lake Mweru, Mweru Wantipa, and Kalungwishi, has also been suggested for possible differences in population estimates. The regularity with which these movements occur is unknown, but the higher numbers of Wattled Cranes at Bangweulu in the past may have been only temporary and correlated with lower numbers elsewhere in the region.

Seasonal variations in Wattled Crane numbers are unlikely to be a source of significant bias in our estimate. Although Wattled Cranes may use the Bangweulu Swamps for post-breeding dispersal on a seasonal basis while nesting in small dambos across the Northern Province, all of the past and present surveys were conducted during the same month (July) to help control for these population fluctuations.

If a true decline in Wattled Crane numbers at Bangweulu has occurred, it may be due to permanent emigration from Bangweulu to other wetlands in Zambia and elsewhere in the region, or due to a real reduction in the number of Wattled Cranes through increased mortality and/or breeding failure. To better understand inter-basin movements of Wattled Cranes over time, we conducted systematic aerial surveys throughout Zambia during 2001-2002. Aerial surveys in the Kafue Flats, Lukanga Swamps, Barotse Plain, and Liuwa Plain revealed a significant decline in Wattled Crane numbers at each site over time (Kamweneshe and Beilfuss 2002a, 2002b,

18 Kamweneshe et al. 2002, Kamweneshe et al. 2003). Additional surveys are needed to cover many of the scattered small wetlands that occur throughout the country and that may support several hundred Wattled Crane pairs. However, there is no evidence that Wattled Crane numbers are increasing in these smaller wetland areas that would account for the decrease on the large floodplains such as Bangweulu (Pete Leonard, pers. comm.). Additional ground and aerial surveys will be conducted over the next two years to determine an accurate nationwide count, but it is clear that the total Wattled Crane population in Zambia is significantly lower than previously estimated, and there is little support for the assumption that Wattled Cranes have migrated from Bangweulu to other areas.

No data are available at present on Wattled Crane mortality or breeding failure in the Bangweulu Swamps. Wattled Crane breeding success is lowest among the cranes (Burke 1996), and their breeding and feeding grounds are highly susceptible to changes in hydrological conditions and human settlements. However, the Bangweulu Swamps are relatively undisturbed compared to many other wetlands in the region, with no major dams or water diversions on upstream tributaries, and there is little evidence that local fisherman in the swamps are significantly disturbing nesting sites. Even if breeding failure is significant, Wattled Cranes are very long-lived birds, and a significant reduction in the population at Bangweulu over a period of less than twenty years is unlikely to have resulted from breeding failure alone. The Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project is conducting interviews with local residents to determine the range of threats to cranes and gather anecdotal information about adult mortality, chick capture, collecting, and other impacts on the population.

5.2 Population structure

Our surveys were conducted during peak breeding season for Wattled Cranes, with 21% of the population observed in pairs or threesomes and an additional 24 singletons (3%) that may have been paired with a partner that was incubating and undetectable from the air. We assume that 13 juveniles were added to the population from the previous breeding season, based on observations of many threesomes on territories. The proportion of the population in breeding pairs is high compared to Kamweneshe (1996a), who recorded 24 pairs (ten in threesomes) out of a total of 468 individuals observed, or about 10% of the population in breeding pairs. Observations from elsewhere in Zambia suggest anywhere from 2-40% of the population in breeding pairs. Expected recruitment from the current breeding season is uncertain and requires further observation. No chicks were observed, although we had 12 confirmed nests and 15 unconfirmed (with apparent incubating female) nests.

Cranes are gregarious and often occur in large flocks. The largest flock reported by Howard and Aspinwall (1984) was 200 birds, and two separate flocks of 200 were observed in 1993 by Kamweneshe (1996a). During the present survey, we observed several large flocks in close proximity on the

19 Chimbwi floodplain, the largest of which included 170 individuals. The flocks comprise a mix of adults and sub-adults, though it is difficult to discern the exact division among the age classes. Many pairs and families join in flocks during the non-breading period, but within these flocks pairs and family groups often remain in close proximity. Non-breeding flocks persist throughout the year, and may comprise a substantial proportion of the total population. During the survey, large flocks were found on the open Chimbwi floodplain and west of areas on the western Chikuni. These areas are inundated with shallow water during the normal flood season from January to May. Flocks are typically observed feeding along the receding water line on the floodplain with large herds of Black lechwe.

6.0 Shoebills and other waterbirds of international concern

6.1 Shoebill (Baleniceps rex)

We observed fifty-one Shoebills during the survey. Because Shoebills rarely flush during the survey flights and often remain motionless among rank, mixed vegetation, our coverage of Shoebills during the survey was significantly less than for Wattled Cranes. We conservatively estimate that Shoebills were visible to a distance of only 300 m on either side of the plane, and that no more than 25% of Shoebill habitat was covered by the survey. Therefore, we estimate a total population of at least 200 Shoebills in the Bangweulu Swamps. This roughly concurs with Howard and Aspinwall (1992), who estimated the population at 200-300 Shoebills. Four Shoebills were observed on nests, and two nests with eggs were observed.

Shoebills are shy, solitary, sedentary birds that inhabit large fresh water African swamps. They are rarely seen and prefer (areas of floating vegetation) and mixed papyrus swamps composed of grasses, reeds, ferns and sedges (, Cyperus papyrus, Miscanthidium, Vossia, Cyperus, Echinocloa pyramidalis) Generally, they can be found near open channels where the concentration of fish is the greatest and they avoid areas where the vegetation is taller than their backs (Photo 3). Presumably, tall plants limit their ability to spread their wings and fly quickly to escape their only natural enemies, the crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) and swamp pythons (Python sebae). The Shoebill in Zambia is endemic to the Bangweulu Swamps, where it is confined to the areas around Chikuni, Chula, Miyeya, Chafye, Ncheta, Kalimankonde, Milandu, Nsamba and Chintikwe.

Ancient Egyptian sculptures of Shoebills suggest that these birds once ranged far into the northern swamplands of Africa. Today, Shoebills are mainly restricted to southern , , the southeastern swamps of the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the Bangweulu Swamps, with smaller numbers in the , Ethiopia, , , and Tanzania. Agriculture and other forms of wetland reclamation have been the biggest contributing factor to changes in the range and distributions of the Shoebill in recent years.

20

Photo 3. Shoebill fishing near open channel with mixed vegtation (photo by Richard Beilfuss).

6.2 Grey Crowned Cranes (Balearica regulorum)

Grey Crowned Cranes were not observed during the present survey, and there are no historical records of the bird in the Bangweulu Swamps. Their absence from Bangweulu is inexplicable. Grey Crowned Cranes occur across much of Zambia, including other large wetland systems such as the Kafue Flats, Mweru Wantipa, and Liuwa Plain, and especially the Luangwa Valley. Large flocks of Grey Crowned Cranes were observed not far from Bangweulu in Lukusuzi National Park on a hot spring in 1995 (B. Kamweneshe pers. obs.) and records suggest that they are found there in good numbers most of the year, although the area is less than 3 km2. Grey Crowned Cranes are considered to be non-migratory but undertake local seasonal movements in response to the abundance and distribution of food and nesting sites. Unlike Wattled Cranes, which are more water dependent, Grey Crowned Cranes require mixed wetland-grassland habitats and have been observed to nest within or on the edge of wetlands while foraging in nearby grasslands and croplands.

6.3 Lesser Flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor)

No flamingoes were observed during the present survey. The two species of flamingo occur only rather erratically in Zambia. Kamweneshe (pers. obs.) noted two lesser flamingos at Bangweulu for two days in 1988, east of the Chikuni Plain. Conditions at Bangweulu are generally considered unsuitable for these birds, which occur in good numbers at Mweru-Wantipa, a saline lake.

21 6.4 Ducks (Anatidae)

Large numbers of ducks and geese occur in the Bangweulu Swamps. Nine species were observed during the present survey (Table 6) and the Whitebacked Duck (Thalassornis leuconotus) is also known to occur at Bangweulu (Kamweneshe pers. obs.). Most of the ducks are either migratory to some extent or highly locally nomadic, their movements dictated by the food, rainfall, and breeding requirements. Many undergo a flightless period each year when they molt their wing . During this period they become quite vulnerable. Spurwinged geese are heavily hunted by local fishermen.

6.5 Storks (Ciconiidae)

Openbill Storks (Anastomus lamelligerus) are found in very large concentrations on suitable floodplain habitats in the Bangweulu Swamps. We estimate at least 30,000 birds were present during the July survey. Openbill Storks are known to concentrate during the dry season as water levels recede and their primary prey, freshwater snails, become more abundant. Openbills were also observed in large numbers on the Kafue Flats during the July surveys. However these numbers were significantly lower than were observed during the November 2001 surveys, when conditions on the flats were much wetter. Openbill numbers in the Zambezi Delta of Mozambique also fluctuate from year to year. Likely, Openbills move between these and other large wetland systems in the region depending on hydrological conditions and corresponding food availability.

Saddlebill Storks are uncommon in the vast Bangweulu Swamps, probably numbering less than 40 over the vast floodplains. Our survey occurred during what should be the main breeding season, and we observed five pairs, with three birds on nest. The remaining birds were singletons. Saddlebill Storks do not appear to be common in Zambia, but occur in large numbers in the Okavango Delta.

We observed only a few Yellowbill Storks (Mycteria ibis) on the Bangweulu Swamps, but larger numbers have been observed in the past (B. Kamweneshe pers. obs.). They tend to be solitary, but may occur in small flocks ranging from three to 15 birds on the edge of the floodplain, rivers, and lakes.

Several stork species are known to occur at Bangweulu as uncommon residents or seasonal visitors, but were not observed during the present survey. Solitary White Storks (Ciconia ciconia) were observed on the swamps during ground surveys in 1993 and 1994 (Kamweneshe pers. obs.). The bird is a seasonal visitor to Zambia, breeding in Europe. Black Storks (Ciconia nigra) are uncommon residents of Bangweulu and were not observed during the survey. They are found in the interior of the swamps. Abdim’s Storks (Ciconia abdimii) are common summer visitors and migrants that appear at the beginning of the rainy season. They are commonly seen in the fields and

22 floodplains. Past ground observations suggest that the species congregate on the southern floodplains, especially areas around Chikuni, and disperse when the water levels become too deep. Marabou Storks ( crumeniferus) are residents and local migrants throughout the Bangweulu. They are most often found scavenging on carcasses.

7.0 Conservation of Wattled Cranes and other waterbirds at Bangweulu

The Bangweulu Swamps support one of the largest concentrations of Wattled Cranes in Africa, and the wise management and conservation of this unique wetland system is paramount. Most of the Wattled Cranes and other waterbirds of concern occur in the proposed Chikuni Game Management Area (GMA), which falls within the Bangweulu GMA and especially the Chambeshi GMA south and southwest of the lake (Kamweneshe 1996b). Chikuni GMA covers the Chimbwi floodplain, which supports most of the large flocks at Bangweulu during the dry season and requires the most urgent attention.

Much of this area is almost devoid of human settlements except for scattered fishing camps that are abandoned and rebuilt each year. Permanent human settlements in the swamps and floodplains are mostly restricted to higher ground on islands and riverbank areas. The Bangweulu system is also partially protected by Isangano National Park, from northeast of Lake Bangweulu to the Chambeshi River, but the park is almost devoid of and birdlife.

Wattled Cranes are known to be highly susceptible to changes in water conditions, fire patterns, and human disturbance. At present, water resources development in the Bangweulu Basin is minimal, especially compared to the Kafue Flats and other floodplains in southern Zambia. Drought was also not a factor during 2002. Although most areas in southern Zambia experienced critical drought this past year, good rainfall occurred in the north and most of central Bangweulu floodplains were inundated at the time of the survey. The annual fires that sweep across the seasonal floodplains at Bangweulu, typically set by the fishermen and hunters living in the swamps, threaten nests, eggs, and pre-fledged chicks. However, there is no evidence that the frequency or timing of fires has changed significantly in recent years compared to the past.

Collection of chicks has been reported for Shoebills (Kamweneshe pers. obs.), but past observations suggest that most people living in and around the swamps do not collect the eggs or chicks of Wattled Cranes. Wattled Crane adults are rarely taken for food, as most people prefer to catch Spurwinged geese or ducks. There is a local belief that a crane, if it is disturbed while on the nest or with a chick, could tear apart a young boy. This belief may be important in minimizing human disturbance to breeding cranes.

23 Further surveys of the Bangweulu are needed, especially at the beginning of the wet season when Wattled Cranes are dispersed, to better understand seasonal fluctuations in the population. Bangweulu surveys should be coordinated with other regional surveys to assess Wattled Cranes movements among large wetland systems in the region. Survey methods should follow the standardized procedures outlined in the report to enable comparison of results.

Research on the breeding and feeding ecology of Wattled Cranes at Bangweulu, as elsewhere in Zambia, is needed to better understand the requirements of the species and conservation needs. Studies are especially needed in the Chimbwi floodplain to contribute to conservation policy and planning for the Chikuni GMA.

Interviews should be conducted, using Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques, in the communities in and around the Bangweulu Swamps, to determine threats to Wattled Cranes and long-term trends in the population and distribution. This information will enable the design of effective awareness campaigns for the conservation of Wattled Cranes and other waterbirds near settlements.

8.0 References

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Beilfuss, R. 2000. Piecing together the story of an African floodplain: water, wetlands, and Wattled Cranes. ICF Bugle 26(1):1-3.

Beilfuss, R., C. Bento, P. Hancock, B. Kamweneshe, K. McCann, and K. Morrison. 2003. Water, wetlands, and Wattled Cranes: a regional monitoring and conservation program for Southern Africa. Proceedings of the International Conference on Environmental Monitoring of Tropical and Subtropical Wetlands. Okavango Research Center, Maun, Botswana.

Bento, C.M. 2002. The status and prospects of Wattled Cranes Bugeranus carunculatus in the Marromeu Complex of the Zambezi Delta. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Cape Town, South Africa.

Burke, A. 1996. Wattled Crane (Bugeranus carunculatus). Pages 76-88 in C. D. Meine and G. W. Archibald, eds., The Cranes: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, U.K.

Chabwela, H.N. 1992. The ecology and resource use of the Bangweulu Basin and Kafue Flats. Pages 11-24 in R.C.V. Jeffery, H.N. Chabwela, G. Howard, and P.J. Dugan, eds. Managing the wetlands of Kafue Flats and

24 Bangweulu Basin. Proceedings of the WWF-Zambia Wetlands Project Workshop, 5th-7th November, 1986. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Collar, N.J and Stuart. 1985. Threatened birds of Africa and related islands. The ICBP/IUCN Red Data book, Part 1. Cambridge: ICBP/IUCN.

Debenham, F. 1948. Study of an African swamp. H. M Stationery Office, London.

Dodman, T. 1996. Present status and distribution of cranes in the Kafue Flats, Zambia with reference to population estimates of the 1980s. Pages 255-259 in R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. Gichuki, eds., Proceedings of the 1993 African Crane and Wetland Training Workshop. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.

Douthwaite, R. J. 1974. An endangered population of Wattled Cranes. Biological Conservation 6: 134-142.

Fanshawe, D.B. 1971. The vegetation of Zambia. Forest research Bulletin No. 7. Zambian Government Printers.

Goodman, P.S. 1992. Zambeze Delta - an opportunity for sustainable utilisation of wildlife. International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau Bulletin 8:12.

Howard, G.W. and D.R. Aspinwal. 1984. Aerial censuses of Shoebills Storks, Saddlebills Storks and Wattled Cranes at the Bangweulu Swamps and Kafue Flats, Zambia. 55: 207-212.

Hughes, R.H. and J.S. Hughes. 1992. A Directory of African Wetlands. IUCN/UNEP/WCMC, Gland, Switzerland. 820pp.

Kamweneshe, B. and R. Beilfuss 2002a. Population and distribution of Wattled Cranes and other large waterbirds on the Kafue Flats, Zambia. Working paper number 1 of the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.

Kamweneshe, B. and R. Beilfuss 2002b. Wattled Cranes, waterbirds, and large mammals of the Lukanga Swamp, Zambia. Working paper number 3 of the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.

Kamweneshe, B., R. Beilfuss, and K. Morrison. 2003. Wattled Cranes, waterbirds, and large mammals of the Liuwa Plain National Park, Zambia. Working paper number 4 of the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.

25 Kamweneshe, B., R. Beilfuss, and C. Simukonda. 2002. Population and distribution of Kafue lechwe and other large mammals on the Kafue flats, Zambia. Working paper number 2 of the Zambia Crane and Wetland Conservation Project. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin.

Kamweneshe, B. 1996a. The status and ecology of Wattled Cranes in the Bangweulu Basin. Pages 261-265 in R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. Gichuki, eds., Proceedings of the 1993 African Crane and Wetland Training Workshop. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin

Kamweneshe, B. 1996b. Local People as Partners in Wetlands Conservation: A case study of Community Based Management. Pages 267-271 in R. Beilfuss, W. Tarboton, and N. Gichuki, eds., Proceedings of the 1993 African Crane and Wetland Training Workshop. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin

Konrad, P.M. 1981. Status and ecology of Wattled Crane in Africa. Pages 220-237 in J. C. Lewis and H. Masatomi, eds., Crane Research Around the World. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin, USA.

Urban, E. 1985. Status of cranes in Africa. Pages 3-15-329 in G.C. Blackhurst, ed., Proceedings of the Sixth Pan-African Ornithological Congress. Nairobi, .

Urban, E. 1996. Status of cranes in Africa, 1994. Pages 53-59 in R.D. Beilfuss, W.R. Tarboton, and N.N. Gichuki, eds., Proceedings of the African Crane and Wetland Training Workshop. International Crane Foundation, Baraboo, Wisconsin, USA.

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