PHONOLOGICAL STUDY ON DAYAK EMBALOH ENGLISH LEARNERS’ PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANT SOUNDS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Prestented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By
YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS ARTARONA BUU
Student Number: 044214138
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2009
i ii iii “You become a Loser if you say You can’t before you try”
For I know the thoughts that I think toward you to give you an expected end ( Jeremiah 29 : 11 )
For Father, Jesus Christ and Holy Spirit, Mother Mary, My Daddy Rofinus .B & my Mom Katarina, My Beloved Sister Agnes Annice Buu , All Family and friends.
iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thank to Jesus Christ for His kindness, so that the writer could complete the thesis writing. The title of this thesis is “The Phonological Study on Dayak
Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds.”
The respondents of this research are Dayak Embaloh Senior High School students in Benua Martinus, Putusibau, West Kalimantan.
There are a lot of people who guide, support and help the writer in completing this thesis writing. Therefore, the writer would like to thank:
1. Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A as the advisor for guiding and giving a lot of
advise so that the writer finally complete his research.
2. Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M.S as the reader for giving suggestions and advises.
3. Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum as the examiner.
4. All lecturers of English Letters study Programme of Sanata Dharma
University, and Mbak Ninik.
5. Bapak Nobertus Kombong, S.Pd as the Headmaster of SMU Negeri 01
Benua Martinus for giving research permission in his school to the writer.
6. His Parents Rofinus Buu and Katarina, his beloved sister Agnes Anice
Buu, Grandfathers and Grandmothers, Pa ua Paskalis Soo, Pa ua Moses
Salo, uncles and aunties, abang Linus & kaka Lila, abang Leo, abang Kris,
abang Frument, kaka Bony, kaka Angelina & abang Fran, adik Rensi, adik
Nia, adik Natalia, adik Uly, adik Cici, and all his cousins.
7. His brothers Mas Yono, Mas Debi, Ikhwanudin, Ari, Mario, Beni, Kobot,
Mas Singgih, Bayu, Roy Purba, Reo, B’jonk, Tanto.
v 8. His best friends Karisma Kurniawan, Lucia Kurniadi, Ardi Nugroho, Yuli,
Eli, Wulan, Bertha, Eka, Aili, Reena Rai, Nita, Hilda.
The writer realizes that this thesis has not been perfect yet. Therefore, the criticisms and suggestions are welcome from those who read this thesis. May God bless all of those who have helped the writer throughout the study.
Yohanes Krisostomos Artarona Buu
vi TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iii MOTTO PAGE ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii ABSTRACT ...... ix ABSTAK ...... x
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Limitation of Study ...... 4 C. Problem Formulation ...... 5 D. Objective of Study ...... 5 E. Definition of Term ...... 6
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ...... 8 A. Review of Related Studies ...... 8 B. Review of Related Theories ...... 9 1. English Consonants ...... 9 2. Field Linguistics ...... 14 3. Contrastive Linguistics ...... 16 4. Phonological Process ...... 20 5. The Form of Rule ...... 23 C. Theoretical Framework ...... 25
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...... 26 A. Object of Study ...... 26 B. Method of Study ...... 26 C. Research Procedure ...... 27
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ...... 32 A. Embaloh Consonant sounds ...... 32 I. Plosive ...... 32 II. Fricative ...... 35 III. Lateral ...... 36 IV. Trill ...... 36 V. Approximant ...... 37 VI. Affricates ...... 37 VII. Nasal ...... 38 B. Identifying consonants phoneme in Dayak Embaloh ...... 40
vii C. Comparison of Dayak Embaloh consonants and English consonants ...... 43 D. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonant ...... 46 I. Bilabial ...... 47 II. Labiodental ...... 50 III. Dental ...... 52 IV. Alveolar ...... 53 V. Palatoalveolar ...... 58 VI. Palatal ...... 62 VII. Velar ...... 63 VIII. Glottal ...... 65 E. Dayak Embaloh English students’ pronunciation...... 65 I. Consonants Change ...... 66 I.1.a Substitution of [t] for [θ]...... 67 I.1.b Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð] ...... 69 I.1.c Substitution of [s] for [∫] ...... 70 I.1.d Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ] ...... 72 I.1.e Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫] ...... 75 I.1.f Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ] ...... 77 I.1.g Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z] ...... 79 I.1.h Substitution of [p] for [b] ...... 81 I.1.i Substitution of [t] for [d] ...... 82 I.1.j Substitution of [k] for [g] ...... 83 I.1.k Substitution of [f] for [v] ...... 84 II. Deletion ...... 86 II.1.a Deletion of [j] ...... 86 II.1.b Deletion of [t] ...... 87
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 89 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 92 APPENDIX ...... 93
viii ABSTRACT
YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS A.B (2008). The Phonological Study on Dayak Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.
Language is an important part in human life because language is used for communication. English as a lingua franca means that this language is used by people whose mother tongues are different so that they can communicate with each other. Therefore, English is learnt by people around the world. In learning English, the students usually face some difficulties. One of the difficulty that students face is pronunciation. This phenomenon happens to Dayak Embaloh students who also learn English in school. The purpose of this study is to find out how Dayak Embaloh language as the mother tongue influences Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation of English consonants. Therefore, there are three problems that are discussed 1) what consonants are found in Dayak Embaloh language? 2) How are Dayak Embaloh consonants different from English consonants? 3) How are Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciations of English different from the Standard English pronunciation? In this study the writer used an empirical approach which means that this study is done based on the observation. The writer obtained the data from the Dayak Embaloh students of Senior High School in Benua Martinus. The writer asked his informants to pronounce some English words and record their pronunciation. Based on the data, Dayak Embaloh has only 17 (seventeen) consonants, they are /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /w/, /s/, /r/, /l/, /j/, /ĵ/, /h/, and /?/. There are 9 (nine) English consonants that do not exist in Dayak Embaloh language, they are /f/, /v/, //, //, //, //, /ð/, /z/, //. Most of Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute some English consonants into their native consonants because there are some English consonants do not exist in their native language. Dayak Embaloh students also tend to eliminate the English consonant that combine with another consonant as in words insect, most of Dayak Embaloh students tend to eliminate t in the final position. It is because in Dayak Embaloh phonological system, a consonant is combined with another consonant if the two consonants share the same feature in Place of articulation as in words angkan [aŋkan], tingkam [tiŋkam], etc. the consonant [ŋ] and [k] share the same feature that is both of them are velar.
ix ABSTRAK
YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS A.B (2008). The Phonological Study on Dayak Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Bahasa merupakan bagian yang penting dalam hidup manusia, ini dikarnakan bahasa adalah sarana untuk berkomunikasi. Bahasa Inggris sebagai lingua franca yang berarti bahwa bahasa Inggris digunakan oleh orang yang bahasa ibunya berbeda sehingga mereka dapat berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Dalam belajar bahasa Inggris, murid-murid biasanya menghadapi beberapa masalah. Salah satu masalah yang di hadapi oleh murid-murid dalam belajar Bahasa Inggris adalah masalah pengucapan. Fenomena ini juga terjadi pada murid-murid suku Dayak Embaloh yang juga mempelajari bahasa Inggris di sekolah. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana pengaruh bahasa Dayak Embaloh (jarum Banuaka) sebagai bahasa ibu terhadap pengucapan consonant bahasa Inggris. Olehkarna itu ada tiga perumusan masalah yang akan di bahas 1) Apa saja konsonan yang di temukan dalam Bahasa Dayak Embaloh? 2) Bagaimana konsonan Bahasa Dayak Embaloh berbeda dari bahasa Inggris? 3)bagaimana pengucapan murid-murid Dayak Embaloh berbeda dari pengucapan bahasa Inggris standar. Dalam studi ini penulis menggunakan pendekatan empiris dalam arti bahwa studi ini dilakukan berdasarkan observasi atau studi lapangan. Penulis memperoleh data dari murid-murid SMU di kecamatan Benua Martinus. Penulis meminta informan-informannya untuk mengucapkan beberapa kata-kata bahasa Inggris dan merekam pengucapan mereka. Berdasarkan data yang diperoleh, Dayak Embaloh hanya mempunyai 17 (tujuh belas) konsonan yaitu /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /w/, /s/, /r/, /l/, /j/, /ĵ/, /h/, and /?/. Ada Sembilan konsonan bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemukan dalam bahasa Dayak Embaloh, yaitu /f/, /v/, //, //, //, //, /ð/, /z/, //. Kebanyakan murid-murid Dayak Embaloh cendrung mengubah beberapa konsonan bahasa Inggris kedalam konsonan Dayak Embaloh. Hal ini dikarnakan ada beberapa konsonan bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemukan dalam bahasa Embaloh. Murid-murid Dayak Embaloh juga cendrung tidak mengucapkan konsonan bahasa inggris yang dikombinasikan dengan konsonan yang lain karena dalam system fonologi Dayak Embaloh, sebuah kosonan tidak pernah dikombinasikan dengan konsonan lain keuali kedua konsonan mempunya karakteristik yang sama dalam daerah pengucapan yang sama seperti dalam kata angkan [aŋkan], tingkam [tiŋkam], dan sebagainya. Konsonan [ŋ] dan [k] mempunyai karakteristik yang sama yaitu keduanya sama-sama velar.
x xi CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of Study
Language is something important for human beings. The most
important use of language for people is that it is used for communication,
since language allows people to say things to each other and express their
communicative needs. There are a lot of different languages used by
different groups of people around the world.
According to Baugh and Cable, English is the language which is in
the second largest number of native which is used by about 340 million
people, in England, United States, Australia, New Zealand and other
England ex-colonization (Baugh and Cable 1978 p.3). English is also
known as a lingua franca because it is a language which is used habitually
by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate
communication between them. As English is used by many countries
around the world either as the official language or as a second language,
there are some emerging varieties. Usually the varieties are based on
geographical area which is known as geographical varieties. Thus, the
more a language is spoken by people from different areas, the more
different varieties exist. British English and American English is one good
example for geographical varieties. Though British English and American
1 2
English belong to the same language, they are separate dialects which are different one from the other. We can differentiate whether someone is from either England or America based on their accent. For example, in
British English the word car is pronounced as [ka:] while American
English pronounced car as [kar]. In British English consonant /r/ in the final position is not pronounced while in American English, /r/ is pronounced. The same is true with the Indonesian language. There are also a lot of varieties of Indonesian language because the language is spoken by many groups of people in Indonesia. In Indonesia we know whether a person is a Batakese, Javanese, Irianese, etc, based on their accent.
Accent refers to the characteristics of speech that convey information about the speaker’s dialect which may reveal in what country or what part of a country the speaker has grown up or to which sociolinguistic group the speaker belongs. Therefore American people will know if a person is either from England or Australia based on the accent.
(Robert Rodman, 1974 p.225).
In some countries whose official language is not English, like
Indonesia, English is considered as a foreign language. Though English is a foreign language, the language is still learnt by Dayak Embaloh students in school. Dayak Embaloh is one of native tribes (Dayak tribe) in west
Borneo whose language is Banuaka (Jarum Banuaka). Dayak Embaloh people use Banuaka as their first language instead of the Indonesian 3
language. According to Wolfram and Johnson failure to overcome the patterns of phonology in the native language (abbreviated as L1) in speaking the target language (L2) results in “a foreign accent.”(Wolfram and Johnson, 1982 p.187). Therefore, Dayak Embaloh students will have a different accent or “foreign accent”whenever they pronounce some
English words or whenever they speak English. It is due to, among others, the influence of mother tongue whose phonological system is different from English and there are some sounds can not be found in the Dayak
Embaloh language (foreign sounds). The easiest example is the sound /∫/ of English. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound is a foreign sound and whenever there is a word which has such kind of sound so the sound changes. The process of sound changing is describable phonologically.
Therefore, in his thesis the writer will also discuss or describe the phonological process of Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation.
The accent will be seen based on the feature of word stress, and particularly the segmental aspect.
The writer is interested in this topic because a lot of Dayak
Embaloh students mispronounce some English sounds, or some sounds always change whenever it is pronounced by Dayak Embaloh students.
Therefore, in his thesis the writer would like to find out how Dayak
Embaloh students pronounce some English words whose sounds are not recognized or foreign to their language. 4
B. Limitation of study
Although the accent relates with pronunciation which contains
speech sound such as vowel, consonant, and diphthongs, in this research
the writer just concentrates on consonant sounds because first, study the
vowel is more difficult than consonants. Second, consonants make
English more understood than vowel. D.J O’Connorin his book Better
English Pronunciation says that consonants contribute more to making
English understood than vowel do and consonants are generally made
by a definite interference of the vocal organs with the air stream and so
are easier to describe and understand. For instance incomplete utterance
C—ld y-- p-ss m- - p—c- -f str-ng, pl—s-‘is easy for an English reader
to understand even though the vowel letters have been left out.
Similarly, if in actual speaking we leave out all the vowel sounds and
pronounce only the consonant most English would still be fairly easy to
understand. (O’Connor,1967 p.24)
There are some English consonant sounds that can not be found
in Dayak Embaloh language. Consonant sounds will also make people
misunderstand or confused whenever they are mispronounced. As D.J
O’Connor also says that the English speaker from different parts of the
world have different accent, but the differences of the accent are mainly
the result of differences in sounds of vowels; the consonants are
pronounced very much the same way whenever English is spoken. So, if
the vowels we use are imperfect it will not prevent us from being 5
understood, but if the consonants are imperfect there will be a great risk
of misunderstanding. In this thesis the writer will use Dayak Embaloh
student (Senior High School) as the object of his research because they
are English learners.
C. Problem Formulation
There are three main problems that should be analyzed in the
study of the Dayak Embaloh English learners/students’pronunciation of
consonant sounds toward British English. As there is no book which
discusses Dayak Embaloh language, the first thing that, the writer does
in his analysis is describing the consonants of Dayak Embaloh language.
Thus, to start the writer’s study the problems will be formulated as
follows;
1. What consonants are found in Dayak Embaloh language?
2. How are Dayak Embaloh consonants different from English
consonants?
3. How are Dayak Embaloh English learner’s pronunciation of English
different from the Standard English Pronunciation?
D. Objective of Study
As the writer would like to find out how Dayak Embaloh
English learners’pronunciation is different from the Standard English
Pronunciation, in this thesis the writer tries to find out how Dayak 6
Embaloh students pronounce some English words which sounds are
foreign for them. First the writer tries to find out or compare consonant
sounds between these two languages based on VPM (voice - place of
articulation - manner of articulation) description. Then the writer will
find out how consonant sounds that Dayak Embaloh have and have not.
This analysis will be a contrastive analysis which means that the
analysis is the comparison of language system not only its structure but
also its phonology in order to predict and explain foreign language
learning difficulties. In this thesis the writer also would identify Dayak
Embaloh English learners (students) mispronunciation by describing the
phonological process.
E. Definition of term
In this part the writer would like to point out the definition of
terms that are used in his thesis. The terms that are used are the
following:
Accent is characteristics of speech that convey information about
the speaker’s dialect, which may reveal in what country or what part of
a country the speaker grew up or to which sociolinguistic group the
speaker belongs. (Robert Rodman, 1974 p.225).
Consonant is speech sounds that are produced by the airflow as
it comes up from the lung. The main feature of consonant are VPM 7
(Voice –Place of articulation –Manner of articulation). (Lesley Jeffries,
2006 p.17).
Dayak Embaloh language is a language which is spoken in West central, Hulu Kapuas Regency, just south of the Sarawak border, upper
Kapuas River: Embaloh, Leboyan, Lauh, Palin, Nyabau, Mandai, and
Kalis tributaries. The dialect of this language is Tamanic, and Banuaka language categorized into Western-Malayo-Polynesian family.
(http://www.ethnologue.com)
Phonological process is a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact with other units in the system: assimilation, dissimilation, neutralization, deletion, epenthesis, metathesis (Walt
Wolfram and Robert Johnson, 1982 p.88).
Phonological study is a study of sound pattern of human language; it is also the kind of knowledge that speakers have about the sound patterns of their particular language. The study includes dialect and other language varieties. (Lesley Jeffries, 2006 p.44). CHAPTER II THEORITICAL REVIEW
A. Review of Related Studies
Phonological study on the influence of Surabayanese accent in English
pronunciation
In this part the writer would like to talk about the review of related
studies that discuss about phonological analysis. A work that almost
similar with what the writer is going to analyze in this thesis is The
influence of Surabayanese accent in English pronunciation among some
Indonesian members of British council done by Yola.
A study of the influence of the mother tongue toward English
pronunciation has been discussed by Yola Damayanty Gani in her
analyisis on The influence of Surabayanese accent in English
pronunciation among some Indonesian members of British council. In her
analysis she tried to find out what Surabayanese accent might affect their
English pronunciation. Her aim is to discover as accurately and objectively
as she can what these areas of common weakness are. Based on the
findings, the writer classifies the vowel, consonant and diphthong errors'
analysis into six main categories; they are insertion, deletion, flapping,
aspiration, vowel length, consonants change, vowels change,
diphthongization and monophthongization. For example in the deletion,
the surabayanese speaker left out /j/, /Iz/, /Id/, and /t/ sound in their English
pronunciation. Aspiration and vowel change are sort of distortion that
8 9
likely happen. The Surabayanese do not aspirate /p,t,k/ in the initial
position. They do not hold the articulation of vowels a little longer when
they occur before voice consonant, and etc. According to Yola, simplicity
is another reason why distortions happen, and the last influential factor is
the Indonesian and Javanese orthography system. There are many
distortions in vowel change, monophthongization and diphthongization, as
the result of using the Indonesian and Javanese orthography system in
their English pronunciation.
The difference of the writer analysis is only on the object of
analysis. The previous study is about how Javanese accent influence
English pronunciation while the object that the writer would like to
analyze is Dayak Embaloh language. The writer tries to find out how
Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciationof English words whose
sounds are foreign for them are different with the standard English
because every language has its own sound features which are different one
from the other.
B. Review of Related Theories
1. English Consonants
The way in which we describe consonants in phonetic terms is
according to where they take place, how they are articulated
(‘manner’) and whether the vocal cords are vibrating (‘voice’). This
three-way description of consonants is often known as the VPM 10
(voice-place-manner) description, and it can be used to describe consonants in any human language. There are other features of articulation that may also be relevant in particular cases (for example aspiration), but in general the VPM description is sufficient to characterize the different consonants of a language. All consonant speech sounds are articulated between the lips and the larynx, the area of the mouth where a significant obstruction of the airflow takes place.
Based on the place of articulation, the sounds are categorized as the following:
a. Bilabial sounds involve both lips and include /m/ as in music,
/p/ as in pen, /b/ as in bomb, and /w/ as in weird. As in all place
of articulation, bilabial consonants constrict the airflow to a
greater or lesser extent.
b. Labiodental articulation involves the top teeth and bottom lip,
and produces sounds such as /f/, as in fine, and /v/, as in vine.
c. Dental / Interdental the tip of the tongue is inserted between the
upper and lower teeth. For example sounds /θ/ as in think and
/ð/ as in though.
d. Alveolar is the sounds produced by touching the tongue to the
bony tooth ridge or alveolar ridge. English made seven sounds
at or near this ridge: /t/ as in top, /d/ as in deep, /n/ as in name,
/l/ as in lamp, /s/ as in sip, /z/ as in zip, and /r/ as in red. 11
e. Palato-alveolar is sounds that are produced halfway between
alveolar ridge and hard palate. Post alveolar sounds involve the
body of the tongue being raised towards the front of the palate.
They include the English sounds /∫/ as in shame,/ʒ/ as in
leisure, /t∫/ as in church, and /ʤ/ as in jade. f. Palatal is the body of the tongue rises towards the most domed
section of the palate. English only has one palatal sound, the
‘y’ sound, which is represented as /j/ phonologically and is
found in yes. g. Velar sounds involve the back of the tongue moving towards or
making contact with the soft palate. There are three velar
sounds in English: /k/ as in king, /g/ as in goat and /ŋ/, which
only occurs at the end of syllables, is spelt ‘ng’ and occur twice
in singing. h. The final place of articulation is glottis, where a number of
sounds are theoretically possible. The only pressure that can be
put upon the airflow in the glottis is by pivoting and closing the
vocal folds. For example sound /h/ as in house.
Having considered all the places of articulation we shall look at the other main axis of consonant manner of articulation. i. The most consonantal of the manner of articulation is the
plosive, where there is a complete closure of the vocal tract at
one of the places of articulation. The pressure builds up from 12
bellow, with the egressive airstream being pushed out of the
lungs and into the oral cavity. Eventually this pushes the
articulators (for example the tongue and alveolar ridge) apart,
resulting in a small explosive sound. The plosive sounds in
English are /p/ as in pick, /t/ as in top, /k/ as in count, /b/ as in
buy, /d/ as in day, and /g/ as in give. j. The nasal consonants share a common feature with plosives in
that they involve a complete closure at some point along the
vocal tract. The term that is used for this is stop, and in some
phonetic descriptions the nasal and plosive are designated as a
single group of ‘stop’ consonants. The differencein the case of
nasals is that the velum is lowered away from the back wall of
the pharynx and the air escapes through the nose as the same
time as entering the closed-off oral cavity. The English nasals
are /m/ as in mine, /n/ as in night, and /ŋ/ as in sing. k. Fricatives can be seen as consonantal but with the less
obstruction of the airflow. The fricative consonants involve the
articulators (tongue, teeth, alveolar ridge, and so on) coming
into close contact, but without complete closure. This enable
the outgoing airstream to escape through the small space left
between the articulators. Like nasal consonants, because there
is no complete obstruction of the air these sounds can be 13
extended as long as the speaker has breath available. The
English fricatives are /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /∫/, /ʒ/, and /h/. l. Affricates are not always recognized as separate consonants by
phoneticians because they appear to be made up of two
consonants. However it is the normal convention in English
phonology to treat them as individual sounds. Like the plosives
they begin with a complete closure, but instead of the air
building up and causing an explosive release, it is released
slowly with the effect that there is a short fricative phase when
the articulators separate but before they move completely apart.
The affricates are described as /t∫/ and /ʤ/ and occur twice in
words church and judge respectively. m. Still less consonantal, though still not quite vocalic (vowel-
like), are the approximants or semi-vowels. These sounds are
produced by the articulators moving toward closure but not
getting close enough to cause either frication or a plosive build-
up of pressure. The English approximants include /w/ as in
what, /r/ as in rot, and /j/ as in yacht. n. Lateral is a speech sound when the tongue touches the alveolar
ridge but the sides of the tongue are lowered to allow the air to
escape freely. English lateral is /l/ as in low. (Lesley Jeffries,
2006 : 17-26) 14
Table I. 1.1 The Consonants of English
Labio- Palato- Bilabial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental alveolar -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v Plosive p b t d k g Nasal m n ŋ Fricative f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h Affricate t∫ dʒ Approximant w r j Lateral l (Source: Discovering Language; The structure of Modern English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p.26)
2. Field Linguistics
As there are no books which have ever discussed or analyzed the
Dayak Embaloh language ,the first thing that writer will do in his
thesis is to describe the Dayak Embaloh phonology. The way he
obtains the data is by asking his informant the basic core vocabularies.
Therefore the field linguistics is needed in his thesis.
Pamela Munro in A Hand book of Linguistics says that Field
Linguistics refers to the collection of primary linguistic data from the
ordinary people. This type of data collection is called “field work.”
Classical field work is done in the “field,” the area where the speakers
actually live (rather than in an artificial setting, such as a university
class room), or even more classically are from which the speaker’s
ancestors originated. (Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller, 2002:130).
Wiliam J Samarin in his book Field Linguistics also defines field
linguistics as a way of obtaining linguistics data and studying 15
linguistics phenomena. It is involving two participants, the first is the speaker of the language and the linguistic researcher. It is done by personal contact. The speaker of language or what we called as the informant is the source of language.
Field linguistics is generally thought of as a work done on languages which have either never been studied before or only poorly. It has played an important part in man’s study of language. If we had to depend only on the written record of language, our knowledge would be severely restricted indeed.
There are also some human factors in doing the field linguistics.
The human factors in field linguistics are;
a. The researcher should
1. Have enough knowledge/ skill/ training how to deal
with linguistic data.
2. Know the culture where the language is spoken
because the language is used in a certain culture and
the representation of culture. Many language utterances
are only meaningful in their cultures but less in others
3. Know what others have studied about language.
b. The aim of field linguistics is the language of community and
not an idiolect (the language of person). Therefore the
researcher should be part of community and understand the
communal practices. 16
c. The informant is someone who provides linguistics data and
helps the researcher verifies the hypothesis. Therefore an
informant should;
1. Give the body of data (corpus), which is necessary for
generalization about the grammar of language.
2. Check the accuracy of the data
3. Provide phonological aspects of the language, and
4. Provide data of living language.
The characteristics of good informants are;
1. Should have time and be patient, ingenious and tactful to
provide, obtain, and interpret data.
2. Should be well informed, independent, intelligent, alert, and
good in memory.
3. Should speak the language natively with good diction and
articulation.
4. Should be talkative, critical and analytical.
3. Contrastive Linguistics
In this part the writer would like to talk about the contrastive
linguistics. In this part the writer will point out the meaning of
contrastive linguistic and how to apply the theory.
According to Faisak the contrastive linguistics is defined as the
comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in 17
order to determine both the differences and similarities between them
(Fisiak, 1981: 1).
In learning the language, the students of the native language usually get difficulties to study the foreign language because of the differences in linguistic feature of two languages. The theory of
Contrastive linguistic is useful in identifying or predicting the error possibilities that can be made by the L2 learners. According to Nickel, learning the second language will be much easier whenever there are similarities between the language and the mother tongue. Learning may be interfered with when there are marked contrast between mother tongue and second language (Nickel, 1971: 23)
Wolfram and Robert Johnson said in their book Phonological
Analysis that level of difficulty are predicted based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems. Generally speaking, we may say that the higher the degree of similarities between the phonological category in L1 and L2, the easier it will be to learn the L2 categories.
Conversely, the more different they are, the more difficult L2 will be to learn. The same as what is stated by Wolfram and Robert Johnson,
Weinrich in his book Language in Contact states that the greater differences between the system, i.e the numerous the mutually exclusive forms and patterns in it, the greater is the learning problem and the potential area of interference. (Weinrich 1953: 1) 18
Robert Lado said that in learning the sound system of a foreign language one finds sound that one physically similar to those of the native language that structure similarly to them, and that are similarly distributed. Learning of such phonemes occurs by transfer without difficulty. On the other hand, one also finds sounds that are not part of the sound system of native language, that structure differently, or that are differently distributed. Learning of these occurs more slowly, and difficulty with them is more persistent. In fact, learning the letter actually means learning the sound of language. We therefore seek to find those problems.
Lado said when the foreign language uses a phoneme that does not exist in the learners’ native language, that is, when there is no phoneme in the native language that could be transferred into foreign language the student will not be able to produce that phoneme readily in learning the foreign language. S/he will substitute some other phoneme from his native stock. The experience shows that the learner will have trouble hearing as well as producing the new phoneme.
He also said that we will able to complete our comparison on the basis of sound feature which consists of the vibration of vocal cord versus non vibration (voiced vs voiceless sound), place of articulation, and manner of articulation. Based on Lado experience, even when native language has a similar phoneme and the variants are similar, if it does not occur in the same position as in the native language the student 19
will have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does occur in the foreign language. For example in comparing French with English we would find that French /ʒ/ as in jamais has a parallel
English phoneme /ʒ/ as in measure. We would find that its variants would not cause any particular difficulty. But we would notice that in
French it appears at the beginning of that word and in English it does not. English speaker will transfer their /ʒ/ with its limitation into
French and will have difficulty with learning the word initial /ʒ/ in that language.
When the students find a sequence in which one of the phoneme of the foreign language is not to be found in their native language it of course could simply said as sequence problem and that phoneme itself should be listed as phoneme problem.
Lado also said that in language with writing systems that in some way represent sounds, the student often mispronounces words because of influences from those writing systems. When both the foreign language and the native language use the same alphabet, the problem may be traceable to one of two possible causes. One possibility is that the same symbol might represent two different sounds in the two languages. In such a case the student tends to transfer the native symbolization to the foreign language. For example, an English speaker studying Spanish will sometimes pronounce Jimenez as
/dʒImInIz/, while in Spanish J is pronounced as /h/. Another possibility 20
of spelling interference with pronunciation arises with inconsistencies
in the spelling of the foreign language. The symbol which in one word
represents one sound turns out to represent a different sound in another
word. For example, any student learning English might pronounce
words ‘honest’ or ‘hour’ with an initial /h/ sound, when of
course there is no /h/ in their pronunciation. The student may have
simply generalized on the basis of the many words in which an initial
letter ‘h’ does represent an initial sound /h/ as in words house, hat,
have, head, hand, etc.
4. Phonological process
According to Walt Wolfram and Robert Johnson (1982:88) in
Phonological Analysis Phonology is not a static system in which an
established unit remained unchanged in all its occurrences. Rather, it is
a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact
with other units in the system. We refer to such changes as
phonological process. The examination of a phonological system at a
given point in time will reveal many such processes. There are several
phonological processes:
a. Assimilation
One of the most types of processes found in language is
assimilation, in which a sound takes on the characteristics of a 21
neighboring sound. There are two necessary components that
define assimilation: first, a sound that changes (the assimilating
sound) and second, the sound that causes the change (the
conditioning sound). In terms of the traditional classification of
phonological changes, one of the ways in which a sound may
assimilate relates to the place of articulation of neighboring
sound. A sound may change to take on position of a preceding
or following sound. The ten bikes in colloquial speech would
be /tem baIks/ not /ten baIks/ is an example of assimilation in
which the sound is influenced by the following sound. In lunch
score articulated with –s becoming -∫under the influence of
sound ch [t∫]. b. Dissimilation
Whereas assimilation refers to process in which segments take
on the character of neighboring segments, dissimilation refers
to the process in which segment changes to become less like a
neighboring segment. There are several cases of words which
have apparently developed into their current from through
dissimilation. The word pilgrim is sometimes cited as a case of
dissimilation. It was derived from the Latin form peregrius by
changing the first r to l. Similarly, in non-mainstream varieties
where chimley corresponds to the standard form chimney, the 22
change from n to the non-nasal l may also be viewed as
dissimilation. c. Neutralization
Particular processes that result in the cancellation of contrasts
between phonological units are often described by the term
neutralization. That is, two or more units that ordinarily
contrast lose that contrast in certain environments. For
example: salad is pronounced as [sælIt], the sound /d/ in the
final position is pronounced as /t/ instead of /d/. d. Deletion
In phonological process of deletion, units which occur in some
contexts are lost in others. In many cases, deletion processes
change the syllable structure of a word, thereby creating
preferred type of syllable pattern. For example, deletion
processes may break up clusters of consonants or vowels in
order to arrive at the more universally preferred CV pattern.
Some of English deletion processes are readily noticeable;
other are simply forms that we automatically apply but may not
be aware of until they are pointed out. For example: west side
[wεs saId], west end [wεs εnd], blind man [blaIn mæn], blind
eye [blaInd aI]. In these examples of cluster reduction, the final
segment of a word-final consonant cluster is deleted when the
following word begins with a consonant. If the following word 23
begins with a vowel, however, this process usually does not
apply.
e. Epenthesis
Inserting a sound segment into a form is called epenthesis.
Although it seems to occur less frequently than deletion,
epenthesis is by no means uncommon as a phonological
process. Both vowel and consonants may be inserted in
epenthetic processes. One process often considered to be
epenthetic involves plural form in English. For example form
of plural occurs after sibilants buses [bΛsIz], dishes [di∫Iz], and
judges [ʤΛʤIz]. The /I/ in this example is inserted between
sibilant.
f. Metathesis
When two segments reverse positions, the process is known as
metathesis. Pronouncing ask as aks (in some nonmainstream
varieties) represent the remnants of this process.
5. The form of Rules: Preliminary Conventions
Phonological rules are formalized according to a set of fairly well-
established conventions. What we present here are those most
generally in current use within generative phonology, although there
are certainly other conventions that might be used to capture the
various processes we have discussed. Several necessary details have to
be included in the formalization of a phonological rule. First, there 24
must be an input, the unit which is to be affected by the process. Then, there must be a change, the phonological processes which leads to the resultant form or output of the rule. And finally, there must be a relevant linguistic environment in which the change takes place. We have repeatedly noted the importance of the linguistic environment or context as factor in describing various changes. These factors might be captured in the simple type of convention as follows, where the arbitrary letters stand for the various units within the rule.
X → Y/A ____ B
In this convention, the form to the left of the arrow, X, is the input, and the form to the right of arrow, Y, the output. The arrow indicates the change, and should be read as “becomes”or “is changed to” (or, more theatrically, “is written as”). The diagonal / should be read as “in the context of.” All information to the right of diagonal specifies the linguistics environment in which the rule applies. That is the process or change can only take place when the input is found in the environment specified to the right of diagonal. The underscore or environmental bar, indicates where the input X occurs within the string of items represented by the environment. The relevant environment preceding the input is placed to the left of the environment bar (here, A__ ), and the relevant environment following the input is placed to the right of the bar (here, B__ ). So the rule above represent the change AXB to 25
AYB, where X is the input, Y the output, A the preceding environment,
and B the following environment.
C. Theoretical Framework
The theory of consonants that are used is to help the writer to find
out the consonants stocks that exist in English and Dayak Embaloh
language so that the differences of consonant sounds between those two
languages can be identified. The Contrastive Linguistic theory is helpful
for the writer to compare two or more languages or subsystems of
languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities so
that level of difficulty of Dayak Embaloh students could be predicted
based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems.
The theory of phonological process will help the writer to point out
the changing that occurs as the result of the different of consonant sounds
that Dayak Embaloh language has for example in the word god the sound
/d/ voice stop will change become voiceless stop because in Dayak
Embaloh sound voice sounds never occur in final position. The theory of
Phonological rules will help the writer in making rule of the changing of
sounds. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
A. Object of the Study
The object of this study is how Dayak Embaloh language as the
first language influences Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation.
As the writer said in the introduction that he is interested in this topic
because a lot of Dayak Embaloh students mispronounce some English
sounds or some sounds are changing whenever they are pronounced by
Dayak Embaloh students, therefore in this thesis the writer would like to
find out how Dayak Embaloh students pronounce some English word
which sounds are not recognized or foreign in their language. There are
several phonological processes that will be analyzed for example how they
pronounce the word think. From this word the writer tries to analyze either
there is changing sound of /θ/ because the sound /θ/ is foreign for them or
deletion of sound /k/, or another example is the sound /∫/ which is also a
foreign sound in Dayak Embaloh language, thus how Dayak Embaloh
students pronounce the sound /∫/ and what happen to sound /∫/ whenever
this sound occurs in certain word of English is what the writer trying to
analyze in this thesis.
B. Method of Study
The method that will be used by the writer is a empirical approach because
the data is not based on the library data but the direct data or based on
26 27
observation.It means that the writer has to go directly to Dayak Embaloh
students as English learners (his respondents) to collect the data. However,
before the writer collects the data of Dayak Embaloh students’English
pronunciation, the writer first collects the Dayak Embaloh language data
as there is no book which has ever discussed about Dayak Embaloh
language. After the writer has collected the data, he described the Dayak
Embaloh consonants that are found in this language. This data will help
the writer in comparing the consonants between English and Dayak
Embaloh so that the difficulty of Dayak Embaloh students in pronouncing
some English consonants sounds can be predicted. The writer then collects
another data that is Dayak Embaloh students’English pronunciation. The
writer uses the tape recorder as the instument to record the Dayak
Embaloh students’ pronunciation. The pronunciations that are produced by
his respondents will be transcribed into phonetic transcription, and then
the writer will analyze the phonetic transcription of Dayak Embaloh
students’ pronunciationby comparing it with the actual English phonetic
transcription.
C. Research Procedure
The population of this research is Dayak Embaloh students (senior high
school) in Banua Martinus who learn English. The writer took Dayak
Embaloh students in Banua Martinus because most of Dayak Embaloh
students are using Embaloh language (Jarum Banuaka) as their first 28
language or mother tongue. As Jarum Banuaka is used as their first language of mother tongue, of course, the language will influence their
English pronunciation.
a. Data Collection
The writer found a Dayak Embaloh person as his informant to
obtain the Dayak Embaloh language data. The criteria of his
informant are;
1. Ingenious and tacktful to provide and obtain the data.
2. Should be well informed, independent, intelligent, alert,
and good in memory.
3. Should speak the language natively with good diction, and
articulation.
4. Should be talkative, critical, and analytical.
The writer took twenty Dayak Embaloh students as his
respondents to obtain the data of Dayak Embaloh students’
English pronunciation. The criteria of his respondents are Dayak
Embaloh students; they use Jarum Banuaka as their first language
or mother tongue, they come from Banua Martinus, and those who
are good in English it means that the writer will chose the students
whose English grade is more than 7.00. The procedures of
collecting the data are: 29
1. Dayak Embaloh students were asked to read a list of
words, which words were familiar or common words
given by the writer one by one.
2. While reading the words the writer recorded their
pronunciation. It was done in a certain way in order not
to disturb their natural pronunciation.
3. After the writer recorded the data, he transcribed it into
phonetic transcription. b. Data Analysis
After collecting the data the writer will analyze the data
based on the following steps:
1. As the writer said previously that there is no book
which has discussed the Dayak Embaloh language, thus
the first thing that the writer did was find an informant
to obtain the data of Dayak Embaloh language.
2. The writer gave the basic core vocabularies. The
example can be seen in Samrain’s Field Linguistics.
3. After the writer recorded the basic vocabularies of
Dayak Embaloh that writer obtained from his
informant, the writer then transcribed it into phonetic
transcription. 30
4. Based on phonetic transcription the write identified the
consonants that were used in the Dayak Embaloh
language.
5. The consonants sounds that were identified then would
be categorized based on the Place of Articulation,
Manner of Articulation, and Voice or Voiceless sound.
6. After obtaining the Dayak Embaloh consonants then the
writer compared Dayak Embaloh consonants sounds
and English consonants sounds based on the voiced vs
voiceless, place of articulation, and manner of
articulation.
7. Based on the comparison of consonant sounds of those
two languages, the writer looked for certain sounds that
were foreign for Dayak Embaloh students and could
predict what kind of sound that had changing
possibilities.
8. To find out how Dayak Embaloh students pronounced
certain sounds that are foreign for them, the writer
recorded and transcribed the Dayak Embaloh students’
pronunciation, and then he found out Dayak Embaloh
students’ mispronunciation.The test was not only on
the sounds that are foreign for Dayak Embaloh students
but also on the sequences that did not occur in Dayak 31
Embaloh language and the sounds that were similar
with English which did not occur in the same position
as in Dayak Embaloh language.
9. Then he related the Dayak Embaloh students’
mispronunciation into the related study that had been
discussed in chapter II. The mispronunciation would be
classified based on the phonological processes of
certain sounds. For example the deletions of sound /k/
in final position of the word think.
10. After classifying the Dayak Embaloh mispronunciation
based on phonological processes, then the writer made
parentage on the Dayak Embaloh students’
mispronunciation. The percentage of Dayak Embaloh
students’ mispronunciation would help the writer in
analyzing their mispronunciation tendency toward
certain sounds.
11. After making percentage on Dayak Embaloh students’
mispronunciation, the writer would analyze the
phonological processes. Then the writer made the
phonological rule based on the phonological processes.
12. Then the writer made a conclusion how Dayak Embaloh
consonant sounds would influence their English
pronunciation and explain how it happens. CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
A. Embaloh Consonant sounds.
As there is no book which has discussed the Dayak Embaloh
linguistics, the writer had to describe the consonants of Dayak
Embaloh himself. The data that he obtained is from his informant
whose name is Katarina, an Elementary School teacher in Lanjak,
Kapuas Hulu. The way the writer obtained the data was by giving his
informant 200 basic words as stated by William J Samarin (1967).
However, there are some words of Dayak Embaloh that the writer
added in his data therefore the words that the writer obtained is more
than 200 words. Based on the data that the writer obtained from his
informant, the consonants of Dayak Embaloh language (Banuaka)
consist of only seventeen consonants. They were classified based on
placed of articulation, Manner of articulation and Voicing as follow:
I. Plosive
The voiceless bilabial plosive [p] occurs in initial, medial, and
final position of the word in Dayak Embaloh language. In final
position of the word the phoneme /p/ is unreleased and it is not
aspirated in elsewhere position.
32 33
[p]- [pakoako] ‘lie’ [palo?] ‘sweat’ [pano?] ‘full’ -[p]- [sapadua] ‘some’ [sapulo’] ‘ten’ [anipis] ‘thin’ [ařipak] ‘ripped’ -[p] [tiap] ‘to blow’ [sa:p] ‘wings’ [sosop] ‘to suck’
The voiced bilabial stop [b] occurs in initial position and medial position, however it never occurs in the final position.
[b]- [baute?] ‘white’ [bakok] ‘fat’ [baḓʒao?] ‘far away’ [bařa] ‘big’ -[b]- [baba?] ‘mouth’ [babaiŋe] ‘woman’ [babaka] ‘male/man’ [mabal] ‘hit’
The voiceless dental stop [t] occurs in initial, medial, and final position of the word. In the final position the sound [t] is not released and not aspirated.
[t]- [talu] ‘three’ [tantamuan] ‘yellow’ [tio?] ‘live’ [tamunta?] ‘vomit’ -[t]- [Alatala] ‘God’ [mataso] ‘sun’ [ate] ‘heart’ [ati?] ‘if’ [inataŋ] ‘animal’ -[t] [akat] ‘tree trunk’ [mandait] ‘sew’ [asekot] ‘narrow’ [maŋokot] ‘bite’ 34
The Voiced alveolar stop [d] in initial position is not aspirated the same as the other plosive stop. It occurs in the initial position and medial position only.
[d]- [dařa?] ‘blood’ [dadařa?] ‘red’ [dalan] ‘road’ [danum] ‘water’ [dalapan] ‘eight’ [daia] ‘his/hers’ -[d]- [pudi] ‘prise’ [akadeŋ] ‘stand up’ [asadiŋ] ‘wake up’ [aduduk] ‘sit down’ [apadis] ‘hurt’
The voiceless velar stop [k] occurs in initial position, medial, and final position. Like the sound [t] and [p], in initial position of word it is not released or aspirated as the sound [p] and
[t].
[k]- [kato:] ‘rightside’ [kajoko?] ‘leftside’ [kakapit] ‘little’ [kaŋkaman] ‘kingdom’ -[k]- [ikam] ‘we’ [iko] ‘thou’ [laki] ‘husband’ [ukit] ‘hill’ -[k] [bauřuk] ‘bad/rotten’ [ababak] ‘shattered’ [lauk] ‘fish’ [atanak] ‘freeze’
Voiced velar stop [g] occurs in initial position and medial position only.
[g]- [guluŋan] ‘all’ [galuŋ] ‘round’ [guluŋ] ‘help’ 35
[gado] ‘noisy’ -[g]- [pařagoleŋ] ‘stretched out’ [bagao] ‘chaotic/ uproar’ [guguluŋ] ‘circle’
The voiced glottal stop [?] in Dayak Embaloh occurs in the
medial and final position only.
-[?]- [ndi?aŋ] ‘here’ [aisilo?a] ‘how’ [na?an] ‘not’ [na?anpi] ‘not yet’ [mandua?aŋ] ‘find’ -[?] [sakule?] ‘sometimes’ [baju?] ‘many’ [lamba?] ‘walk’ [indi?] ‘this’ [iŋko?] ‘tail’
II. Fricative
The voiceless alveolar fricative [s] occurs in the initial,
medial and final position.
[s]- [sao] ‘house’ [suan] ‘sky’ [sia?] ‘salt’ [sasijo?] ‘play’ -[s]- [aso] ‘day’ [ase] ‘rice’ [asan] ‘name’ [asu] ‘dog’ -[s] [ulis] ‘spear’ [taiřis] ‘Scratch’ [atampus] ‘extinct/barren’ [mamis] ‘sweet’
The voiceless glottal fricative [h] never occurs in initial and
medial it occurs in final position only. However, it is in the form of
article. 36
-[h] [kah] - [lah] - [bah] -
III. Lateral
The voiced alveolar lateral [l] in Dayak Embaloh language
occurs in initial position, medial, and final position. [l] in Dayak
Embaloh is clear in all position of words.
[l]- [laki] ‘husband’ [lamba?] ‘walk’ [lauk] ‘fish’ [lila?] ‘tongue’ -[l]- [malasu] ‘spit’ [balaŋke] ‘long’ [malam] ‘night’ [saluan] ‘outside’ [l]- [batimpul] ‘dull’ [mabal] ‘hit’ [batabal] ‘thick’
IV. Trill
The voiced alveolar trill [r] occurs in initial, medial, and
final positions. In all position the [ř] is trilling.
[ř]- [řimput] ‘grass’ [řimbu] ‘smoke’ [mařuaŋ ḓʒawa] ‘sea’ [řati] ‘meaning’ -[ř]- [ařananaŋ] ‘swim’ [ařabau] ‘smell’ [ařeaŋ] ‘flow’ [biřiŋ] ‘beside’ -[ř] [akotoř] ‘dirty’ [intaloř] ‘egg’ [tatagař] ‘tremble’ [iŋař] ‘nose’ 37
V. Approximant (semi vowel)
The voiced semivowel [w] never occurs in initial position
and final position. It occurs in medial position only.
-[w]- [bawi] ‘pig’ [mawa] ‘bring’ [tatawa] ‘laugh’ [bawa’] ‘shame’ [mawin] ‘carry for s.o’
The voiced palatal semivowel (approximant) [j] occurs in
the medial position only.
-[j]- [baju?] ‘many/much’ [kajoko?] ‘leftside’ [kaju] ‘wood’ [sasijo?] ‘play’
VI. Affricates
Dayak Embaloh has only one affricate sounds. The voiced
alveolar affricate occurs only in initial and medial position of a
word. William Samarin in his book Field Liguistics used symbol
[ ̭] for fronting consonant (Wiliam Samarin 1967:183). Because
normally [t∫] or [dʒ] are palatal, therefore the symbol used for
Dayak Embaloh affricate is [ḓʒ] to show that it is alveolar.
[ḓʒ]- [ḓʒařum] ‘language’ [ḓʒaŋka?a] ‘enough’ [ḓʒolo] ‘long time ago’ [ḓʒaḓʒaŋat] ‘thin’ -[ḓʒ]- [maḓʒař] ‘to teach’ [baḓʒao?] ‘far away’ [baḓʒalam] ‘deep’ 38
VII. Nasal
The voiced bilabial nasal [m] occurs in initial, medial and
final positions.
[m]- [mantuaři] ‘human being’ [manḓʒaput] ‘hold’ [makap] ‘morning’ [mamata?] ‘green’ -[m]- [ama?] ‘father’ [mamele] ‘see’ [namin] ‘already’ [kamo?] ‘uncle’ -[m] [paŋkam] ‘slave’ [ma:m] ‘good’ [batařam] ‘sharp’ [manikam] ‘stab’ [nanařum] ‘black’
The voiced alveolar nasal [n] occurs in initial, medial and
final position of word.
[n]- [naŋkanak] ‘children’ [nana] ‘and/with’ [namin] ‘already’ [ninaŋ] ‘over there’ -[n]- [danum] ‘water’ [tana?] ‘ground’ [manutuŋ] ‘burn’ [manuk] ‘chicken’ -[n] [ařaun] ‘dark’ [indin] ‘that’ [aŋin] ‘wind’ [aŋka:n] ‘eat’
The voiced velar nasal [ŋ] in Dayak Embaloh never occurs
in initial position. It occurs in medial and final position of words.
-[ŋ]- [maŋita] ‘to see’ [maŋapuluŋaŋ] ‘to collect’ [saŋaři] ‘breakfast’ [maŋalit] ‘steal’ -[ŋ] [tolaŋ] ‘bone’ 39
[piaŋ] ‘grandmother’ [bataŋ] ‘belly’ [aliŋ] ‘echo’
The tables bellow are the result of discussion of the
classification that base on Place of articulation, manner of
articulation and, voicing. Based on the discussion above the writer
also made a table of word-initial, word-medial, and word-final
consonant in Dayak Embaloh.
Table II. 1.1: Dayak Embaloh Place and Manner of articulation
Labio- Palato- Bilabial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental alveolar -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v Plosive p b t d k g ? Nasal m n ŋ Fricative s h Affricate ḓʒ Trill r Approximant w j Lateral l (Source: Based on the writer observation)
Dayak Embaloh consonants which occur in the initial, medial and
final position of words are noted in the table below. Note that there are
four phonemes that never occur in initial position, they are sound /?/
and sound /ŋ/, /w/, /y/, while voiced stops and semivowel never occur
in final position.
Table II. 1.2: Word-initial, word-medial, and word-final consonants in Dayak Embaloh p b t d k g ? m n ŋ s l ř w j ḓʒ h Initial position √ √ √ √ √ √ - √ √ - √ √ √ - - √ √ of word 40
Medial √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ position of word Final position √ - √ - √ - √ √ √ √ √ √ √ - - - √ of word (Source; based on the writer observation)
In Dayak Embaloh language whenever there are two consonants
occurring before a vowel, they are restricted to the combination between
nasal phonemes and stop plosive phoneme.
- [ndien] ‘have/ exist’ - [ndi?] ‘this’ - [ndin] ‘that’ - [lamba?] ‘walk’ - [mambit] ‘climb’ - [baŋke] ‘corpse’ - [aŋkan] ‘to eat’ - [balaŋke] ‘long’ - [sampulo?] ‘God’ - [dampean] ‘
B. Identifying consonants phoneme in Dayak Embaloh
Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman (1988:73) says that to
determine the phonemes of any language is to see whether substituting one
sound for another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds
represent different phonemes. Therefore, the way to identify consonants
sound in Dayak Embaloh language is by identifying minimal pairs. The
minimal pairs will be identified based on Natural classes that are place of
articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.
a. Stop
[p] [b] paŋkam (slave) baŋkam (bruised)
ampat (four) ambat (many) 41
[p] [b] bilabial + + voiced - + stop + +
Based on table above, it shows that [p] and [b] are different phoneme because they are different in voicing. [p] is [-voiced] whereas [b] is [+voiced], therefore they are two different phonemes.
[t] [d] talan (swallow) dalan (way / road) ati? (if) adi? (younger brother/sister)
[t] [d] alveolar + + voiced - + stop + +
[t] and [d] are different phonemes. They are different in voicing, [t] is [-voiced] while [d] is [+voiced].
[k] [g] kalaŋ(arena) galaŋ(bracelet) laka? (take off) laga? (arrogant)
[k] [g] velar + + voiced - + stop + + 42
The table above shows that [k] and [g] is different
phonemes. [k] is [-voiced] while [g] is [+voiced].
[k] [?]
tatak (cut) tata? (prohibition)
tawak (gong) tawa? (share)
[k] [?] velar + - voiced - + stop + + b. Nasal
[m] [n]
maba? (possible) naba? (playing music instrument)
mamata? (green) manata? (giving a sign)
masam (sour) masan (name) (vt)
[m] [n] bilabial + - voiced + + nasal + +
[m] and [n] are different phonemes. As shown in
table above that phoneme [m] is [+labial] while phoneme
[n] is [-labial], therefore [m] and [n] are two different
phonemes. 43
[n] [ŋ]
manusuk (stick/stab) maŋusuk (rub)
bintan (fishhook) bintaŋ(star)
[n] [ŋ] alveolar + - voiced + + nasal + +
[n] and [ŋ] are different phonemes. The difference is
phoneme [n] is [+alveolar] while phoneme [ŋ] is [-alveolar/
+velar].
[m] [ŋ]
mamali (buy) maŋali (dig)
řařam (soak) řařaŋ(seldom)
[m] [ŋ] bilabial + - voiced + + nasal + +
[m] and [ŋ] are different phonemes. As shown in
table above that [m] is [+labial] while [ŋ] is [-labial]
C. Comparison of Dayak Embaloh consonants and English consonants
As the writer mentioned in the introduction that every group of
people of a language has their own sound characteristics which are
different one from the other. Although there are some sounds seem similar 44
there are some sounds seem foreign for a group of people of different language. Thus, sounds are something very important in human language because whenever they are combined into second layer they become meaningful unit. As Wolfram and Robert Johnson said in their book
Phonological Analysis that level of difficulty is predicted based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems. As Lado also said in his book Linguistics Across Cultures ( 1957:11) that the need for comparing the native and foreign sound systems is to predict and describe the pronunciation problems of the speakers of a given language learning another. Generally speaking, we may say that the higher the degree of similarities between the phonological category in L1 and L2, the easier it will be to learn the L2 categories. Conversely, the more different they are, the more difficult L2 will be to learn. Therefore, the comparison of these two languages is based on Manner of Articulation.
The following tables are the tables of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants based on the manner of articulation. The tables below will show the consonants that exist in Dayak Embaloh and English or the consonants that do not exist in one of them.
a) Stop
Stop p t k b d g ? D.Embaloh + + + + + + + English + + + + + + - Table III.1.1 Dayak Embaloh and English Stop 45
b) Nasal
Nasal m n ŋ D.Embaloh + + + English + + + Table III.1.2 Dayak Embaloh and English Nasal
c) Fricative
Fricative f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h D.Embaloh - - - - + - - - + English + + + + + + + + + Table III.1.3 Dayak Embaloh and English Fricative
d) Affricate
Affricate t∫ dʒ ḓʒ D.Embaloh - - + English + + - Table III.1.4 Dayak Embaloh and English Afficate
e) Approximant
Approximant r j w D.Embaloh + + + English + + + Table III.1.5 Dayak Embaloh and English Aproximant
f) Lateral
Lateral l D.Embaloh + English + Table III.1.6 Dayak Embaloh and English lateral
Based on the consonant comparison of Dayak Embaloh and
English consonants, there are 9 (nine) English consonants that do not exist 46
in Dayak Embaloh, they are [f], [ ð], [θ], [v], [z], [∫], [ʒ],[t∫], and [dʒ]. As
these consonants do not exist in Dayak Embaloh, so the Dayak Embaloh
students will have possibility mispronouncing English words which
consists of those consonants.
D. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonant
The writer now will discuss consonant sounds one by one; to find out
the distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants. Although both
Dayak Embaloh and English have the same phoneme, if some consonants
do not occur in the same position as the native language they also will
have mispronunciation possibilities. As Lado ( 1957:17) said that when the
native language has a similar phoneme and the variants are similar, if it
does not occur in the same position as in native language, the student will
have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does
occur in foreign language. In this part the writer will discuss it based on
PVM (Place of articulation, Voice, and Manner of articulation).
Table IV. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants Dayak Embaloh English Initial Medial Final Initial Medial Final p + + + + + + t + + + + + + k + + + + + + b + + - + + + d + + - + + + g + + - + + + m + + + + + + n + + + + + + ŋ - + + - + + f - - - + + + v - - - + + + θ - - - + + + ð - - - + + + 47
s + + + + + + z - - - + + + ∫ - - - + + + ʒ - - - + + + h - - + + + - t∫ - - - + + + dʒ - - - + + + r + + + + + + j - + - + + - w - + - + + - l + + + + + +
The table above is the summary of the following discussion of the distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants based on the PVM
(Place of articulation, Voice, and Manner of articulation).
The following are the discussion of distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants. As it was mentioned before, the writer will discuss the consonants one by one based on place of articulation, and the writer will make comparison of distribution of consonants to find out whether consonants of both languages share the same consonants distribution.
I. Bilabial
A bilabial-voiced-plosive in English is produced by
bringing both lips together, obstructs the air and releases it with an
explosion. Whenever the sound is produced the vocal cord is
vibrating. This kind of sound in English is represented by symbol
/b/ and it occurs in all position. This kind of sound can be found in
Dayak Embaloh language as well. It also can be represented as /b/ 48
sound and only can be found in initial position and middle position, never in final position.
Table V.1.1 D.E and English bilabial-voiced-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription Bauta [bauta] Bear [beƏ] [b]- Bariar [bařiař] Bacon [beIkƏn] Bajao’ [baḓʒao’] Bar [ba:] Kabal [kabal] Cable [keIbl] -[b]- Babong [baboŋ] Label [leIbl] Sabalu’ [sabalu?] Ribbon [rIbƏn] - - Robe [rƏ℧b] -[b] - - Rub [rΛb] - - Mob [mb]
A bilabial-voiceless-plosive sound is produced the same as the sound /b/. However, this kind of sound does not involve the vocal cord therefore there is no vibration in vocal cord and results on voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound is represented as
/p/ sound and it occurs in all position. This kind of sound can be found in Dayak Embaloh language as well and the sound can be represented the same as in English. Sound /p/ can also occur in all position in Dayak Embaloh language, in final position of the word the phoneme /p/ is unreleased and it is not aspirated in elsewhere position.
Table V.1.2 D.E and English bilabial-voiceless-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription Pakoako [pakoako] pear [peƏ] [p]- Palo’ [palo?] pea [pi:] Pangkuatan [paŋkuatan] peace [pi:s] 49
Topak [topak] chapel [t∫æpl] -[p]- Sape [sape] supper [sΛpƏ(r)] Bapu’ [bapu?] papacy [peIpƏsi] Tiap [tiap] rope [rƏ℧p] -[p] Madap [madap] type [taIp] Sosop [sosop] lip [lIp]
A bilabial-voiced-nasal sound is produced the same as sound /b/ and /p/, involving a complete closure in mouth but it allows the air escape through the nose and whenever the sound is produced the vocal cord is vibrating so that the sound produced is voice sound. In English this kind of sound is represented as /m/ and it can occur in all position. This kind of sound can also be found in
Dayak Embaloh language and can be represented the same as in
English. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound can also occur in all position.
Table V.1.3 D.E and English bilabial-voiced-nasal Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription manggulungi [maŋguluŋi] music [mju:zIk] [m]- mantuari [mantuaři] muscle [mΛsl] mamele [mamele] muzzle [mΛzl] namin [namin] temple [templ] -[m]- mamola [mamola] famous [feImƏs] kamo’ [kamo?] family [fæmƏli] pangkam [paŋkam] time [taIm] -[m] raram [rařam] lime [laIm] bataram [batařam] come [kΛm]
A bilabial-voiced-approximant sound is produced the same as the previous sounds. However, this sound is involving a near- 50
closure in the mouth but without friction and can be also called as
semi-vowel. This sound is represented with /w/ and in English this
sound can occur only in initial and medial positions. This sound
can also be found in Dayak Embaloh language and occur only in
medial position of word.
Table V.1.4 D.E and English bilabial-voiced-approximant Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - weird [wIƏd] [w]- - - wind [wInd] - - winch [wInt∫] bawi [bawi] tower [ta℧Ə(r)] -[w]- mawa [mawa] power [pa℧Ə(r)] tatawa [tatawa] shower [∫a℧Ə(r)] - - - - -[w] ------
II. Labio-dental
A labiodental-voiced-fricative sound is produced by
touching the lower lip to the upper teeth and there is friction
resulted between the articulator. In English this kind of sound is
represented by symbol /v/. This sound is voiced because it causes
the vibrating in vocal cord when the sound is produced. The sound
/v/ in English can occur in all position. In Dayak Embaloh this kind
of sound can not be found because Dayak Embaloh language never
involves lower lip and upper teeth in producing sound. 51
Table V.2.1 D.E and English labiodental-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - vain [veIn] [v]- - - victim [vIktIm] - - vile [vaIl] - - revere [rIvIƏ(r)] -[v]- - - poverty [pvƏti] - - savior [seIvjƏ(r)] - - live [laIv] -[v] - - give [gIv] - - pave [peIv]
A labiodental-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /v/. The difference of this sound is it does not involve or cause the vocal cord vibrates and the result is voiceless sound. In English, this kind of sound is represented by /f/ and it can occur in all position of words. As the writer said in the previous that Dayak Embaloh language never involves the lower lip and upper teeth in producing the sound. Therefore this kind of sound cannot be found in Dayak Embaloh language.
Table V.2.2 D.E and English labiodental-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - find [faIn] [f]- - - file [faIl] - - fill [fIl] - - referee [refƏri:] -[f]- - - prefer [pri:fз:r] - - reface [prefƏs] - - life [laIf] -[f] - - deaf [def] - - enough [InΛf] 52
III. Dental
A dental-voiced-fricative sound is produced by inserting
the tongue tip between upper teeth and lower teeth. When
producing sound there is friction occurring between the tongue and
teeth, and it vibrates the vocal cord which is resulting the voice
sound. This sound is represented by symbol /ð/ and can occur in all
position of word. However this kind of sound can not be found in
Dayak Embaloh language. Dayak Embaloh language never
produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the
upper teeth and lower teeth.
Table V.3.1 D.E and English dental-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - this [ðIs] [ð]- - - that [ðæt] - - then [ðƏn] - - leather [leðƏ(r)] -[ð]- - - father [fðƏ(r)] - - mother [mΛðƏ(r)] - - clothe [klƏ℧ð] -[ð] - - with [wIð] - - lathe [leIð]
A dental-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as
sound /ð/. The difference is when producing dental-voiceless-
sound the vocal cord does not vibrate which is resulting the
voiceless sound. This sound is represented by symbol /θ/. In
English dental-voiceless-fricative can occur in all position of word. 53
As the writer told before that Dayak Embaloh language never
produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the
upper teeth and the lower teeth, therefore this kind of sound can not
be found in Dayak Embaloh language as well.
Table V.3.2 D.E and English dental-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - thief [θi:f] [θ]- - - thin [θIn] - - think [θIŋk] - - lethal [li:θl] -[θ]- - - brothel [brθl] - - cathedral [kƏθi:drƏl] - - cloth [klθ] -[θ] - - path [pθ] - - death [deθ]
IV. Alveolar
An alveolar-voiced-plosive sound is produced by touching
the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge, obstructing the air and
releasing it with an explosion. When producing this sound the
vocal cord is vibrating which is resulting a voice sound. This sound
is represented with symbol /d/. In English this sound can occur in
all position. Dayak Embaloh language also has /d/ sound. This
sound can also occur only in initial and medial position of word
and never in final position. 54
Table V.4.1 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription danum [danum] die [daI] [d]- daun [daun] dial [daIƏl] daiko [daiko] detect [dItekt] sidai’ [sidai?] middle [mIdl] -[d]- tundi [tundi] widow [widƏ℧] akadeng [akadeŋ] leader [li:dƏ(r)] - - bid [bId] -[d] - - bad [bæd] - - deed [di:d]
An alveolar-voiceless-plosive sound is produced the same as sound /d/. However the vocal cord does not vibrate when the sound is produced so the sound becomes voiceless sound. In
English this kind of sound is represented by symbol /t/ and can occur in all position of word. In Dayak Embaloh language voiceless alveolar stop /t/ occurs in initial, medial, and final position of the word. In final position the sound /t/ is not released and not aspirated in initial position.
Table V.4.2 D.E and English alveolar-voiceless-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription tata’ [tata?] time [taIm] [t]- tatak [tatak] try [traI] tio’ [tio?] top [tp] Alatala [Alatala] little [lItl] -[t]- matonai [matonai] cattle [kætl] inatang [inataŋ] battle [bætl] akat [akat] fat [fæt] [t]- mantat [mantat] beat [bi:t] mamet [mamet] rat [ræt] 55
An alveolar-voiced-nasal sound is produced the same as sound /d/. However, in producing this sound the air is allowed to escape through the nose resulting the nasal sound. In English this sound is represented by the symbol /n/, which occurs in all position in English words. In Dayak Embaloh language [n] Voiced alveolar nasal occurs in initial, medial and final position of word.
Table V.4.3 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-nasal Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription nangkanak [naŋkanak] night [naIt] [n]- ninang [ninaŋ] nine [naIn] namin [namin] need [ni:d] danum [danum] lantern [læntƏ] -[n]- tana’ [tana?] center [sentƏ(r)] manuk [manuk] peanut [pi:nΛt] araun [ařaun] line [laIn] -[n] laan [laan] mine [main] angkan [aŋkan] sin [sIn]
An alveolar-voiced-lateral sound is produced with complete closure but allowing the air escapes in both sides of the tongue. In English this kind of sound is symbolized by /l/ and can occur in all position of word. In English this kind of sound will be clear /l/ whenever it occurs in initial and medial position of words and dark /ł/ whenever it occurs in final position of words. Dayak
Embaloh language, however, never differentiates this kind of sound either in initial position or final position. It means that in
Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound will be clear in all position. This kind of sound can occur in all position of the words. 56
Table V. 4.4 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-lateral Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription lalako’ [lalako?] late [leIt] [l]- lako’ [lako?] large [l:dʒ] loang [loaŋ] love [lΛv] malola’ [malola?] filter [filtƏ(r)] -[l]- balangke [balaŋke] sailor [seIlƏ(r)] ulun [ulun] molest [mƏlest] manutul [manutul] tail [teIl] -[l] agol-agol [agol-agol] mile [maIl] bakul [bakul] pill [pIl]
An alveolar-voiced-fricative sound is represented by symbol /z/. This sound is produced the same as previous sound.
However, when producing this sound the vocal cord is vibrating which causes voiced sound and there is friction between tongue tip and alveolar ridge. In Dayak Embaloh language however, this kind of sound can not be found. Dayak Embaloh language never produces voiced sound for alveolar-fricative. Alveolar-fricative in
Dayak Embaloh language is always voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound can be found and occur in all position of words.
Table V. 4.5 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - zero [zIƏrƏ℧] /z/- - - zeal [zi:l] - - zip [zIp] - - basil [bæzl] -/z/- - - desert [dezƏt] - - design [dIzaIn] 57
- - rise [reIz] -/z/ - - gaze [geIz] - - size [saIz]
An alveolar-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /z/. However, whenever this sound is produced the vocal cord is not vibrating which cause voiceless sound. This kind of sound is represented by symbol /s/. In English this kind of sound can occur in all position of word. As the writer said previously that in Dayak Embaloh language alveolar-fricative is always voiceless.
Therefore, this kind of sound can also be found and occur in all position of words in Dayak Embaloh language.
Table V. 4.6 D.E and English alveolar-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription sao [sao] sign [saIn] [s]- sidua’ [sidua?] sick [sIk] saringkan [sařiŋkan] see [si:] malasik [malasik] basin [beIsn] -[s]- pasan [pasan] basket [b:skIt] pasung [pasuŋ] pistol [pIstl] mingkas [miŋkas] bus [bΛs] -[s] amas [amas] kiss [kIs] karatas [kařatas] miss [mIs]
An alveolar-voiced-approximant is produced by near closure between tongue blade and the area just behind the alveolar ridge. This sound is represented by symbol /r/. In English this kind of sound can occur in all position of words. In Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound also occurs in all position of the words.
In all position of word the sound is trilling while in English this 58
kind of sound has allophone. In English after fortis consonant /p, t,
k, f, θ, ∫etc, a devoiced (voiceless) allophone occurs [ɹ] e.g. in
train, crane, free, shrug. Allophone [ɾ] occurs intervocally as in
very, marry. In Dayak Embaloh the [r] sound is never followed or
preceded by other consonants.
Table V. 4.7 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-approximant Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription rimput [řimput] rich [rIt∫] [r]- rabor [řaboř] right [raIt] rami [řami] run [rΛn] maratak [mařatak] marry [mæri] -[r]- maripak [mařipak] cry [kraI] marurun [mařuřun] shrug [∫rΛg] indoor [indooř] car [k:(r)] -[r] tarear [tařeař] bar [b:(r)] tatagar [tatagař] near [nIƏ(r)]
V. Palatoalveolar
A palatoalveolar-voiced-fricative in English is represented
by the symbol /ʒ/. In English the Palatoalveolar-voice-fricative [ʒ]
occurs only intervovally, except for a few loan words from French,
where it may occur initially and finally. However this kind of
sound is never produced in Dayak Embaloh, because Dayak
Embaloh language never produces sounds by raising the body of
the tongue toward the front of the palate. This kind of sound will
have higher substitution possibilities that could be made by the
Dayak Embaloh students when they pronounce it. 59
Table V.5.1 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - gigolo [ʒigƏlo] [ʒ]- - - genre [ʒ:nrƏ] - - jabot [ʒabo] - - vision [viʒƏn] -[ʒ]- - - measure [meʒƏ(r)] - - pleasure [pleʒƏ(r)] - - rouge [ruʒ] -[ʒ] - - blancmange [blƏ’mnʒ] - - phage [faʒ]
A palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative in English is represented by the symbol /∫/. In English this kind of sound is produced the same as the sound /ʒ/. However, when sound /∫/ is produced, the vocal cord is not vibrating therefore this sound is categorized into the voiceless sound. In English this sound can occur in all position of word. As the writer told before that Dayak
Embaloh language never produces sound by raising the body of the tongue toward the front of the palate. Therefore this kind of sound is not produced in Dayak Embaloh language. In Dayak Embaloh the sound that seems similar with the /∫/ is sound /s/. However, this sound is produced in the alveolar ridge instead of in palatoalveolar. 60
Table V. 5.2 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - sheep [∫i:p] /∫/- - - shame [∫eIm] - - shark [∫:k] - - fission [fI∫n] -/∫/- - - fissure [fi∫Ə] - - passion [pæ∫n] - - bush [bu∫] -/∫/ - - banish [bænI∫] - - flash [flæ∫]
A palatoalveolar-voiceless-affricate in English is represented with the symbol /t∫/. The sound involves a complete closure, as plosive but the release phase is not with plosive but friction. In English, this kind of sound can occur in all position of word. In Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound does not exist and is considered as a foreign sound. Dayak Embaloh language never produces sound in the palatoalveolar. However, there is a consonant sound that also seems similar with the English consonant sound /t∫/, it is /c/. This kind of consonant is actually not
Dayak Embaloh consonant sound but it is derived from Indonesia loan word like cacing, candi, etc.
Table V. 5.3 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - church [t∫з: t∫] /t∫/- - - chapter [t∫æptƏ] 61
- - chicken [t∫IkIn] - - mature [mƏt∫℧Ə] -/t∫/- - - nature [neIt∫Ə] - - capture [kæpt∫Ə(r)] - - fetch [fet∫] -/t∫/ - - catch [kæt∫] - - match [mæt∫]
A palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate in English is represented with the symbol /dʒ/. This kind of sound can occur in all position of English words. In Dayak Embaloh, however, this kind of sound does not exist. There is one sound that is similar to this kind of sound that Dayak Embaloh has, it is sound /ḓʒ/. The writer use /ḓʒ/ symbol in order to differentiate /ḓʒ/ from /dʒ/ of English sound.
/ḓʒ/ in Dayak Embaloh is voiced affricate. The difference between
/ḓʒ/ and /dʒ/ is just on the place of articulation. /dʒ/ is produced in the alveolar ridge while /dʒ/ is produced in the palatoalveolar. In
Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound occur only in the initial and medial position of words. In initial position as in jarum [ḓʒarum], jolo[ḓʒolo], jajangat [ḓʒaḓʒaŋat]/ in medial position as in majar
[maḓʒar], bajao’ [baḓʒao], and bajalam [baḓʒalam] 62
Table V. 5.4 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - jack [dʒæk] /dʒ/- - - jar [dʒ:] - - jelly [dʒeli] - - ledger [ledʒƏ] -/dʒ/- - - legend [ledʒƏnd] - - legible [ledʒƏbl] - - judge [dʒΛdʒ]
-/dʒ/ - - engage [In’geIdʒ]
- - lounge [la℧ndʒ]
VI. Palatal
The production of a palatal-voiced-approximant in both
English and Dayak Embaloh language is similar means that it is
produced with near-closure between the front of the tongue and
hard palate. In English this kind of consonant sound is represented
with symbol /j/. The occurrence of palatal-voice-approximant is
restricted: it is found in initial position, and in initial consonant
combinations after certain consonants, e.g you [ju:], beauty
[bju:ti], queue [kju:]. In English it also can occur in medial
position of word intervocalically as in beyond [bI’jɒnd]. Palatal-
voice-approximant in Dayak Embaloh, however, only occurs in
medial position of words or intervocalically as in bayu’[baju’],
bakaya [bakaja], talayong [talajoŋ], mamayoang [mamajoaŋ]. 63
Table V.6.1 D.E and English palatal-voice-approximant Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - you [ju:] /j/- - - yard [j:d] - - yellow [jelƏ℧] bayu’ [baju?] computer [kƏm’pju:tƏ(r)] -/j/- mamayoang [mamajoaŋ] molecule [mlIkju:l] talayong [talajoŋ] security [sIkj℧ƏrƏti] - - - - -/j/ ------
VII. Velar
A velar-voiceless-plosive is represented by symbol /k/ in
both Dayak Embaloh and English language. The sound production
of this phoneme is the same in Dayak Embaloh and English that is
by involving a closure between the back of the tongue and soft
palate. However, it does not cause the vocal cord vibrating
therefore it is voiceless. This phoneme can occur in all position of
words in both Dayak Embaloh and English.
Table V.7.1 D.E and English velar-voiceless-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription kangkaman [kaŋkaman] king [kiŋ] /k/- kayoko’ [kajoko?] car [k:(r)] katoo [kato:] curious [kj℧ƏriƏs] iko [iko] second [sekƏnd] -/k/- ikam [ikam] biker [baIkƏ] ukit [ukit] racket [rækIt] 64
bauruk [bauřuk] take [teIk] -/k/ ababak [ababak] make [meIk] lauk [lauk] like [laIk]
A velar-voiced-plosive is represented by symbol /g/ in both languages. The sound production of this phoneme is also the same as phoneme /k/. However, this kind of sound causes the vocal cord vibrating (voiced). In English this consonant can occur in all position of words. In Dayak Embaloh language this consonant does not occur in the final position.
Table V. 7.2 D.E and Englishvelar-voiced-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription gulungan [guluŋan] good [g℧d] /g/- gulung [guluŋ] garbage [g:bIdʒ] gado [gado] garment [g:mƏnt] paragoleng [pařagoleŋ] dragon [drægƏn] -/g/- bagao [bagao] beggar [begƏ(r)] gugulung [guguluŋ] single [siŋgl] - - dig [dIg] -/g/ - - dog [dg] - - bag [bæg]
A velar-voiced-nasal is represented by symbol /ŋ/. The production of this consonant is the same in Dayak Embaloh and
English that is by involving a closure between the back of the tongue and soft palate. Both in English and Dayak Embaloh language this consonant never occurs in the initial position of words. 65
Table V. 7.3 D.E and Englishvelar-voiced-nasal Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - - - /ŋ/------sangari [saŋaři] linger [lIŋƏ(r)] -/ŋ/- mangalit [maŋalit] singer [sIŋƏ(r)] mangita [maŋita] jungle [dʒΛŋgl] tolang [tolaŋ] lung [lΛŋ] -/ŋ/ piang [piaŋ] sing [sIŋ] batang [bataŋ] ring [rIŋ]
VIII. Glottal
A glottal-voiceless-fricative in English and Dayak Embaloh
is represented by symbol /h/. The production of this consonant is
similar in both language that is by pivoting and closing the vocal
folds. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound occurs in final position
while in English consonant /h/ occurs mainly in initial position of
words, although it is also sometimes found medially.
Table V.81 D.E and English glottal-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - hear [hiƏ(r)] /h/- - - high [haI] - - hut [hΛt] - - vehicle [vi: Əkl] -/h/- - - ahead [Əhed] - - uphill [ΛphIl] kah [kah] - - -/h/ lah [lah] - - bah [bah] - - 66
E. Dayak Embaloh English students’pronunciation
In this part the writer will discuss about Dayak Embaloh English
learners’ pronunciation.The pronunciation will be classified based on the
phonological process that is made by Dayak Embaloh English learners’
pronunciation. As Lado said in his book Linguistics Across Cultures
(1957:27) that when a phoneme in a foreign language does not exist in the
native language the students tend to substitute the native phoneme that
seems nearest within the whole structure of his native language. This
happens to Dayak Embaloh English learners when they pronounce English
words that contain phonemes which do not exist in their native language.
The results of the discussions in this part were summarized into the table
below;
Table VI Substitution and deletion of consonants
Dayak Embaloh English consonant pronunciation
θ t ð d / t ∫ s ʒ s /ḓʒ t∫ t∫/ t dʒ ḓʒ/ t z ḓʒ/ s b final position p d final position t g final position k v f j medial position Ø t final position Ø 67
The discussion of Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation will be categorized based on the phonological processes that occur. The following are discussion of phonological process that is made by Dayak Embaloh students.
I. Consonant Change
Dayak Embaloh English learners tend to change the English
consonants that do not exist in their native language and the
distributions are not the same.
I.1.a Substitution of [t] for [θ]
All of Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for
English phoneme [θ]. Some of them have correct pronunciation for
phoneme [θ].
Table VII.1.1 Substitution of [t] for [θ] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation thin [θIn] [tIn] 100% think [θIŋk] [tIŋ] lethal [li:θl] [litƏl] 100% cathedral [kƏθi:drƏl] [kƏti:drƏl] cloth [klθ] [klot] 100% death [deθ] [det]
The Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by inserting the
tip of the tongue between upper teeth and lower teeth. Therefore,
whenever there are English words that contain phoneme [θ] Dayak
Embaloh students get difficulty to pronounce it, and tend to 68
substitute [θ] into their native phoneme [t] that sound similar to
English phoneme [θ]. To find out why they tend to substitute [t] for
English phoneme [θ], the writer make matrix that indicate the feature of both phonemes.
[θ] + fricative [t] + stop + interdental + alveolar - voiced - voiced
Based on the matrix above, as to manner of articulation [t] is a stop in contrast to [θ]. As to place of articulation [t] is an alveolar in contrast to [θ]. It is reasonable that Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for [θ] because based on the table
II.1.2: Dayak Embaloh Place and Maner of articulation in page
37, Dayak Embaloh only has [s] and [h] for fricative and it is impossible for them to substitute [s] or [h] for English fricative [θ] because the fricative [s] or [h] sound is less alike to English fricative [θ].As Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between upper teeth and lower teeth therefore they tend to naturalize English [θ] to the closest place of articulation. The closet place of articulation is in the alveolar.
Moreover, the English [θ]which is spelled as ‘th’ in initialas in
‘thin’, medial as in ‘cathedral’and final position as in ‘death’can become the factor they (students) tend to substitute [t] for [θ]. The
Dayak Embaloh students’pronunciation can be formulated as follows; 69
θ → t / #_____VC
θ → t / CV____VC
θ → t / CV_____#
The rule above indicates that Dayak Embaloh students tend
to substitute alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] for interdental-voiceless-
fricative [θ] in initial, medial and final position.
I.1.b Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð]
Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [d] for English
phoneme [ð] in initial position and medial position of words.
Table VII.1.2 Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation this [ðIs] [dIs] 100% that [ðæt] [det] father [fðƏ(r)] [fadƏr] 100% mother [mΛðƏ(r)] [madƏr] clothe [klƏ℧ð] [klout] 100% with [wIð] [wit]
This case is the same as the case before. As Dayak
Embaloh phonological system has never produced sound by
inserting the tongue between the upper teeth and lower teeth,
therefore they tend to substitute their native consonant [d] for
English [ð]. It will be analyzed based on the articulatory feature. 70
[ð] + fricative [d] + stop + interdental + alveolar + voiced + voiced
Based on the matrix above it is reasonable that Dayak
Embaloh students tend to substitute [d] for English [ð] in the initial and medial position. As Dayak Embaloh never produces the sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the upper teeth and lower teeth, therefore they tend to naturalize English [ð] to the closet place of articulation. And the closest place of articulation is in the alveolar ridge.
In the final position Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] for English [ð]. As Dayak
Embaloh has never produced voiced sound in the final position, therefore it is reasonable that they tend to substitute [t] for English
[ð] instead of [d] which is [+voiced] in final position. The substitution that is made by Dayak Embaloh students can be formulated as follows;
ð → d / #_____VC
ð → d / CV __ VC
ð → t / CV______#
The rule above indicates that interdental-voiced-fricatives
[ð] become alveolar-voiced-stop [d] whenever it is in the initial position before vowel and medial position between vowels. And 71
interdental-voiced-fricatives [ð] becomes alveolar-voiceless-stop
[t] in final position after the vowel.
I.1.c Substitution of [s] for [∫]
Table VII.1.3 Substitution of [s] for [∫] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation sheep [∫i:p] [sip] 100% shame [∫eIm] [seim] fission [fI∫n] [fIsIƏn] 100% passion [pæ∫n] [pesIƏn] banish [bænI∫] [benIs] 100% flash [flæ∫] [fles]
All of Dayak Embaloh students substitute [s] for English
[∫]. Back to the table II.1.2 in page 37, it shows that Dayak
Embaloh has never produced sound in the palatal. In other words,
Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by raising the body of the
tongue toward the front palate. Therefore, whenever there are
English words which contain the palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative
[∫], Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for [∫]. The
matrix bellow will help the writer to find out why they tend to
substitute [s] for English [∫];
[∫] + fricative [s] + fricative + palatoalveolar + alveolar - voiced - voiced 72
Based on the matrix above, it shows that as to place of
articulation [s] is an alveolar in contrast to [∫], and both of them are
[+fricative, - voiced]. As Dayak Embaloh has never produced
sound by raising the body of the tongue toward the front palate,
therefore it is reasonable that they naturalized palatal [∫] to the
closest place of articulation. The alveolar ridge is close to palate.
The substitution above can be formulated as follows;
∫→ s / #______
∫→ s / CV____VC
∫→ s / ______#
The rule above indicate that the palatoalveolar -voiceless-
fricative [∫] becomes alveolar-voiceless-fricative [s] in all position
of words.
I.1.d Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ]
Table VII.1.4 Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ]
D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation gigolo [ʒigƏlo] [ḓʒigolo] 80% jabot [ʒabo] [ḓʒabo] vision [viʒƏn] [fisiƏn] 95% measure [meʒƏ(r)] [mesƏ(r)] rouge [ruʒ] [rus] 90% phage [faʒ] [fas] 73
Based on the table above, it shows that Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for English [ʒ] in the medial and final position of words. The English [ʒ] as in gigolo [ʒigƏlo], vision
[viʒƏn], rouge [ruʒ], etc, has several feature. It is a voiced in contrast to Dayak Embaloh [s] as in sidua’ (meet)which is voiceless. As in place of articulation [s] is an alveolar in contrast to
[ʒ] which is palatoalveolar.
[ʒ] [s] Place of Articulation + palatoalveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + fricative + fricative Voice + voiced - voiced
It is reasonable that they tend to substitute [s] for English
[ʒ] in the medial and final position. The first premise is all Dayak
Embaloh fricatives are voiceless. The second premise is spelling; the English [ʒ] in the medial position which is spelled with s can become the factor they substitute the [s] for [ʒ]. The third premise is Dayak Embaloh never produces voiced consonant in the final position, except voiced-nasal. Therefore, they tend to substitute the voiceless [s] for English voiced [ʒ] in the final position.
The table above also shows that most of Dayak Embaloh students substitute [ḓʒ] for English [ʒ] in initial position. As in 74
place of articulation, Dayak Embaloh [ḓʒ] is an alveolar in contrast to English [ʒ] which is palatal. As in manner of articulation [ḓʒ] is affricate in contrast to [ʒ] which is fricative, and both of them are voiced.
[ʒ] [ḓʒ] Place of Articulation + palatoalveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + fricative + affricate Voice + voiced + voiced
It is reasonable that they tend to substitute [ḓʒ] for English
[ʒ] in initial position. As Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by raising the body of the tongue toward the front palate therefore they naturalize it to the closest place of articulation, and alveolar ridge is close to the front palate. The second premise, why they tend to substitute [ḓʒ] instead of [s] which is also [+fricative,
+alveolar], is because for them [s] is less alike to English [ʒ] when it is in initial position. It sounds less alike for them to pronounce gigolo as [sigolo] or jabot as [sabo] if compare to gigolo pronounced as [ḓʒigolo] or jabot pronounced as [ḓʒabo]. These substitutions can be formulated as follows;
ʒ→ ḓʒ/ #____VC 75
ʒ→ s / CV __ VC
ʒ→ s / CV____#
The rules above indicate that palatoalveolar-voiced-
fricative [ʒ] becomes alveolar-voiced-affricate whenever it is in
initial position of words before the vowel. Palatoalveolar-voiced-
fricative [ʒ] becomes alveolar-voiceless-fricative whenever it is in
the medial position between vowel and final position after vowel.
I.1.e Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫]
D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation chapter [t∫æptƏ] [ṱ∫eptƏ] 95% chicken [t∫IkIn] [ṱ∫IkIn] mature [mƏt∫℧Ə] [mƏtuƏr] 70% nature [neIt∫Ə] [neItƏr] fetch [fet∫] [feṱ∫] 85% catch [kæt∫] [keṱ∫]
Table VII.1.5 Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫]
Based on the table above, most of Dayak Embaloh students
tend to substitute the Indonesia [ṱ∫] for English [t∫] in initial position
and final position of words. As Dayak Embaloh language is
influenced by Bahasa Indonesia as the second language which is
used in school, therefore the consonant [ṱ∫] is derived from Bahasa 76
Indonesia as in words like candi, cinta, cagar alam, etc. The
Indonesia [ṱ∫] is produced in the alveolar ridge. As the writer mentioned before that William Samarin used symbol ( for fronting consonant, therefore the symbol used for Indonesia) affricate-voiceless is [ṱ∫] to show that it is alveolar
[t∫] + affricate [ṱ∫] + affricate + palatatoalveolar + alveolar - voiced - voiced
Indonesia [ṱ∫] is an alveolar in contrast to English [t∫]. Both of them are [-voiced, +affricate]. As Dayak Embaloh and Bahasa Indonesia never produce sound in the palate, therefore it is reasonable that
Dayak Embaloh naturalizes the English [t∫] to the closest place of articulation. The close place of articulation is in the alveolar ridge.
In the table above can be seen that Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for English [t∫] in the medial position of words. This case is the same as the case that Dayak Embaloh students substitute the [s] for English [ʒ] in the medial position of words. The main reason is spelling. The English [t∫] is spelled as t in the medial position of words. Therefore, it is reasonable that they tend to substitute the [t] for English [t∫] in the medial position.
The substitution can be formulated as follows;
t∫→ ṱ∫/ #__VC 77
t∫→ t / C V __ V C
t∫→ ṱ∫/ CV__#
The rule above indicate that palatatoalveolar -voiceless-
affricate [t∫] becomes alveolar-voiceless-affricate [ṱ∫] in the initial
position of words before the vowel and final position after the
vowel. Palatatoalveolar -voiceless-affricate [t∫] becomes [t] in the
medial position of words between the vowel.
I.1.f Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ]
D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation jack [dʒæk] [ḓʒek] 100% jelly [dʒeli] [ḓʒelI] B legend [ledʒƏnd] [ḓʒƏn] 100% o legible [ledʒƏbl] [leḓʒibƏl] judge [dʒΛdʒ] [ḓʒat] 95% engage [In’geIdʒ] [IngeIt]
Table VII.1.6 Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ]
Based on the table above can be seen that Dayak Embaloh
students tend to substitute [ḓʒ] for English [dʒ] in the initial and
medial position of words. The English [dʒ] is produced in the front
palate, while Dayak Embaloh does not have palatal consonant.
Therefore, whenever there are English words which contain 78
phoneme [dʒ] they tend to substitute their native phoneme that sound nearest with The English [dʒ].
[dʒ] + affricate [ḓʒ] + affricate + palatoalveolar + alveolar + voiced + voiced
Based on the matrix above, the Dayak Embaloh [dʒ] is an alveolar in contrast to English [dʒ] which is palatoalveolar.
Therefore, it is reasonable that they tend to naturalize the English palatal [dʒ] to the closest place of articulation. And the close place of articulation is alveolar ridge.
In the final position of words most of Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for English [dʒ] instead of [ḓʒ] which contrast only in place of articulation with English [dʒ]. It can be seen clearly in the table below;
[dʒ] [ḓʒ] [t] Place of Articulation + palatoalveolar + alveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + affricate + affricate + stop Voice + voiced + voiced - voiced
Based on table above both [dʒ] and [ḓʒ] are voiced sound while [t] is voiceless. Therefore it is reasonable that they tend to substitute the voiceless [t] for English [dʒ] in the final position instead of voiced [ḓʒ], it is because Dayak Embaloh never produces the voice consonant in the final position of words. The 79
substitution that is made by Dayak Embaloh can be formulated as
follows;
dʒ→ ḓʒ/ #__VC
dʒ→ ḓʒ/ C V __ V C
dʒ→ t / CV__#
The rules above indicate that the palatoalveolar -voiced-
affricate [dʒ] becomes alveolar-voiced-affricate [ḓʒ] in the initial
position of words before the vowel and medial position of words
between vowels. Palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate [dʒ] become
alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] in final position of words after the
vowel.
I.1.g Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z]
D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation zero [zIƏrƏ℧] [ ḓʒIrou] 90% zip [zIp] [ḓʒIp] desert [dezƏt] [desƏt] 90% design [dIzaIn] [dIsaIn] gaze [geIz] [geIs] 95% size [saIz] [saIs]
Table VII.1.7 Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z]
Based on the table above most of Dayak Embaloh students
tend to substitute [s] for English [z] in the medial position and final 80
position of words. In the table II.1.2 Dayak Embaloh Place and
Manner of Articulation clearly can be seen that there is no alveolar- voiced-fricative [z] produced. Therefore, whenever there are
English words which contain alveolar-voiced-fricative [z], Dayak
Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for [z] in the medial and final position of words.
[z] + fricative [s] + fricative + alveolar + alveolar + voiced - voiced
Based on the matrix above it reasonable that the Dayak
Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for [z] in the medial and final position of words. As in place of articulation and manner of articulation both of them are alveolar and fricative respectively.
The [s] is only a voiceless in contrast to [z] which is voiced. In the medial position of words, the spelling also becomes the factor they tend to substitute [s] for [z]. In the medial position the [z] is spelled as s as in words like desert, design. Dayak Embaloh phonological system never produced voiced sound in the final position. This is also the factor they tend to substitute the voiceless [s] for voiced
[z] in the final position of words.
In the initial position of words Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [dʒ] for English [z]. The main reason is it will sound less alike for them whenever they substitute [s] for English
[z] in the initial position, e.g zero is pronounced as [sIƏrƏ℧] instead 81
of zero is pronounced as [ḓʒIƏrƏ℧]. Moreover, the Dayak Embaloh
[ḓʒ] is only affricate in contrast to English [z] and both of them are
alveolar and voiced.
[z] [ḓʒ] Place of Articulation + alveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + fricative + affricate Voice + voiced + voiced
The substitution that made by Dayak Embaloh students can
be formulated as follows;
z → ḓʒ/ #__VC
z → s / C V __ V C
z → s / CV__#
The rules above indicate that the alveolar-voiced-fricative
[z] becomes the alveolar-voiced-affricate [ḓʒ] in the initial position
before the vowel. Alveolar-voiced-fricative [z] becomes alveolar-
voiceless-fricative [s] in the medial position of words between
vowels and in final position after vowel.
I.1.h Substitution of [p] for [b]
Table VII.1.8 Substitution of [p] for [b]
D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation Robe [rƏ℧b] [roup] 100% Rub [rΛb] [rap] 82
Mob [mb] [mop] Grab [græb] [grep]
All of Dayak Embaloh students substitute [p] for [b] in final position of words. It is reasonable they tend to substitute the [p] for
[b] in final position of words because in Dayak Embaloh phonological system, the voiced consonants never occur in the final position of words, therefore, when there are English words that contain voiced consonant in the final position, the Dayak
Embaloh naturalized it into the voiceless consonant.
[p] [b] Place of Articulation + bilabial + bilabial Manner of Articulation + stop + stop Voice - voiced + voiced
As in place of articulation both of them are bilabial and as in manner of articulation both of them are stop. However [p] is voiceless in contrast to [b] which is voiced. As Lado said in his book Linguistics Across the Culture (1957:17) that even the native language has a similar phoneme and the variant are similar, if it does not occur in the same position as the native language, the students will have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does occur in the foreign language. The substitution of
[p] for [b] can be formulated as follows;
b → p / CV__# 83
The rule above indicates that the bilabial-voiced-stop [b]
becomes bilabial-voiceless-stop [p] in the final position of word
after vowel.
I.1.i Substitution of [t] for [d]
Table VII.1.9 Substitution of [t] for [d] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation bid [bId] [bIt] bad [bæd] [bet] 100% deed [di:d] [dit] wood [w℧d] [wut]
Based on the table above most of Dayak Embaloh students
substitute [t] for [d] in the final position of words. As in place and
manner of articulation both of them are alveolar and stop. The [t] is
voiceless in contrast to [d] which is voiced. In the Dayak Embaloh
phonological system the voiced consonant never occurs in final
position. Therefore, it is reasonable that whenever there are English
words that contain voiced consonant in the final position, Dayak
Embaloh students substitute the voiceless consonants in the final
position of words. The substitution of [t] for [d] can be formulated
as follows;
d → t / CV__# 84
The rule above indicates that the alveolar-voiced-stop [d]
becomes alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] in the final position of words
after vowel.
I.1.j Substitution of [k] for [g]
Table VII.1.10 Substitution of [k] for [g] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation dig [dIg] [dIk] dog [dg] [dok] 100% bag [bæg] [bek]
All of Dayak Embaloh students substitute the [k] for [g] in
the final position of words. As in place of articulation and manner
of articulation both of them share the same feature that are velar
and stop. The main reason they substitute the [k] for [g] in the final
position of words is because [k] is voiceless in contrast to [g]
which is voiced, while the voiced consonant never occur in the
final position. The substitution of [k] for [g] can be formulated as
follows;
g → k/ CV__#
The rule above indicate that the velar-voiced-stop [g]
becomes velar-voiceless-stop [k] in the final position after vowel. 85
I.1.k Substitution of [f] for [v]
The contrastive theory which says that when the foreign
language uses a phoneme that does not exist in the learners’ native
language, that is, when there is no phoneme in the native language
that could be transferred into foreign language the student will not
be able to produce that phoneme readily in learning the foreign
language is sometimes true but sometimes not true. The fact is
some of Dayak Embaloh students are able to produce the
consonant [f] without difficulty. It can be seen in the table bellow;
D. Embaloh English Phonetic Students Percentage words transcription Pronunciation find [faIn] [faIn] 100% fill [fIl] [fIl] prefer [pri:fз:r] [prIfƏr] 95% reface [prefƏs] [prefƏs] life [laIf] [laIf] 95% enough [InΛf] [Inaf]
The fact that they can produce the labiodental-voiceless-
fricative [f] without difficulty is because the students are
influenced by Bahasa Indonesia which is used as second language
means that it is used in formal situation (in school). Therefore, it is
reasonable that they can produce labiodental-voiceless-fricative [f]
as in Indonesia words like falsafah, mufakat, fa’edah, manfaat etc. 86
The main problem is most of Dayak Embaloh students substitute the labiodental-voiceless-fricative [f] for labiodentals- voiced-fricative [v]. As can be seen in the table bellows;
Table VII.1.11 Substitution of [f] for [v] D. Embaloh English Phonetic Students Percentage words transcription Pronunciation vain [veIn] [feIn] 95% victim [vIktIm] [fIktIm] poverty [pvƏti] [pofƏtI] 100% savior [seIvjƏ(r)] [sefiƏr] live [laIv] [laIf] 95% give [gIv] [gIf] The main reason is the Dayak Embaloh students have less experience to distinguish between the voiced-labiodental and voiceless-labiodental. In Bahasa Indonesia the [v] tend to be pronounced as [f] like in borrowing words versi, variable,visi, virus, visum are pronounced as [fersi], [fariable], [fisi], [firus],
[fisum] respectively. The substitution of [f] for [v] can be formulated as follows;
v → f/ #____VC
v → f/ CV___VC
v → f/ CV___#
The rule above indicates that the labiodental-voiced- fricative [v] becomes labiodentals-voiceless-fricative [f] in all position of words. 87
II. Deletion
Deletion is one of phonological process that deletes consonant cluster or vowel, means that units which occur in some contexts are lost in others.
II.1.a Deletion of [j]
Table VIII.1.1 Deletion of [j] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation computer [kƏm’pju:tƏ(r)] [komputƏr] 85% security [sIkj℧ƏrƏti] [sIkurItI]
Most of Dayak Embaloh students omit the [j] in the medial
position. The main reason is in Dayak Embaloh phonological
system the palatal-voiced-approximant [j] is never combined with
other consonants. Another reason is spelling; [j] is spelled with u as
in computer, and security. Therefore, it is reasonable that they tend
to omit [j] in the medial position. The deletion above can be
formulated as follow;
j → Ø/ CVC__V
The rule above indicates that palatal-voiced-approximant [j]
is omitted in the medial position after the consonant and before
vowel. 88
II.1.b Deletion of [t]
Table VIII.1.2 Deletion of [t] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation detect [dItekt] [dItek] dialect [daIalekt] [daIalek] 100% neglectB [nIglekt] [nIglek] insect [Insekt] [Insek] a
sed on the table above, most of Dayak Embaloh students omit the
[t] in the final position of words after the consonant. In Dayak
Embaloh phonological system, a consonant is never combined with
another consonant. A consonant always occurs after vowel or
before the vowel therefore it is reasonable that Dayak Embaloh
eliminated the [t] in the final position after the phoneme [k]. The
deletion of [t] can be formulated as follows;
t → Ø/ CVC__#
The rule above indicates that the alveolar-voiceless-stop
will be eliminated whenever it is occur in the final position after a
consonant. CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
In the previous chapter the writer had discussed Dayak Embaloh constonants, and how Dayak Embaloh students pronounce some English consonants. As Dayak Embaloh language (Jarum Banuaka’) is the first language, it means that it is the language that is used in daily life except in formal situation, it becomes the factor that Dayak Embaloh English learners (students) have their own characteristic in pronouncing some English words. It is because each language has its own phonological system which is different one from the other.
Some consonants might exist in one of that language, but some might not.
Therefore, it becomes the factor that Dayak Embaloh students tend to pronounce the English words with they own way. As Lado said that when there is no phoneme in the native language that could be transferred into a foreign language the student will not be able to produce that phoneme readily in learning the foreign language, and it happens to Dayak Embaloh students when they pronounce some English consonants which do not exist in Dayak Embalh language.
Based on the writer’s analysis, there are two phonological processes occur in their pronunciation. They are Substitution and Deletion. Most of them tend to substitute the English consonants which do not exist in Banuaka language (jarum
Banuaka) and which do not share the same distribution. The English consonants like /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /t∫/, /dʒ/, /z/ tend to be substituted to the Dayak Embaloh
89 90
consonants that seem similar and whose features are closest to the English consonants ( /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /t∫/, /dʒ/, /z/ ). Although some English consonants sounds do not exist in Dayak Embaloh, some Dayak Embaloh students can pronounce those consonants without any difficulty. Most of Dayak Embaloh students could pronounce the English consonants like /t∫/ and /f/ without difficulties. It is because Dayak Embaloh language is influenced by Bahasa
Indonesia as the second language which is used in formal situation like in school.
Another substitution occurs on voiced-stops /b/, /d/, /g/, it is because in Dayak
Embaloh phonological system the voiced consonants never occur in final position of words except voiced-nasal.Therefore, they tend to substitute the voiceless consonants for voiced consonants in final position.
The spelling also becomes the factor that Dayak Embaloh students substitute the English phoneme. The English /z/ is pronounced as /s/ as in the word like desert, the English /ʒ/ is pronounced as /s/ as in word like vision, the
English /t∫/ is pronounced as /t/ as in word like nature, and mature.
Deletions also occur in Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation. Dayak
Embaloh students tend to eliminate the consonant that is combined with another consonant. Based on the writer’s analysisDayak Embaloh students tend to delete
/t/, /k/ in the final position of words as in insect and think, and /j/ in the medial position of words as in computer and security. It is because that in Dayak
Embaloh phonological system the consonant has never been followed or preceded by another consonant in the final position of words. 91
In Dayak Embaloh phonological system the combination of the consonants sounds in the medial position of words only between nasal and plosive like in words angkan [aŋkan], lamba’ [lamba?], and mandait [mandait]. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arnoff, Mark & Janie Ress-Miller. The Handbook of Linguistics. New York: Blackwell. 2002.
Baugh, Albert & Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 1935.
Connor, J.D. Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1992.
Fisiak, J. Contrastive linguistics and the language teacher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1981.
Fromkin, Victoria & Robert Rodman. An Introduction to Language. Los Angles: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 1974.
Jackson, Howard. Analyzing English; An Introduction to descriptive linguistics. New York: Pergamon Press Ltd, 1982.
Jeffries, Lesley. Discovering Language; The structure of Modern English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Lado. Robert. Linguistics across Culture. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1957.
Nickel, G. Papers in contrastive linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1971.
Pike, Kenneth L. Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 1978.
Samarin, Wiliam J. Field Linguistics; A Guide to Linguistics Field Work. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1967.
Wolfram, Walt & Robert Johnson. Phonological Analysis; Focusing on American English. Engelewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1982.
Weinrich, Uriel. Language in Contact. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York. 1953.
92 APPENDIX
BASIC VOCABULARIES ENGLISH - DAYAK EMBALOH
A kind of fruit Takalong [takaloŋ] Accursed Rabor [řaboř] All Gulungan [guluŋan] All Samua [samua] Alone Kakale [kakale] Already Namin [namin] And Nana [nana] Animal Inatang [inataŋ] Ashes kutu awu [kutu awu] At Di [di] Back Balakang [balakaŋ] Bad Ajau' [aḓʒau:?] Basket Bakul [bakul] Beat Tiang [tiaŋ] Because Kule'a [kule?a] Become Dari [daři] Belly Batang [bataŋ] Beside Biring [biřiŋ] Big Bara [bařa:] Bird Burung [buřuŋ] Bite Mangokot [maŋokot] Black Nanarum [nanařum] Blind Bauta [bauta] Blood Dara' [dařa?] Blow Maniap/Pabalan [maniap] / [pabalan] Blow Tiap [tiap] Bone Tolang [tolaŋ] Bore Bapu’ [bapu?] Borrow Mainjam [mainḓʒam] Breakfast Sangari [saŋaři] Breast Susu' [susu?]
93 94
Breathe Mamatak nyawa [mamatak nyawa] Bring Mawa [mawa] Brother Sairun Babaka [saiřun babaka] Burn Manutung [manutuŋ] Carry for s.o Mawin [mawin] Catch Maningkam [maniŋkam] Chaotic Bagao [bagao] Chiken Manuk [manuk] Child Nangkanak [naŋkanak] Chose Maile’i [maile?i] Circle Gugulung [guguluŋ] Claw Kuku [kuku] Cloth Sape [sape] Clothing Kamamasan [kamamasan] Cloud Doom [do:m] Cold Badingin [badi:ŋin] Collapsed Arurun [ařuřun] Come Mondok [mondok] Cook Marikoan [mařikoan] Corpse Bangkayoan [baŋkajoan] Count Mangira [maŋiřa] Crack Aratak [aratak] Cross the river Tarear [tařeař] Crowded Rami [řami] Cut Manatak [manatak] Cut Tatak [tatak] Dance Mandaria' [mandařia?] Dark Araun [ařa:un] Day Aso [aso] Deaf Babong [ba:boŋ] Deceive Makal [makal] Deep Bajalam [badʒalam] Deflate Takapis [takapis] Deliver Mantat [mantat] Die Mate [mate] Different Laan [la:n] Dig Mangali [maŋali] 95
Dirty Akotor [akoto:ř] Dog Asu [asu] Drink Mainyum [mainyum] Dry Akaring [akaři:ŋ] Dull Batimpul [bati:mpul] Dust Abu [abu] Ear Talinga [taliŋa] Earth Dunia'en [dunia?en] Eat Angkan [aŋka:n] Echo Aling [aliŋ] Egg Intalor [intaloř] Eight Lapan [lapan] Enough Ada’a [ada?a] Enough Jangka'a [ḓʒaŋka?a] Extinct / Barren Atampus [ata:mpus] Eye Mata [mata] Face Lindo' [lindo?] Fall Alao' [alao:?] Far Bajao' [baḓʒao?] Fast/Quick Bariar [bařiař] Fat/Grease Bakok [bakok] Father Ama' [ama?] Fear Atakut [ata:kut] Feather Bulu [bulu] Few Kakapit [kakapit] Fight Mansang/Sijai [mansaŋ] / [siḓʒai] Find Mandua’aŋ [mandua?aŋ] Fire Api [api] Fish Lauk [lauk] Five Lima [lima] Timbul/Ambol- [timbul] / [ambol- Float ambol ambol] Flow Areang [aře:aŋ] Flower Bunga [buŋa] Fog Aun [aun] Follow Malola’ [malola?] Foot Kaki [kaki] 96
For a moment Sikadang [sikadaŋ] Four Ampat [ampat] Freeze Atanak [atanak] Fruit Bua' [bua?] Full Pano' [pano?] Get something Kule' [kule?] Give Mameang [mameaŋ] Give birth Aranak [ařanak] Go down Indoor [indo:ř] Go home Mole' [mole?] God Alatala [Alatala:] Gold Amas [amas] Good Maam [ma:m] Grandmother Piang [piaŋ] Grass Rimput [řimput] Greedy Bakalong [bakaloŋ] Green Mamata' [mamata?] Ground Tana’ [tana?] Guts Parut [pařut] Hair Buuk [bu:k] Hand Tangan [taŋan] He Ia [ia] Head Ulu [ulu] Hear Mandalinga [mandaliŋa] Heart Jantung [ḓʒantuŋ] Heavy Aborat [abo:řat] Help Manggulungi [maŋguluŋi] Hemmed Takapit [takapit] Here Ndi'ang [ndi?aŋ] Hit Mabal [mabal] Hold Manjaput [manḓʒaput] Hold Tako' [tako?] Hole Loang [loaŋ] Horn Tarompet [tařompet] House Sao [sao] How Aisilo'a [aisi:lo?a] Human being Mantuari [mantuaři] 97
Hundred Ratusan [řatusan] Hunt Maruru [mařuřu] Hurt Apadis [apadis] Husband Laki [laki] I Iak [iak] Ice Es [es] If Ati' [ati?] In I lalam [i la:lam] Kill Mauno' [mauno?] Kingdom Kangkaman [kaŋkaman] Knee Lingkutut [liŋkutut] Know Manamu [manamu] Lake Kokoan [kokoan] Language Jarum [ḓʒařum] Laugh Tatawa [tatawa] Leaf Daun kayu [daun ka:ju] Leftside Kayoko' [kajoko?] Leg Kaki [kaki] Lie Pakoako [pakoako] Live Tio' [tio?] Liver Ate [ate] Long Balangke [balaŋke] long Langkee [la:ŋke:] long time ago Jolo [ḓʒolo] Louse kutu [kutu ] Make Mamola [mamola] Male Babaka [babaka] Man Babaka [babaka] Many Ambat [ambat] Many Bayu' [baju?] mean Rati [řati] Meat Isi [isi] Meat fragmentation Jukut [ḓʒukut] Medicine Pole' [pole?] Meet Sidua’ [sidua?] Moon Bulan [bulan] morning Makap [makap] 98
Mother Indu' [indu?] Mountain Ukit [ukit] Mouth Baba' [baba?] Name Asan [asan] Narrow Asekot [asekot] Naughty Kabal [kabal] Near Mainso' [mainso?] Neck Kalong [kaloŋ] New Baru [bařu] News Dongo [doŋo] Night Malam [malam] Noisy Gado [gado] Nose Ingar [iŋař] Not Na'an [na?an] Not yet Na’anpi [na?anpi] Nothing left Topak [topak] Offering Talayong [talajoŋ] Old Toa [toa] One Sera [seřa] Other Anu bokan [anu bokan] Outside Saluan [saluan] Over there Ninang [ninaŋ] Paper Karatas [kařatas] Person Tau [tau] Pig Bawi [ba:wi] Play Sasiyo' [sasijo?] Possible Maba' [maba?] Prohibition Tata’ [tata?] Pull Tarik [tařik] Punch Bukut [bukut] Push Juluang [ḓʒuluaŋ] Quiet Lalako’ [lalako?] Rain Sauran [sauřan] Red Dadara' [dadařa?] Resemble Sabalu’ [sabalu?] Rice Ase [ase] Rice Daun [daun] 99
Right Ampuna [ampuna] Rightside Katoo [kato:] River Sunge [suŋe] Road Dalan [dalan] Room Bilik [bilik] Root Urat [uřat] Rope Tali [tali] Rotten Abauruk [abau:řuk] Round Galung [galuŋ] Rub Mangusuk [maŋusuk] Salt Sia' [sia?] Sane Taupande [taupande] Say Manjarumang [manḓʒařumaŋ] Scratch Tairis [taiřis] Sea Maruang jawa [mařuaŋḓʒawa] See Mamele [mamele] see Mangita [maŋita] Seed Banyia' [banyia?] Sell Mamet [mamet] Seven Tujuh [tuḓʒuh] Sew Mandait [mandait] Shame Bawa' [bawa?] Share Tawa' [tawa?] Sharp Bataram [bata:řam] Shattered Ararak [ařařak] Shoot Manimbak [manimbak] Short Pondok [pondok] Show Mamayoang [mamajoaŋ] Sing Banyanyi [banya:nyi] Sister Sairun Babainge [saiřun babaiŋe] Sit Aduduk [aduduk] Skin Kulit [kulit] Sky Suan [suan] Slave Pangkam [paŋkam] Slave Ulun [ulun] Sleep Tindo' [tindo?] Small Keke' [keke?] 100
Smell Arabau [ařabau:] Smoke Rimbu [řimbu] Smooth Alus [alus] Snake Urar [uřař] Snot Mingkas [miŋkas] Snot Mingkas [miŋkas] Snow Salju [salḓʒu] Soak Raram [řařam] Some Sapadua [sapadua] Sometimes Sakule’ [sakule?] Spear Ulis [ulis] Spilt Manumbangang [manumbaŋaŋ] Spirit Sumangat [sumaŋat] Spit Malasu [malasu] Spoiled Bari [ba:ři] Squeeze Mamara' [mamařa?] Stab Manikam [manikam] Stand Akadeng [akade:ŋ] Star Bintang [bintaŋ] Stay/ Live Lako’ [lako?] Steal Mangalit [maŋalit] Step Lengka' [leŋka?] Stick Tungkat [tuŋkat] Stingy Pangkuatan [paŋkuatan] Stone Batu [batu] Stop in / Stop by Seŋka’ [seŋka?] Straight Maninting [manintiŋ] Stretched out Paragoleng [paragoleŋ] Stupid Agol-agol [agol-agol] Suck Sosop [sosop] Sun Mataso [mataso] Sweat Palo’ [palo?] Sweet Mamis [mamis] Swell Akambang [akamba:ŋ] Swim Arananang [ařananaŋ] Tail Ingko' [iŋko?] Teach Majar [maḓʒař] 101
Tell the story Manutul [manutul] Ten Sapulo' [sapulo?] That Indin [indin] There Inang [inaŋ] They Ira [iřa] Thick Batabal [batabal] Thin Anipis [anipis] Thin Jajangat [ḓʒaḓʒaŋat] Think Bapikir [bapikiř] This Indi' [indi?] Thou Iko [iko] Three Talu [talu] Throw Unjaang [unḓʒa:ŋ] Tie Dasi [dasi] Together with Sanuan [sanuan] Tongue Lila' [lila?] Tooth Isi [isi] Torn Aripak [aři:pak] Tree Batang kayu [bataŋkaju] tree trunk Akat [akat] Tremble Tatagar [tatagař] Turn Sipalao' [sipalao?] Twenty Dua pulo' [dua pulo?] Two Dua [dua] Uncle Kamo’ [kamo?] Vegetable Saringkan [sařiŋkan] Vegetable Saringkan [sařiŋkan] Very Palin [palin] Vomit Tamunta' [tamunta?] Wake up Asading [asadiŋ] Walk Lamba' [la:mba?] Wall Siring [siřiŋ] Warm Aduruk [adu:řuk] Wash Mamuti' [mamuti?] Watch Tilik [tilik] Water Danum [danum] We Ikam [ikam] 102
Wet Abasa' [aba:sa?] What Aisi [aisi] When Inaindisi [inaindisi] Where Ndensi [ndensi] White Baute' [baute?] Who Itainsi [itainsi] Wide Ababak [aba:bak] Wife Bainge [baiŋe] Wind Angin [aŋin] Wings Saap [sa:p] Wipe Manyawar [manyawař] With Nana [nana] Woman Babainge [babaiŋe] Woods Kayu [kaju] Work Karaja [kařaḓʒa] Worm Lati' [lati?] Worm Ngonggolang [ŋoŋgolaŋ] ye Iko [iko] Year Taun [taun] Yellow Tantamuan [tantamuan] Yours Daiko [daiko]