PHONOLOGICAL STUDY ON DAYAK EMBALOH ENGLISH LEARNERS’ PRONUNCIATION OF ENGLISH CONSONANT SOUNDS

AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS

Prestented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters

By

YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS ARTARONA BUU

Student Number: 044214138

ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2009

i ii iii “You become a Loser if you say You can’t before you try”

For I know the thoughts that I think toward you to give you an expected end ( Jeremiah 29 : 11 )

For Father, Jesus Christ and Holy Spirit, Mother Mary, My Daddy Rofinus .B & my Mom Katarina, My Beloved Sister Agnes Annice Buu , All Family and friends.

iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thank to Jesus Christ for His kindness, so that the writer could complete the thesis writing. The title of this thesis is “The Phonological Study on Dayak

Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds.”

The respondents of this research are Dayak Embaloh Senior High School students in Benua Martinus, Putusibau, .

There are a lot of people who guide, support and help the writer in completing this thesis writing. Therefore, the writer would like to thank:

1. Dr. Fr. B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A as the advisor for guiding and giving a lot of

advise so that the writer finally complete his research.

2. Dra. B. Ria Lestari, M.S as the reader for giving suggestions and advises.

3. Adventina Putranti, S.S., M.Hum as the examiner.

4. All lecturers of English Letters study Programme of Sanata Dharma

University, and Mbak Ninik.

5. Bapak Nobertus Kombong, S.Pd as the Headmaster of SMU Negeri 01

Benua Martinus for giving research permission in his school to the writer.

6. His Parents Rofinus Buu and Katarina, his beloved sister Agnes Anice

Buu, Grandfathers and Grandmothers, Pa ua Paskalis Soo, Pa ua Moses

Salo, uncles and aunties, abang Linus & kaka Lila, abang Leo, abang Kris,

abang Frument, kaka Bony, kaka Angelina & abang Fran, adik Rensi, adik

Nia, adik Natalia, adik Uly, adik Cici, and all his cousins.

7. His brothers Mas Yono, Mas Debi, Ikhwanudin, Ari, Mario, Beni, Kobot,

Mas Singgih, Bayu, Roy Purba, Reo, B’jonk, Tanto.

v 8. His best friends Karisma Kurniawan, Lucia Kurniadi, Ardi Nugroho, Yuli,

Eli, Wulan, Bertha, Eka, Aili, Reena Rai, Nita, Hilda.

The writer realizes that this thesis has not been perfect yet. Therefore, the criticisms and suggestions are welcome from those who read this thesis. May God bless all of those who have helped the writer throughout the study.

Yohanes Krisostomos Artarona Buu

vi TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE ...... i APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iii MOTTO PAGE ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii ABSTRACT ...... ix ABSTAK ...... x

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Limitation of Study ...... 4 C. Problem Formulation ...... 5 D. Objective of Study ...... 5 E. Definition of Term ...... 6

CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ...... 8 A. Review of Related Studies ...... 8 B. Review of Related Theories ...... 9 1. English Consonants ...... 9 2. Field Linguistics ...... 14 3. Contrastive Linguistics ...... 16 4. Phonological Process ...... 20 5. The Form of Rule ...... 23 C. Theoretical Framework ...... 25

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...... 26 A. Object of Study ...... 26 B. Method of Study ...... 26 C. Research Procedure ...... 27

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS ...... 32 A. Embaloh Consonant sounds ...... 32 I. Plosive ...... 32 II. Fricative ...... 35 III. Lateral ...... 36 IV. Trill ...... 36 V. Approximant ...... 37 VI. Affricates ...... 37 VII. Nasal ...... 38 B. Identifying consonants phoneme in Dayak Embaloh ...... 40

vii C. Comparison of Dayak Embaloh consonants and English consonants ...... 43 D. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonant ...... 46 I. Bilabial ...... 47 II. Labiodental ...... 50 III. Dental ...... 52 IV. Alveolar ...... 53 V. Palatoalveolar ...... 58 VI. Palatal ...... 62 VII. Velar ...... 63 VIII. Glottal ...... 65 E. Dayak Embaloh English students’ pronunciation...... 65 I. Consonants Change ...... 66 I.1.a Substitution of [t] for [θ]...... 67 I.1.b Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð] ...... 69 I.1.c Substitution of [s] for [∫] ...... 70 I.1.d Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ] ...... 72 I.1.e Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫] ...... 75 I.1.f Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ] ...... 77 I.1.g Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z] ...... 79 I.1.h Substitution of [p] for [b] ...... 81 I.1.i Substitution of [t] for [d] ...... 82 I.1.j Substitution of [k] for [g] ...... 83 I.1.k Substitution of [f] for [v] ...... 84 II. Deletion ...... 86 II.1.a Deletion of [j] ...... 86 II.1.b Deletion of [t] ...... 87

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 89 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 92 APPENDIX ...... 93

viii ABSTRACT

YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS A.B (2008). The Phonological Study on Dayak Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University.

Language is an important part in human life because language is used for communication. English as a lingua franca means that this language is used by people whose mother tongues are different so that they can communicate with each other. Therefore, English is learnt by people around the world. In learning English, the students usually face some difficulties. One of the difficulty that students face is pronunciation. This phenomenon happens to Dayak Embaloh students who also learn English in school. The purpose of this study is to find out how Dayak Embaloh language as the mother tongue influences Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation of English consonants. Therefore, there are three problems that are discussed 1) what consonants are found in Dayak Embaloh language? 2) How are Dayak Embaloh consonants different from English consonants? 3) How are Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciations of English different from the Standard English pronunciation? In this study the writer used an empirical approach which means that this study is done based on the observation. The writer obtained the data from the Dayak Embaloh students of Senior High School in Benua Martinus. The writer asked his informants to pronounce some English words and record their pronunciation. Based on the data, Dayak Embaloh has only 17 (seventeen) consonants, they are /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /w/, /s/, /r/, /l/, /j/, /ĵ/, /h/, and /?/. There are 9 (nine) English consonants that do not exist in Dayak Embaloh language, they are /f/, /v/, //, //, //, //, /ð/, /z/, //. Most of Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute some English consonants into their native consonants because there are some English consonants do not exist in their native language. Dayak Embaloh students also tend to eliminate the English consonant that combine with another consonant as in words insect, most of Dayak Embaloh students tend to eliminate t in the final position. It is because in Dayak Embaloh phonological system, a consonant is combined with another consonant if the two consonants share the same feature in Place of articulation as in words angkan [aŋkan], tingkam [tiŋkam], etc. the consonant [ŋ] and [k] share the same feature that is both of them are velar.

ix ABSTRAK

YOHANES KRISOSTOMOS A.B (2008). The Phonological Study on Dayak Embaloh English Learners’ Pronunciation of English Consonant Sounds. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Bahasa merupakan bagian yang penting dalam hidup manusia, ini dikarnakan bahasa adalah sarana untuk berkomunikasi. Bahasa Inggris sebagai lingua franca yang berarti bahwa bahasa Inggris digunakan oleh orang yang bahasa ibunya berbeda sehingga mereka dapat berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Dalam belajar bahasa Inggris, murid-murid biasanya menghadapi beberapa masalah. Salah satu masalah yang di hadapi oleh murid-murid dalam belajar Bahasa Inggris adalah masalah pengucapan. Fenomena ini juga terjadi pada murid-murid suku Dayak Embaloh yang juga mempelajari bahasa Inggris di sekolah. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui bagaimana pengaruh bahasa Dayak Embaloh (jarum Banuaka) sebagai bahasa ibu terhadap pengucapan consonant bahasa Inggris. Olehkarna itu ada tiga perumusan masalah yang akan di bahas 1) Apa saja konsonan yang di temukan dalam Bahasa Dayak Embaloh? 2) Bagaimana konsonan Bahasa Dayak Embaloh berbeda dari bahasa Inggris? 3)bagaimana pengucapan murid-murid Dayak Embaloh berbeda dari pengucapan bahasa Inggris standar. Dalam studi ini penulis menggunakan pendekatan empiris dalam arti bahwa studi ini dilakukan berdasarkan observasi atau studi lapangan. Penulis memperoleh data dari murid-murid SMU di kecamatan Benua Martinus. Penulis meminta informan-informannya untuk mengucapkan beberapa kata-kata bahasa Inggris dan merekam pengucapan mereka. Berdasarkan data yang diperoleh, Dayak Embaloh hanya mempunyai 17 (tujuh belas) konsonan yaitu /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /w/, /s/, /r/, /l/, /j/, /ĵ/, /h/, and /?/. Ada Sembilan konsonan bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemukan dalam bahasa Dayak Embaloh, yaitu /f/, /v/, //, //, //, //, /ð/, /z/, //. Kebanyakan murid-murid Dayak Embaloh cendrung mengubah beberapa konsonan bahasa Inggris kedalam konsonan Dayak Embaloh. Hal ini dikarnakan ada beberapa konsonan bahasa Inggris yang tidak ditemukan dalam bahasa Embaloh. Murid-murid Dayak Embaloh juga cendrung tidak mengucapkan konsonan bahasa inggris yang dikombinasikan dengan konsonan yang lain karena dalam system fonologi Dayak Embaloh, sebuah kosonan tidak pernah dikombinasikan dengan konsonan lain keuali kedua konsonan mempunya karakteristik yang sama dalam daerah pengucapan yang sama seperti dalam kata angkan [aŋkan], tingkam [tiŋkam], dan sebagainya. Konsonan [ŋ] dan [k] mempunyai karakteristik yang sama yaitu keduanya sama-sama velar.

x xi CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background of Study

Language is something important for human beings. The most

important use of language for people is that it is used for communication,

since language allows people to say things to each other and express their

communicative needs. There are a lot of different languages used by

different groups of people around the world.

According to Baugh and Cable, English is the language which is in

the second largest number of native which is used by about 340 million

people, in England, United States, Australia, New Zealand and other

England ex-colonization (Baugh and Cable 1978 p.3). English is also

known as a lingua franca because it is a language which is used habitually

by people whose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate

communication between them. As English is used by many countries

around the world either as the official language or as a second language,

there are some emerging varieties. Usually the varieties are based on

geographical area which is known as geographical varieties. Thus, the

more a language is spoken by people from different areas, the more

different varieties exist. British English and American English is one good

example for geographical varieties. Though British English and American

1 2

English belong to the same language, they are separate dialects which are different one from the other. We can differentiate whether someone is from either England or America based on their accent. For example, in

British English the word car is pronounced as [ka:] while American

English pronounced car as [kar]. In British English consonant /r/ in the final position is not pronounced while in American English, /r/ is pronounced. The same is true with the . There are also a lot of varieties of Indonesian language because the language is spoken by many groups of people in . In Indonesia we know whether a person is a Batakese, Javanese, Irianese, etc, based on their accent.

Accent refers to the characteristics of speech that convey information about the speaker’s dialect which may reveal in what country or what part of a country the speaker has grown up or to which sociolinguistic group the speaker belongs. Therefore American people will know if a person is either from England or Australia based on the accent.

(Robert Rodman, 1974 p.225).

In some countries whose official language is not English, like

Indonesia, English is considered as a foreign language. Though English is a foreign language, the language is still learnt by Dayak Embaloh students in school. Dayak Embaloh is one of native tribes (Dayak tribe) in west

Borneo whose language is Banuaka (Jarum Banuaka). Dayak Embaloh people use Banuaka as their first language instead of the Indonesian 3

language. According to Wolfram and Johnson failure to overcome the patterns of phonology in the native language (abbreviated as L1) in speaking the target language (L2) results in “a foreign accent.”(Wolfram and Johnson, 1982 p.187). Therefore, Dayak Embaloh students will have a different accent or “foreign accent”whenever they pronounce some

English words or whenever they speak English. It is due to, among others, the influence of mother tongue whose phonological system is different from English and there are some sounds can not be found in the Dayak

Embaloh language (foreign sounds). The easiest example is the sound /∫/ of English. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound is a foreign sound and whenever there is a word which has such kind of sound so the sound changes. The process of sound changing is describable phonologically.

Therefore, in his thesis the writer will also discuss or describe the phonological process of Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation.

The accent will be seen based on the feature of word stress, and particularly the segmental aspect.

The writer is interested in this topic because a lot of Dayak

Embaloh students mispronounce some English sounds, or some sounds always change whenever it is pronounced by Dayak Embaloh students.

Therefore, in his thesis the writer would like to find out how Dayak

Embaloh students pronounce some English words whose sounds are not recognized or foreign to their language. 4

B. Limitation of study

Although the accent relates with pronunciation which contains

speech sound such as vowel, consonant, and diphthongs, in this research

the writer just concentrates on consonant sounds because first, study the

vowel is more difficult than consonants. Second, consonants make

English more understood than vowel. D.J O’Connorin his book Better

English Pronunciation says that consonants contribute more to making

English understood than vowel do and consonants are generally made

by a definite interference of the vocal organs with the air stream and so

are easier to describe and understand. For instance incomplete utterance

C—ld y-- p-ss m- - p—c- -f str-ng, pl—s-‘is easy for an English reader

to understand even though the vowel letters have been left out.

Similarly, if in actual speaking we leave out all the vowel sounds and

pronounce only the consonant most English would still be fairly easy to

understand. (O’Connor,1967 p.24)

There are some English consonant sounds that can not be found

in Dayak Embaloh language. Consonant sounds will also make people

misunderstand or confused whenever they are mispronounced. As D.J

O’Connor also says that the English speaker from different parts of the

world have different accent, but the differences of the accent are mainly

the result of differences in sounds of vowels; the consonants are

pronounced very much the same way whenever English is spoken. So, if

the vowels we use are imperfect it will not prevent us from being 5

understood, but if the consonants are imperfect there will be a great risk

of misunderstanding. In this thesis the writer will use Dayak Embaloh

student (Senior High School) as the object of his research because they

are English learners.

C. Problem Formulation

There are three main problems that should be analyzed in the

study of the Dayak Embaloh English learners/students’pronunciation of

consonant sounds toward British English. As there is no book which

discusses Dayak Embaloh language, the first thing that, the writer does

in his analysis is describing the consonants of Dayak Embaloh language.

Thus, to start the writer’s study the problems will be formulated as

follows;

1. What consonants are found in Dayak Embaloh language?

2. How are Dayak Embaloh consonants different from English

consonants?

3. How are Dayak Embaloh English learner’s pronunciation of English

different from the Standard English Pronunciation?

D. Objective of Study

As the writer would like to find out how Dayak Embaloh

English learners’pronunciation is different from the Standard English

Pronunciation, in this thesis the writer tries to find out how Dayak 6

Embaloh students pronounce some English words which sounds are

foreign for them. First the writer tries to find out or compare consonant

sounds between these two languages based on VPM (voice - place of

articulation - manner of articulation) description. Then the writer will

find out how consonant sounds that Dayak Embaloh have and have not.

This analysis will be a contrastive analysis which means that the

analysis is the comparison of language system not only its structure but

also its phonology in order to predict and explain foreign language

learning difficulties. In this thesis the writer also would identify Dayak

Embaloh English learners (students) mispronunciation by describing the

phonological process.

E. Definition of term

In this part the writer would like to point out the definition of

terms that are used in his thesis. The terms that are used are the

following:

Accent is characteristics of speech that convey information about

the speaker’s dialect, which may reveal in what country or what part of

a country the speaker grew up or to which sociolinguistic group the

speaker belongs. (Robert Rodman, 1974 p.225).

Consonant is speech sounds that are produced by the airflow as

it comes up from the lung. The main feature of consonant are VPM 7

(Voice –Place of articulation –Manner of articulation). (Lesley Jeffries,

2006 p.17).

Dayak Embaloh language is a language which is spoken in West central, Hulu Kapuas Regency, just south of the Sarawak border, upper

Kapuas River: Embaloh, Leboyan, Lauh, Palin, Nyabau, Mandai, and

Kalis tributaries. The dialect of this language is Tamanic, and Banuaka language categorized into Western-Malayo-Polynesian family.

(http://www.ethnologue.com)

Phonological process is a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact with other units in the system: assimilation, dissimilation, neutralization, deletion, epenthesis, metathesis (Walt

Wolfram and Robert Johnson, 1982 p.88).

Phonological study is a study of sound pattern of human language; it is also the kind of knowledge that speakers have about the sound patterns of their particular language. The study includes dialect and other language varieties. (Lesley Jeffries, 2006 p.44). CHAPTER II THEORITICAL REVIEW

A. Review of Related Studies

Phonological study on the influence of Surabayanese accent in English

pronunciation

In this part the writer would like to talk about the review of related

studies that discuss about phonological analysis. A work that almost

similar with what the writer is going to analyze in this thesis is The

influence of Surabayanese accent in English pronunciation among some

Indonesian members of British council done by Yola.

A study of the influence of the mother tongue toward English

pronunciation has been discussed by Yola Damayanty Gani in her

analyisis on The influence of Surabayanese accent in English

pronunciation among some Indonesian members of British council. In her

analysis she tried to find out what Surabayanese accent might affect their

English pronunciation. Her aim is to discover as accurately and objectively

as she can what these areas of common weakness are. Based on the

findings, the writer classifies the vowel, consonant and diphthong errors'

analysis into six main categories; they are insertion, deletion, flapping,

aspiration, vowel length, consonants change, vowels change,

diphthongization and monophthongization. For example in the deletion,

the surabayanese speaker left out /j/, /Iz/, /Id/, and /t/ sound in their English

pronunciation. Aspiration and vowel change are sort of distortion that

8 9

likely happen. The Surabayanese do not aspirate /p,t,k/ in the initial

position. They do not hold the articulation of vowels a little longer when

they occur before voice consonant, and etc. According to Yola, simplicity

is another reason why distortions happen, and the last influential factor is

the Indonesian and Javanese orthography system. There are many

distortions in vowel change, monophthongization and diphthongization, as

the result of using the Indonesian and Javanese orthography system in

their English pronunciation.

The difference of the writer analysis is only on the object of

analysis. The previous study is about how Javanese accent influence

English pronunciation while the object that the writer would like to

analyze is Dayak Embaloh language. The writer tries to find out how

Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciationof English words whose

sounds are foreign for them are different with the standard English

because every language has its own sound features which are different one

from the other.

B. Review of Related Theories

1. English Consonants

The way in which we describe consonants in phonetic terms is

according to where they take place, how they are articulated

(‘manner’) and whether the vocal cords are vibrating (‘voice’). This

three-way description of consonants is often known as the VPM 10

(voice-place-manner) description, and it can be used to describe consonants in any human language. There are other features of articulation that may also be relevant in particular cases (for example aspiration), but in general the VPM description is sufficient to characterize the different consonants of a language. All consonant speech sounds are articulated between the lips and the larynx, the area of the mouth where a significant obstruction of the airflow takes place.

Based on the place of articulation, the sounds are categorized as the following:

a. Bilabial sounds involve both lips and include /m/ as in music,

/p/ as in pen, /b/ as in bomb, and /w/ as in weird. As in all place

of articulation, bilabial consonants constrict the airflow to a

greater or lesser extent.

b. Labiodental articulation involves the top teeth and bottom lip,

and produces sounds such as /f/, as in fine, and /v/, as in vine.

c. Dental / Interdental the tip of the tongue is inserted between the

upper and lower teeth. For example sounds /θ/ as in think and

/ð/ as in though.

d. Alveolar is the sounds produced by touching the tongue to the

bony tooth ridge or alveolar ridge. English made seven sounds

at or near this ridge: /t/ as in top, /d/ as in deep, /n/ as in name,

/l/ as in lamp, /s/ as in sip, /z/ as in zip, and /r/ as in red. 11

e. Palato-alveolar is sounds that are produced halfway between

alveolar ridge and hard palate. Post alveolar sounds involve the

body of the tongue being raised towards the front of the palate.

They include the English sounds /∫/ as in shame,/ʒ/ as in

leisure, /t∫/ as in church, and /ʤ/ as in jade. f. Palatal is the body of the tongue rises towards the most domed

section of the palate. English only has one palatal sound, the

‘y’ sound, which is represented as /j/ phonologically and is

found in yes. g. Velar sounds involve the back of the tongue moving towards or

making contact with the soft palate. There are three velar

sounds in English: /k/ as in king, /g/ as in goat and /ŋ/, which

only occurs at the end of syllables, is spelt ‘ng’ and occur twice

in singing. h. The final place of articulation is glottis, where a number of

sounds are theoretically possible. The only pressure that can be

put upon the airflow in the glottis is by pivoting and closing the

vocal folds. For example sound /h/ as in house.

Having considered all the places of articulation we shall look at the other main axis of consonant manner of articulation. i. The most consonantal of the manner of articulation is the

plosive, where there is a complete closure of the vocal tract at

one of the places of articulation. The pressure builds up from 12

bellow, with the egressive airstream being pushed out of the

lungs and into the oral cavity. Eventually this pushes the

articulators (for example the tongue and alveolar ridge) apart,

resulting in a small explosive sound. The plosive sounds in

English are /p/ as in pick, /t/ as in top, /k/ as in count, /b/ as in

buy, /d/ as in day, and /g/ as in give. j. The nasal consonants share a common feature with plosives in

that they involve a complete closure at some point along the

vocal tract. The term that is used for this is stop, and in some

phonetic descriptions the nasal and plosive are designated as a

single group of ‘stop’ consonants. The differencein the case of

nasals is that the velum is lowered away from the back wall of

the pharynx and the air escapes through the nose as the same

time as entering the closed-off oral cavity. The English nasals

are /m/ as in mine, /n/ as in night, and /ŋ/ as in sing. k. Fricatives can be seen as consonantal but with the less

obstruction of the airflow. The fricative consonants involve the

articulators (tongue, teeth, alveolar ridge, and so on) coming

into close contact, but without complete closure. This enable

the outgoing airstream to escape through the small space left

between the articulators. Like nasal consonants, because there

is no complete obstruction of the air these sounds can be 13

extended as long as the speaker has breath available. The

English fricatives are /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /∫/, /ʒ/, and /h/. l. Affricates are not always recognized as separate consonants by

phoneticians because they appear to be made up of two

consonants. However it is the normal convention in English

phonology to treat them as individual sounds. Like the plosives

they begin with a complete closure, but instead of the air

building up and causing an explosive release, it is released

slowly with the effect that there is a short fricative phase when

the articulators separate but before they move completely apart.

The affricates are described as /t∫/ and /ʤ/ and occur twice in

words church and judge respectively. m. Still less consonantal, though still not quite vocalic (vowel-

like), are the approximants or semi-vowels. These sounds are

produced by the articulators moving toward closure but not

getting close enough to cause either frication or a plosive build-

up of pressure. The English approximants include /w/ as in

what, /r/ as in rot, and /j/ as in yacht. n. Lateral is a speech sound when the tongue touches the alveolar

ridge but the sides of the tongue are lowered to allow the air to

escape freely. English lateral is /l/ as in low. (Lesley Jeffries,

2006 : 17-26) 14

Table I. 1.1 The Consonants of English

Labio- Palato- Bilabial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental alveolar -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v Plosive p b t d k g Nasal m n ŋ Fricative f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h Affricate t∫ dʒ Approximant w r j Lateral l (Source: Discovering Language; The structure of Modern English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, p.26)

2. Field Linguistics

As there are no books which have ever discussed or analyzed the

Dayak Embaloh language ,the first thing that writer will do in his

thesis is to describe the Dayak Embaloh phonology. The way he

obtains the data is by asking his informant the basic core vocabularies.

Therefore the field linguistics is needed in his thesis.

Pamela Munro in A Hand book of Linguistics says that Field

Linguistics refers to the collection of primary linguistic data from the

ordinary people. This type of data collection is called “field work.”

Classical field work is done in the “field,” the area where the speakers

actually live (rather than in an artificial setting, such as a university

class room), or even more classically are from which the speaker’s

ancestors originated. (Mark Aronoff and Janie Rees-Miller, 2002:130).

Wiliam J Samarin in his book Field Linguistics also defines field

linguistics as a way of obtaining linguistics data and studying 15

linguistics phenomena. It is involving two participants, the first is the speaker of the language and the linguistic researcher. It is done by personal contact. The speaker of language or what we called as the informant is the source of language.

Field linguistics is generally thought of as a work done on languages which have either never been studied before or only poorly. It has played an important part in man’s study of language. If we had to depend only on the written record of language, our knowledge would be severely restricted indeed.

There are also some human factors in doing the field linguistics.

The human factors in field linguistics are;

a. The researcher should

1. Have enough knowledge/ skill/ training how to deal

with linguistic data.

2. Know the culture where the language is spoken

because the language is used in a certain culture and

the representation of culture. Many language utterances

are only meaningful in their cultures but less in others

3. Know what others have studied about language.

b. The aim of field linguistics is the language of community and

not an idiolect (the language of person). Therefore the

researcher should be part of community and understand the

communal practices. 16

c. The informant is someone who provides linguistics data and

helps the researcher verifies the hypothesis. Therefore an

informant should;

1. Give the body of data (corpus), which is necessary for

generalization about the grammar of language.

2. Check the accuracy of the data

3. Provide phonological aspects of the language, and

4. Provide data of living language.

The characteristics of good informants are;

1. Should have time and be patient, ingenious and tactful to

provide, obtain, and interpret data.

2. Should be well informed, independent, intelligent, alert, and

good in memory.

3. Should speak the language natively with good diction and

articulation.

4. Should be talkative, critical and analytical.

3. Contrastive Linguistics

In this part the writer would like to talk about the contrastive

linguistics. In this part the writer will point out the meaning of

contrastive linguistic and how to apply the theory.

According to Faisak the contrastive linguistics is defined as the

comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages in 17

order to determine both the differences and similarities between them

(Fisiak, 1981: 1).

In learning the language, the students of the native language usually get difficulties to study the foreign language because of the differences in linguistic feature of two languages. The theory of

Contrastive linguistic is useful in identifying or predicting the error possibilities that can be made by the L2 learners. According to Nickel, learning the second language will be much easier whenever there are similarities between the language and the mother tongue. Learning may be interfered with when there are marked contrast between mother tongue and second language (Nickel, 1971: 23)

Wolfram and Robert Johnson said in their book Phonological

Analysis that level of difficulty are predicted based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems. Generally speaking, we may say that the higher the degree of similarities between the phonological category in L1 and L2, the easier it will be to learn the L2 categories.

Conversely, the more different they are, the more difficult L2 will be to learn. The same as what is stated by Wolfram and Robert Johnson,

Weinrich in his book Language in Contact states that the greater differences between the system, i.e the numerous the mutually exclusive forms and patterns in it, the greater is the learning problem and the potential area of interference. (Weinrich 1953: 1) 18

Robert Lado said that in learning the sound system of a foreign language one finds sound that one physically similar to those of the native language that structure similarly to them, and that are similarly distributed. Learning of such phonemes occurs by transfer without difficulty. On the other hand, one also finds sounds that are not part of the sound system of native language, that structure differently, or that are differently distributed. Learning of these occurs more slowly, and difficulty with them is more persistent. In fact, learning the letter actually means learning the sound of language. We therefore seek to find those problems.

Lado said when the foreign language uses a phoneme that does not exist in the learners’ native language, that is, when there is no phoneme in the native language that could be transferred into foreign language the student will not be able to produce that phoneme readily in learning the foreign language. S/he will substitute some other phoneme from his native stock. The experience shows that the learner will have trouble hearing as well as producing the new phoneme.

He also said that we will able to complete our comparison on the basis of sound feature which consists of the vibration of vocal cord versus non vibration (voiced vs voiceless sound), place of articulation, and manner of articulation. Based on Lado experience, even when native language has a similar phoneme and the variants are similar, if it does not occur in the same position as in the native language the student 19

will have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does occur in the foreign language. For example in comparing French with English we would find that French /ʒ/ as in jamais has a parallel

English phoneme /ʒ/ as in measure. We would find that its variants would not cause any particular difficulty. But we would notice that in

French it appears at the beginning of that word and in English it does not. English speaker will transfer their /ʒ/ with its limitation into

French and will have difficulty with learning the word initial /ʒ/ in that language.

When the students find a sequence in which one of the phoneme of the foreign language is not to be found in their native language it of course could simply said as sequence problem and that phoneme itself should be listed as phoneme problem.

Lado also said that in language with writing systems that in some way represent sounds, the student often mispronounces words because of influences from those writing systems. When both the foreign language and the native language use the same alphabet, the problem may be traceable to one of two possible causes. One possibility is that the same symbol might represent two different sounds in the two languages. In such a case the student tends to transfer the native symbolization to the foreign language. For example, an English speaker studying Spanish will sometimes pronounce Jimenez as

/dʒImInIz/, while in Spanish J is pronounced as /h/. Another possibility 20

of spelling interference with pronunciation arises with inconsistencies

in the spelling of the foreign language. The symbol which in one word

represents one sound turns out to represent a different sound in another

word. For example, any student learning English might pronounce

words ‘honest’ or ‘hour’ with an initial /h/ sound, when of

course there is no /h/ in their pronunciation. The student may have

simply generalized on the basis of the many words in which an initial

letter ‘h’ does represent an initial sound /h/ as in words house, hat,

have, head, hand, etc.

4. Phonological process

According to Walt Wolfram and Robert Johnson (1982:88) in

Phonological Analysis Phonology is not a static system in which an

established unit remained unchanged in all its occurrences. Rather, it is

a dynamic system in which units change as they come into contact

with other units in the system. We refer to such changes as

phonological process. The examination of a phonological system at a

given point in time will reveal many such processes. There are several

phonological processes:

a. Assimilation

One of the most types of processes found in language is

assimilation, in which a sound takes on the characteristics of a 21

neighboring sound. There are two necessary components that

define assimilation: first, a sound that changes (the assimilating

sound) and second, the sound that causes the change (the

conditioning sound). In terms of the traditional classification of

phonological changes, one of the ways in which a sound may

assimilate relates to the place of articulation of neighboring

sound. A sound may change to take on position of a preceding

or following sound. The ten bikes in colloquial speech would

be /tem baIks/ not /ten baIks/ is an example of assimilation in

which the sound is influenced by the following sound. In lunch

score articulated with –s becoming -∫under the influence of

sound ch [t∫]. b. Dissimilation

Whereas assimilation refers to process in which segments take

on the character of neighboring segments, dissimilation refers

to the process in which segment changes to become less like a

neighboring segment. There are several cases of words which

have apparently developed into their current from through

dissimilation. The word pilgrim is sometimes cited as a case of

dissimilation. It was derived from the Latin form peregrius by

changing the first r to l. Similarly, in non-mainstream varieties

where chimley corresponds to the standard form chimney, the 22

change from n to the non-nasal l may also be viewed as

dissimilation. c. Neutralization

Particular processes that result in the cancellation of contrasts

between phonological units are often described by the term

neutralization. That is, two or more units that ordinarily

contrast lose that contrast in certain environments. For

example: salad is pronounced as [sælIt], the sound /d/ in the

final position is pronounced as /t/ instead of /d/. d. Deletion

In phonological process of deletion, units which occur in some

contexts are lost in others. In many cases, deletion processes

change the syllable structure of a word, thereby creating

preferred type of syllable pattern. For example, deletion

processes may break up clusters of consonants or vowels in

order to arrive at the more universally preferred CV pattern.

Some of English deletion processes are readily noticeable;

other are simply forms that we automatically apply but may not

be aware of until they are pointed out. For example: west side

[wεs saId], west end [wεs εnd], blind man [blaIn mæn], blind

eye [blaInd aI]. In these examples of cluster reduction, the final

segment of a word-final consonant cluster is deleted when the

following word begins with a consonant. If the following word 23

begins with a vowel, however, this process usually does not

apply.

e. Epenthesis

Inserting a sound segment into a form is called epenthesis.

Although it seems to occur less frequently than deletion,

epenthesis is by no means uncommon as a phonological

process. Both vowel and consonants may be inserted in

epenthetic processes. One process often considered to be

epenthetic involves plural form in English. For example form

of plural occurs after sibilants buses [bΛsIz], dishes [di∫Iz], and

judges [ʤΛʤIz]. The /I/ in this example is inserted between

sibilant.

f. Metathesis

When two segments reverse positions, the process is known as

metathesis. Pronouncing ask as aks (in some nonmainstream

varieties) represent the remnants of this process.

5. The form of Rules: Preliminary Conventions

Phonological rules are formalized according to a set of fairly well-

established conventions. What we present here are those most

generally in current use within generative phonology, although there

are certainly other conventions that might be used to capture the

various processes we have discussed. Several necessary details have to

be included in the formalization of a phonological rule. First, there 24

must be an input, the unit which is to be affected by the process. Then, there must be a change, the phonological processes which leads to the resultant form or output of the rule. And finally, there must be a relevant linguistic environment in which the change takes place. We have repeatedly noted the importance of the linguistic environment or context as factor in describing various changes. These factors might be captured in the simple type of convention as follows, where the arbitrary letters stand for the various units within the rule.

X → Y/A ____ B

In this convention, the form to the left of the arrow, X, is the input, and the form to the right of arrow, Y, the output. The arrow indicates the change, and should be read as “becomes”or “is changed to” (or, more theatrically, “is written as”). The diagonal / should be read as “in the context of.” All information to the right of diagonal specifies the linguistics environment in which the rule applies. That is the process or change can only take place when the input is found in the environment specified to the right of diagonal. The underscore or environmental bar, indicates where the input X occurs within the string of items represented by the environment. The relevant environment preceding the input is placed to the left of the environment bar (here, A__ ), and the relevant environment following the input is placed to the right of the bar (here, B__ ). So the rule above represent the change AXB to 25

AYB, where X is the input, Y the output, A the preceding environment,

and B the following environment.

C. Theoretical Framework

The theory of consonants that are used is to help the writer to find

out the consonants stocks that exist in English and Dayak Embaloh

language so that the differences of consonant sounds between those two

languages can be identified. The Contrastive Linguistic theory is helpful

for the writer to compare two or more languages or subsystems of

languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities so

that level of difficulty of Dayak Embaloh students could be predicted

based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems.

The theory of phonological process will help the writer to point out

the changing that occurs as the result of the different of consonant sounds

that Dayak Embaloh language has for example in the word god the sound

/d/ voice stop will change become voiceless stop because in Dayak

Embaloh sound voice sounds never occur in final position. The theory of

Phonological rules will help the writer in making rule of the changing of

sounds. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY

A. Object of the Study

The object of this study is how Dayak Embaloh language as the

first language influences Dayak Embaloh English learners’ pronunciation.

As the writer said in the introduction that he is interested in this topic

because a lot of Dayak Embaloh students mispronounce some English

sounds or some sounds are changing whenever they are pronounced by

Dayak Embaloh students, therefore in this thesis the writer would like to

find out how Dayak Embaloh students pronounce some English word

which sounds are not recognized or foreign in their language. There are

several phonological processes that will be analyzed for example how they

pronounce the word think. From this word the writer tries to analyze either

there is changing sound of /θ/ because the sound /θ/ is foreign for them or

deletion of sound /k/, or another example is the sound /∫/ which is also a

foreign sound in Dayak Embaloh language, thus how Dayak Embaloh

students pronounce the sound /∫/ and what happen to sound /∫/ whenever

this sound occurs in certain word of English is what the writer trying to

analyze in this thesis.

B. Method of Study

The method that will be used by the writer is a empirical approach because

the data is not based on the library data but the direct data or based on

26 27

observation.It means that the writer has to go directly to Dayak Embaloh

students as English learners (his respondents) to collect the data. However,

before the writer collects the data of Dayak Embaloh students’English

pronunciation, the writer first collects the Dayak Embaloh language data

as there is no book which has ever discussed about Dayak Embaloh

language. After the writer has collected the data, he described the Dayak

Embaloh consonants that are found in this language. This data will help

the writer in comparing the consonants between English and Dayak

Embaloh so that the difficulty of Dayak Embaloh students in pronouncing

some English consonants sounds can be predicted. The writer then collects

another data that is Dayak Embaloh students’English pronunciation. The

writer uses the tape recorder as the instument to record the Dayak

Embaloh students’ pronunciation. The pronunciations that are produced by

his respondents will be transcribed into phonetic transcription, and then

the writer will analyze the phonetic transcription of Dayak Embaloh

students’ pronunciationby comparing it with the actual English phonetic

transcription.

C. Research Procedure

The population of this research is Dayak Embaloh students (senior high

school) in Banua Martinus who learn English. The writer took Dayak

Embaloh students in Banua Martinus because most of Dayak Embaloh

students are using Embaloh language (Jarum Banuaka) as their first 28

language or mother tongue. As Jarum Banuaka is used as their first language of mother tongue, of course, the language will influence their

English pronunciation.

a. Data Collection

The writer found a Dayak Embaloh person as his informant to

obtain the Dayak Embaloh language data. The criteria of his

informant are;

1. Ingenious and tacktful to provide and obtain the data.

2. Should be well informed, independent, intelligent, alert,

and good in memory.

3. Should speak the language natively with good diction, and

articulation.

4. Should be talkative, critical, and analytical.

The writer took twenty Dayak Embaloh students as his

respondents to obtain the data of Dayak Embaloh students’

English pronunciation. The criteria of his respondents are Dayak

Embaloh students; they use Jarum Banuaka as their first language

or mother tongue, they come from Banua Martinus, and those who

are good in English it means that the writer will chose the students

whose English grade is more than 7.00. The procedures of

collecting the data are: 29

1. Dayak Embaloh students were asked to read a list of

words, which words were familiar or common words

given by the writer one by one.

2. While reading the words the writer recorded their

pronunciation. It was done in a certain way in order not

to disturb their natural pronunciation.

3. After the writer recorded the data, he transcribed it into

phonetic transcription. b. Data Analysis

After collecting the data the writer will analyze the data

based on the following steps:

1. As the writer said previously that there is no book

which has discussed the Dayak Embaloh language, thus

the first thing that the writer did was find an informant

to obtain the data of Dayak Embaloh language.

2. The writer gave the basic core vocabularies. The

example can be seen in Samrain’s Field Linguistics.

3. After the writer recorded the basic vocabularies of

Dayak Embaloh that writer obtained from his

informant, the writer then transcribed it into phonetic

transcription. 30

4. Based on phonetic transcription the write identified the

consonants that were used in the Dayak Embaloh

language.

5. The consonants sounds that were identified then would

be categorized based on the Place of Articulation,

Manner of Articulation, and Voice or Voiceless sound.

6. After obtaining the Dayak Embaloh consonants then the

writer compared Dayak Embaloh consonants sounds

and English consonants sounds based on the voiced vs

voiceless, place of articulation, and manner of

articulation.

7. Based on the comparison of consonant sounds of those

two languages, the writer looked for certain sounds that

were foreign for Dayak Embaloh students and could

predict what kind of sound that had changing

possibilities.

8. To find out how Dayak Embaloh students pronounced

certain sounds that are foreign for them, the writer

recorded and transcribed the Dayak Embaloh students’

pronunciation, and then he found out Dayak Embaloh

students’ mispronunciation.The test was not only on

the sounds that are foreign for Dayak Embaloh students

but also on the sequences that did not occur in Dayak 31

Embaloh language and the sounds that were similar

with English which did not occur in the same position

as in Dayak Embaloh language.

9. Then he related the Dayak Embaloh students’

mispronunciation into the related study that had been

discussed in chapter II. The mispronunciation would be

classified based on the phonological processes of

certain sounds. For example the deletions of sound /k/

in final position of the word think.

10. After classifying the Dayak Embaloh mispronunciation

based on phonological processes, then the writer made

parentage on the Dayak Embaloh students’

mispronunciation. The percentage of Dayak Embaloh

students’ mispronunciation would help the writer in

analyzing their mispronunciation tendency toward

certain sounds.

11. After making percentage on Dayak Embaloh students’

mispronunciation, the writer would analyze the

phonological processes. Then the writer made the

phonological rule based on the phonological processes.

12. Then the writer made a conclusion how Dayak Embaloh

consonant sounds would influence their English

pronunciation and explain how it happens. CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

A. Embaloh Consonant sounds.

As there is no book which has discussed the Dayak Embaloh

linguistics, the writer had to describe the consonants of Dayak

Embaloh himself. The data that he obtained is from his informant

whose name is Katarina, an Elementary School teacher in Lanjak,

Kapuas Hulu. The way the writer obtained the data was by giving his

informant 200 basic words as stated by William J Samarin (1967).

However, there are some words of Dayak Embaloh that the writer

added in his data therefore the words that the writer obtained is more

than 200 words. Based on the data that the writer obtained from his

informant, the consonants of Dayak Embaloh language (Banuaka)

consist of only seventeen consonants. They were classified based on

placed of articulation, Manner of articulation and Voicing as follow:

I. Plosive

The voiceless bilabial plosive [p] occurs in initial, medial, and

final position of the word in Dayak Embaloh language. In final

position of the word the phoneme /p/ is unreleased and it is not

aspirated in elsewhere position.

32 33

[p]- [pakoako] ‘lie’ [palo?] ‘sweat’ [pano?] ‘full’ -[p]- [sapadua] ‘some’ [sapulo’] ‘ten’ [anipis] ‘thin’ [ařipak] ‘ripped’ -[p] [tiap] ‘to blow’ [sa:p] ‘wings’ [sosop] ‘to suck’

The voiced bilabial stop [b] occurs in initial position and medial position, however it never occurs in the final position.

[b]- [baute?] ‘white’ [bakok] ‘fat’ [baḓʒao?] ‘far away’ [bařa] ‘big’ -[b]- [baba?] ‘mouth’ [babaiŋe] ‘woman’ [babaka] ‘male/man’ [mabal] ‘hit’

The voiceless dental stop [t] occurs in initial, medial, and final position of the word. In the final position the sound [t] is not released and not aspirated.

[t]- [talu] ‘three’ [tantamuan] ‘yellow’ [tio?] ‘live’ [tamunta?] ‘vomit’ -[t]- [Alatala] ‘God’ [mataso] ‘sun’ [ate] ‘heart’ [ati?] ‘if’ [inataŋ] ‘animal’ -[t] [akat] ‘tree trunk’ [mandait] ‘sew’ [asekot] ‘narrow’ [maŋokot] ‘bite’ 34

The Voiced alveolar stop [d] in initial position is not aspirated the same as the other plosive stop. It occurs in the initial position and medial position only.

[d]- [dařa?] ‘blood’ [dadařa?] ‘red’ [dalan] ‘road’ [danum] ‘water’ [dalapan] ‘eight’ [daia] ‘his/hers’ -[d]- [pudi] ‘prise’ [akadeŋ] ‘stand up’ [asadiŋ] ‘wake up’ [aduduk] ‘sit down’ [apadis] ‘hurt’

The voiceless velar stop [k] occurs in initial position, medial, and final position. Like the sound [t] and [p], in initial position of word it is not released or aspirated as the sound [p] and

[t].

[k]- [kato:] ‘rightside’ [kajoko?] ‘leftside’ [kakapit] ‘little’ [kaŋkaman] ‘kingdom’ -[k]- [ikam] ‘we’ [iko] ‘thou’ [laki] ‘husband’ [ukit] ‘hill’ -[k] [bauřuk] ‘bad/rotten’ [ababak] ‘shattered’ [lauk] ‘fish’ [atanak] ‘freeze’

Voiced velar stop [g] occurs in initial position and medial position only.

[g]- [guluŋan] ‘all’ [galuŋ] ‘round’ [guluŋ] ‘help’ 35

[gado] ‘noisy’ -[g]- [pařagoleŋ] ‘stretched out’ [bagao] ‘chaotic/ uproar’ [guguluŋ] ‘circle’

The voiced glottal stop [?] in Dayak Embaloh occurs in the

medial and final position only.

-[?]- [ndi?aŋ] ‘here’ [aisilo?a] ‘how’ [na?an] ‘not’ [na?anpi] ‘not yet’ [mandua?aŋ] ‘find’ -[?] [sakule?] ‘sometimes’ [baju?] ‘many’ [lamba?] ‘walk’ [indi?] ‘this’ [iŋko?] ‘tail’

II. Fricative

The voiceless alveolar fricative [s] occurs in the initial,

medial and final position.

[s]- [sao] ‘house’ [suan] ‘sky’ [sia?] ‘salt’ [sasijo?] ‘play’ -[s]- [aso] ‘day’ [ase] ‘rice’ [asan] ‘name’ [asu] ‘dog’ -[s] [ulis] ‘spear’ [taiřis] ‘Scratch’ [atampus] ‘extinct/barren’ [mamis] ‘sweet’

The voiceless glottal fricative [h] never occurs in initial and

medial it occurs in final position only. However, it is in the form of

article. 36

-[h] [kah] - [lah] - [bah] -

III. Lateral

The voiced alveolar lateral [l] in Dayak Embaloh language

occurs in initial position, medial, and final position. [l] in Dayak

Embaloh is clear in all position of words.

[l]- [laki] ‘husband’ [lamba?] ‘walk’ [lauk] ‘fish’ [lila?] ‘tongue’ -[l]- [malasu] ‘spit’ [balaŋke] ‘long’ [malam] ‘night’ [saluan] ‘outside’ [l]- [batimpul] ‘dull’ [mabal] ‘hit’ [batabal] ‘thick’

IV. Trill

The voiced alveolar trill [r] occurs in initial, medial, and

final positions. In all position the [ř] is trilling.

[ř]- [řimput] ‘grass’ [řimbu] ‘smoke’ [mařuaŋ ḓʒawa] ‘sea’ [řati] ‘meaning’ -[ř]- [ařananaŋ] ‘swim’ [ařabau] ‘smell’ [ařeaŋ] ‘flow’ [biřiŋ] ‘beside’ -[ř] [akotoř] ‘dirty’ [intaloř] ‘egg’ [tatagař] ‘tremble’ [iŋař] ‘nose’ 37

V. Approximant (semi vowel)

The voiced semivowel [w] never occurs in initial position

and final position. It occurs in medial position only.

-[w]- [bawi] ‘pig’ [mawa] ‘bring’ [tatawa] ‘laugh’ [bawa’] ‘shame’ [mawin] ‘carry for s.o’

The voiced palatal semivowel (approximant) [j] occurs in

the medial position only.

-[j]- [baju?] ‘many/much’ [kajoko?] ‘leftside’ [kaju] ‘wood’ [sasijo?] ‘play’

VI. Affricates

Dayak Embaloh has only one affricate sounds. The voiced

alveolar affricate occurs only in initial and medial position of a

word. William Samarin in his book Field Liguistics used symbol

[ ̭] for fronting consonant (Wiliam Samarin 1967:183). Because

normally [t∫] or [dʒ] are palatal, therefore the symbol used for

Dayak Embaloh affricate is [ḓʒ] to show that it is alveolar.

[ḓʒ]- [ḓʒařum] ‘language’ [ḓʒaŋka?a] ‘enough’ [ḓʒolo] ‘long time ago’ [ḓʒaḓʒaŋat] ‘thin’ -[ḓʒ]- [maḓʒař] ‘to teach’ [baḓʒao?] ‘far away’ [baḓʒalam] ‘deep’ 38

VII. Nasal

The voiced bilabial nasal [m] occurs in initial, medial and

final positions.

[m]- [mantuaři] ‘human being’ [manḓʒaput] ‘hold’ [makap] ‘morning’ [mamata?] ‘green’ -[m]- [ama?] ‘father’ [mamele] ‘see’ [namin] ‘already’ [kamo?] ‘uncle’ -[m] [paŋkam] ‘slave’ [ma:m] ‘good’ [batařam] ‘sharp’ [manikam] ‘stab’ [nanařum] ‘black’

The voiced alveolar nasal [n] occurs in initial, medial and

final position of word.

[n]- [naŋkanak] ‘children’ [nana] ‘and/with’ [namin] ‘already’ [ninaŋ] ‘over there’ -[n]- [danum] ‘water’ [tana?] ‘ground’ [manutuŋ] ‘burn’ [manuk] ‘chicken’ -[n] [ařaun] ‘dark’ [indin] ‘that’ [aŋin] ‘wind’ [aŋka:n] ‘eat’

The voiced velar nasal [ŋ] in Dayak Embaloh never occurs

in initial position. It occurs in medial and final position of words.

-[ŋ]- [maŋita] ‘to see’ [maŋapuluŋaŋ] ‘to collect’ [saŋaři] ‘breakfast’ [maŋalit] ‘steal’ -[ŋ] [tolaŋ] ‘bone’ 39

[piaŋ] ‘grandmother’ [bataŋ] ‘belly’ [aliŋ] ‘echo’

The tables bellow are the result of discussion of the

classification that base on Place of articulation, manner of

articulation and, voicing. Based on the discussion above the writer

also made a table of word-initial, word-medial, and word-final

consonant in Dayak Embaloh.

Table II. 1.1: Dayak Embaloh Place and Manner of articulation

Labio- Palato- Bilabial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal dental alveolar -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v -v +v Plosive p b t d k g ? Nasal m n ŋ Fricative s h Affricate ḓʒ Trill r Approximant w j Lateral l (Source: Based on the writer observation)

Dayak Embaloh consonants which occur in the initial, medial and

final position of words are noted in the table below. Note that there are

four phonemes that never occur in initial position, they are sound /?/

and sound /ŋ/, /w/, /y/, while voiced stops and semivowel never occur

in final position.

Table II. 1.2: Word-initial, word-medial, and word-final consonants in Dayak Embaloh p b t d k g ? m n ŋ s l ř w j ḓʒ h Initial position √ √ √ √ √ √ - √ √ - √ √ √ - - √ √ of word 40

Medial √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ position of word Final position √ - √ - √ - √ √ √ √ √ √ √ - - - √ of word (Source; based on the writer observation)

In Dayak Embaloh language whenever there are two consonants

occurring before a vowel, they are restricted to the combination between

nasal phonemes and stop plosive phoneme.

- [ndien] ‘have/ exist’ - [ndi?] ‘this’ - [ndin] ‘that’ - [lamba?] ‘walk’ - [mambit] ‘climb’ - [baŋke] ‘corpse’ - [aŋkan] ‘to eat’ - [balaŋke] ‘long’ - [sampulo?] ‘God’ - [dampean] ‘

B. Identifying consonants phoneme in Dayak Embaloh

Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman (1988:73) says that to

determine the phonemes of any language is to see whether substituting one

sound for another results in a different word. If it does, the two sounds

represent different phonemes. Therefore, the way to identify consonants

sound in Dayak Embaloh language is by identifying minimal pairs. The

minimal pairs will be identified based on Natural classes that are place of

articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.

a. Stop

[p] [b] paŋkam (slave) baŋkam (bruised)

ampat (four) ambat (many) 41

[p] [b] bilabial + + voiced - + stop + +

Based on table above, it shows that [p] and [b] are different phoneme because they are different in voicing. [p] is [-voiced] whereas [b] is [+voiced], therefore they are two different phonemes.

[t] [d] talan (swallow) dalan (way / road) ati? (if) adi? (younger brother/sister)

[t] [d] alveolar + + voiced - + stop + +

[t] and [d] are different phonemes. They are different in voicing, [t] is [-voiced] while [d] is [+voiced].

[k] [g] kalaŋ(arena) galaŋ(bracelet) laka? (take off) laga? (arrogant)

[k] [g] velar + + voiced - + stop + + 42

The table above shows that [k] and [g] is different

phonemes. [k] is [-voiced] while [g] is [+voiced].

[k] [?]

tatak (cut) tata? (prohibition)

tawak (gong) tawa? (share)

[k] [?] velar + - voiced - + stop + + b. Nasal

[m] [n]

maba? (possible) naba? (playing music instrument)

mamata? (green) manata? (giving a sign)

masam (sour) masan (name) (vt)

[m] [n] bilabial + - voiced + + nasal + +

[m] and [n] are different phonemes. As shown in

table above that phoneme [m] is [+labial] while phoneme

[n] is [-labial], therefore [m] and [n] are two different

phonemes. 43

[n] [ŋ]

manusuk (stick/stab) maŋusuk (rub)

bintan (fishhook) bintaŋ(star)

[n] [ŋ] alveolar + - voiced + + nasal + +

[n] and [ŋ] are different phonemes. The difference is

phoneme [n] is [+alveolar] while phoneme [ŋ] is [-alveolar/

+velar].

[m] [ŋ]

mamali (buy) maŋali (dig)

řařam (soak) řařaŋ(seldom)

[m] [ŋ] bilabial + - voiced + + nasal + +

[m] and [ŋ] are different phonemes. As shown in

table above that [m] is [+labial] while [ŋ] is [-labial]

C. Comparison of Dayak Embaloh consonants and English consonants

As the writer mentioned in the introduction that every group of

people of a language has their own sound characteristics which are

different one from the other. Although there are some sounds seem similar 44

there are some sounds seem foreign for a group of people of different language. Thus, sounds are something very important in human language because whenever they are combined into second layer they become meaningful unit. As Wolfram and Robert Johnson said in their book

Phonological Analysis that level of difficulty is predicted based on a comparison of phonological units in the two systems. As Lado also said in his book Linguistics Across Cultures ( 1957:11) that the need for comparing the native and foreign sound systems is to predict and describe the pronunciation problems of the speakers of a given language learning another. Generally speaking, we may say that the higher the degree of similarities between the phonological category in L1 and L2, the easier it will be to learn the L2 categories. Conversely, the more different they are, the more difficult L2 will be to learn. Therefore, the comparison of these two languages is based on Manner of Articulation.

The following tables are the tables of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants based on the manner of articulation. The tables below will show the consonants that exist in Dayak Embaloh and English or the consonants that do not exist in one of them.

a) Stop

Stop p t k b d g ? D.Embaloh + + + + + + + English + + + + + + - Table III.1.1 Dayak Embaloh and English Stop 45

b) Nasal

Nasal m n ŋ D.Embaloh + + + English + + + Table III.1.2 Dayak Embaloh and English Nasal

c) Fricative

Fricative f v θ ð s z ∫ ʒ h D.Embaloh - - - - + - - - + English + + + + + + + + + Table III.1.3 Dayak Embaloh and English Fricative

d) Affricate

Affricate t∫ dʒ ḓʒ D.Embaloh - - + English + + - Table III.1.4 Dayak Embaloh and English Afficate

e) Approximant

Approximant r j w D.Embaloh + + + English + + + Table III.1.5 Dayak Embaloh and English Aproximant

f) Lateral

Lateral l D.Embaloh + English + Table III.1.6 Dayak Embaloh and English lateral

Based on the consonant comparison of Dayak Embaloh and

English consonants, there are 9 (nine) English consonants that do not exist 46

in Dayak Embaloh, they are [f], [ ð], [θ], [v], [z], [∫], [ʒ],[t∫], and [dʒ]. As

these consonants do not exist in Dayak Embaloh, so the Dayak Embaloh

students will have possibility mispronouncing English words which

consists of those consonants.

D. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonant

The writer now will discuss consonant sounds one by one; to find out

the distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants. Although both

Dayak Embaloh and English have the same phoneme, if some consonants

do not occur in the same position as the native language they also will

have mispronunciation possibilities. As Lado ( 1957:17) said that when the

native language has a similar phoneme and the variants are similar, if it

does not occur in the same position as in native language, the student will

have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does

occur in foreign language. In this part the writer will discuss it based on

PVM (Place of articulation, Voice, and Manner of articulation).

Table IV. Distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants Dayak Embaloh English Initial Medial Final Initial Medial Final p + + + + + + t + + + + + + k + + + + + + b + + - + + + d + + - + + + g + + - + + + m + + + + + + n + + + + + + ŋ - + + - + + f - - - + + + v - - - + + + θ - - - + + + ð - - - + + + 47

s + + + + + + z - - - + + + ∫ - - - + + + ʒ - - - + + + h - - + + + - t∫ - - - + + + dʒ - - - + + + r + + + + + + j - + - + + - w - + - + + - l + + + + + +

The table above is the summary of the following discussion of the distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants based on the PVM

(Place of articulation, Voice, and Manner of articulation).

The following are the discussion of distribution of Dayak Embaloh and English consonants. As it was mentioned before, the writer will discuss the consonants one by one based on place of articulation, and the writer will make comparison of distribution of consonants to find out whether consonants of both languages share the same consonants distribution.

I. Bilabial

A bilabial-voiced-plosive in English is produced by

bringing both lips together, obstructs the air and releases it with an

explosion. Whenever the sound is produced the vocal cord is

vibrating. This kind of sound in English is represented by symbol

/b/ and it occurs in all position. This kind of sound can be found in

Dayak Embaloh language as well. It also can be represented as /b/ 48

sound and only can be found in initial position and middle position, never in final position.

Table V.1.1 D.E and English bilabial-voiced-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription Bauta [bauta] Bear [beƏ] [b]- Bariar [bařiař] Bacon [beIkƏn] Bajao’ [baḓʒao’] Bar [ba:] Kabal [kabal] Cable [keIbl] -[b]- Babong [baboŋ] Label [leIbl] Sabalu’ [sabalu?] Ribbon [rIbƏn] - - Robe [rƏ℧b] -[b] - - Rub [rΛb] - - Mob [mb]

A bilabial-voiceless-plosive sound is produced the same as the sound /b/. However, this kind of sound does not involve the vocal cord therefore there is no vibration in vocal cord and results on voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound is represented as

/p/ sound and it occurs in all position. This kind of sound can be found in Dayak Embaloh language as well and the sound can be represented the same as in English. Sound /p/ can also occur in all position in Dayak Embaloh language, in final position of the word the phoneme /p/ is unreleased and it is not aspirated in elsewhere position.

Table V.1.2 D.E and English bilabial-voiceless-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription Pakoako [pakoako] pear [peƏ] [p]- Palo’ [palo?] pea [pi:] Pangkuatan [paŋkuatan] peace [pi:s] 49

Topak [topak] chapel [t∫æpl] -[p]- Sape [sape] supper [sΛpƏ(r)] Bapu’ [bapu?] papacy [peIpƏsi] Tiap [tiap] rope [rƏ℧p] -[p] Madap [madap] type [taIp] Sosop [sosop] lip [lIp]

A bilabial-voiced-nasal sound is produced the same as sound /b/ and /p/, involving a complete closure in mouth but it allows the air escape through the nose and whenever the sound is produced the vocal cord is vibrating so that the sound produced is voice sound. In English this kind of sound is represented as /m/ and it can occur in all position. This kind of sound can also be found in

Dayak Embaloh language and can be represented the same as in

English. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound can also occur in all position.

Table V.1.3 D.E and English bilabial-voiced-nasal Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription manggulungi [maŋguluŋi] music [mju:zIk] [m]- mantuari [mantuaři] muscle [mΛsl] mamele [mamele] muzzle [mΛzl] namin [namin] temple [templ] -[m]- mamola [mamola] famous [feImƏs] kamo’ [kamo?] family [fæmƏli] pangkam [paŋkam] time [taIm] -[m] raram [rařam] lime [laIm] bataram [batařam] come [kΛm]

A bilabial-voiced-approximant sound is produced the same as the previous sounds. However, this sound is involving a near- 50

closure in the mouth but without friction and can be also called as

semi-vowel. This sound is represented with /w/ and in English this

sound can occur only in initial and medial positions. This sound

can also be found in Dayak Embaloh language and occur only in

medial position of word.

Table V.1.4 D.E and English bilabial-voiced-approximant Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - weird [wIƏd] [w]- - - wind [wInd] - - winch [wInt∫] bawi [bawi] tower [ta℧Ə(r)] -[w]- mawa [mawa] power [pa℧Ə(r)] tatawa [tatawa] shower [∫a℧Ə(r)] - - - - -[w] ------

II. Labio-dental

A labiodental-voiced-fricative sound is produced by

touching the lower lip to the upper teeth and there is friction

resulted between the articulator. In English this kind of sound is

represented by symbol /v/. This sound is voiced because it causes

the vibrating in vocal cord when the sound is produced. The sound

/v/ in English can occur in all position. In Dayak Embaloh this kind

of sound can not be found because Dayak Embaloh language never

involves lower lip and upper teeth in producing sound. 51

Table V.2.1 D.E and English labiodental-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - vain [veIn] [v]- - - victim [vIktIm] - - vile [vaIl] - - revere [rIvIƏ(r)] -[v]- - - poverty [pvƏti] - - savior [seIvjƏ(r)] - - live [laIv] -[v] - - give [gIv] - - pave [peIv]

A labiodental-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /v/. The difference of this sound is it does not involve or cause the vocal cord vibrates and the result is voiceless sound. In English, this kind of sound is represented by /f/ and it can occur in all position of words. As the writer said in the previous that Dayak Embaloh language never involves the lower lip and upper teeth in producing the sound. Therefore this kind of sound cannot be found in Dayak Embaloh language.

Table V.2.2 D.E and English labiodental-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - find [faIn] [f]- - - file [faIl] - - fill [fIl] - - referee [refƏri:] -[f]- - - prefer [pri:fз:r] - - reface [prefƏs] - - life [laIf] -[f] - - deaf [def] - - enough [InΛf] 52

III. Dental

A dental-voiced-fricative sound is produced by inserting

the tongue tip between upper teeth and lower teeth. When

producing sound there is friction occurring between the tongue and

teeth, and it vibrates the vocal cord which is resulting the voice

sound. This sound is represented by symbol /ð/ and can occur in all

position of word. However this kind of sound can not be found in

Dayak Embaloh language. Dayak Embaloh language never

produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the

upper teeth and lower teeth.

Table V.3.1 D.E and English dental-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - this [ðIs] [ð]- - - that [ðæt] - - then [ðƏn] - - leather [leðƏ(r)] -[ð]- - - father [fðƏ(r)] - - mother [mΛðƏ(r)] - - clothe [klƏ℧ð] -[ð] - - with [wIð] - - lathe [leIð]

A dental-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as

sound /ð/. The difference is when producing dental-voiceless-

sound the vocal cord does not vibrate which is resulting the

voiceless sound. This sound is represented by symbol /θ/. In

English dental-voiceless-fricative can occur in all position of word. 53

As the writer told before that Dayak Embaloh language never

produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the

upper teeth and the lower teeth, therefore this kind of sound can not

be found in Dayak Embaloh language as well.

Table V.3.2 D.E and English dental-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - thief [θi:f] [θ]- - - thin [θIn] - - think [θIŋk] - - lethal [li:θl] -[θ]- - - brothel [brθl] - - cathedral [kƏθi:drƏl] - - cloth [klθ] -[θ] - - path [pθ] - - death [deθ]

IV. Alveolar

An alveolar-voiced-plosive sound is produced by touching

the tip of the tongue to the alveolar ridge, obstructing the air and

releasing it with an explosion. When producing this sound the

vocal cord is vibrating which is resulting a voice sound. This sound

is represented with symbol /d/. In English this sound can occur in

all position. Dayak Embaloh language also has /d/ sound. This

sound can also occur only in initial and medial position of word

and never in final position. 54

Table V.4.1 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription danum [danum] die [daI] [d]- daun [daun] dial [daIƏl] daiko [daiko] detect [dItekt] sidai’ [sidai?] middle [mIdl] -[d]- tundi [tundi] widow [widƏ℧] akadeng [akadeŋ] leader [li:dƏ(r)] - - bid [bId] -[d] - - bad [bæd] - - deed [di:d]

An alveolar-voiceless-plosive sound is produced the same as sound /d/. However the vocal cord does not vibrate when the sound is produced so the sound becomes voiceless sound. In

English this kind of sound is represented by symbol /t/ and can occur in all position of word. In Dayak Embaloh language voiceless alveolar stop /t/ occurs in initial, medial, and final position of the word. In final position the sound /t/ is not released and not aspirated in initial position.

Table V.4.2 D.E and English alveolar-voiceless-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription tata’ [tata?] time [taIm] [t]- tatak [tatak] try [traI] tio’ [tio?] top [tp] Alatala [Alatala] little [lItl] -[t]- matonai [matonai] cattle [kætl] inatang [inataŋ] battle [bætl] akat [akat] fat [fæt] [t]- mantat [mantat] beat [bi:t] mamet [mamet] rat [ræt] 55

An alveolar-voiced-nasal sound is produced the same as sound /d/. However, in producing this sound the air is allowed to escape through the nose resulting the nasal sound. In English this sound is represented by the symbol /n/, which occurs in all position in English words. In Dayak Embaloh language [n] Voiced alveolar nasal occurs in initial, medial and final position of word.

Table V.4.3 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-nasal Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription nangkanak [naŋkanak] night [naIt] [n]- ninang [ninaŋ] nine [naIn] namin [namin] need [ni:d] danum [danum] lantern [læntƏ] -[n]- tana’ [tana?] center [sentƏ(r)] manuk [manuk] peanut [pi:nΛt] araun [ařaun] line [laIn] -[n] laan [laan] mine [main] angkan [aŋkan] sin [sIn]

An alveolar-voiced-lateral sound is produced with complete closure but allowing the air escapes in both sides of the tongue. In English this kind of sound is symbolized by /l/ and can occur in all position of word. In English this kind of sound will be clear /l/ whenever it occurs in initial and medial position of words and dark /ł/ whenever it occurs in final position of words. Dayak

Embaloh language, however, never differentiates this kind of sound either in initial position or final position. It means that in

Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound will be clear in all position. This kind of sound can occur in all position of the words. 56

Table V. 4.4 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-lateral Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription lalako’ [lalako?] late [leIt] [l]- lako’ [lako?] large [l:dʒ] loang [loaŋ] love [lΛv] malola’ [malola?] filter [filtƏ(r)] -[l]- balangke [balaŋke] sailor [seIlƏ(r)] ulun [ulun] molest [mƏlest] manutul [manutul] tail [teIl] -[l] agol-agol [agol-agol] mile [maIl] bakul [bakul] pill [pIl]

An alveolar-voiced-fricative sound is represented by symbol /z/. This sound is produced the same as previous sound.

However, when producing this sound the vocal cord is vibrating which causes voiced sound and there is friction between tongue tip and alveolar ridge. In Dayak Embaloh language however, this kind of sound can not be found. Dayak Embaloh language never produces voiced sound for alveolar-fricative. Alveolar-fricative in

Dayak Embaloh language is always voiceless sound. In English this kind of sound can be found and occur in all position of words.

Table V. 4.5 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - zero [zIƏrƏ℧] /z/- - - zeal [zi:l] - - zip [zIp] - - basil [bæzl] -/z/- - - desert [dezƏt] - - design [dIzaIn] 57

- - rise [reIz] -/z/ - - gaze [geIz] - - size [saIz]

An alveolar-voiceless-fricative sound is produced the same as sound /z/. However, whenever this sound is produced the vocal cord is not vibrating which cause voiceless sound. This kind of sound is represented by symbol /s/. In English this kind of sound can occur in all position of word. As the writer said previously that in Dayak Embaloh language alveolar-fricative is always voiceless.

Therefore, this kind of sound can also be found and occur in all position of words in Dayak Embaloh language.

Table V. 4.6 D.E and English alveolar-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription sao [sao] sign [saIn] [s]- sidua’ [sidua?] sick [sIk] saringkan [sařiŋkan] see [si:] malasik [malasik] basin [beIsn] -[s]- pasan [pasan] basket [b:skIt] pasung [pasuŋ] pistol [pIstl] mingkas [miŋkas] bus [bΛs] -[s] amas [amas] kiss [kIs] karatas [kařatas] miss [mIs]

An alveolar-voiced-approximant is produced by near closure between tongue blade and the area just behind the alveolar ridge. This sound is represented by symbol /r/. In English this kind of sound can occur in all position of words. In Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound also occurs in all position of the words.

In all position of word the sound is trilling while in English this 58

kind of sound has allophone. In English after fortis consonant /p, t,

k, f, θ, ∫etc, a devoiced (voiceless) allophone occurs [ɹ] e.g. in

train, crane, free, shrug. Allophone [ɾ] occurs intervocally as in

very, marry. In Dayak Embaloh the [r] sound is never followed or

preceded by other consonants.

Table V. 4.7 D.E and English alveolar-voiced-approximant Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription rimput [řimput] rich [rIt∫] [r]- rabor [řaboř] right [raIt] rami [řami] run [rΛn] maratak [mařatak] marry [mæri] -[r]- maripak [mařipak] cry [kraI] marurun [mařuřun] shrug [∫rΛg] indoor [indooř] car [k:(r)] -[r] tarear [tařeař] bar [b:(r)] tatagar [tatagař] near [nIƏ(r)]

V. Palatoalveolar

A palatoalveolar-voiced-fricative in English is represented

by the symbol /ʒ/. In English the Palatoalveolar-voice-fricative [ʒ]

occurs only intervovally, except for a few loan words from French,

where it may occur initially and finally. However this kind of

sound is never produced in Dayak Embaloh, because Dayak

Embaloh language never produces sounds by raising the body of

the tongue toward the front of the palate. This kind of sound will

have higher substitution possibilities that could be made by the

Dayak Embaloh students when they pronounce it. 59

Table V.5.1 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiced-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - gigolo [ʒigƏlo] [ʒ]- - - genre [ʒ:nrƏ] - - jabot [ʒabo] - - vision [viʒƏn] -[ʒ]- - - measure [meʒƏ(r)] - - pleasure [pleʒƏ(r)] - - rouge [ruʒ] -[ʒ] - - blancmange [blƏ’mnʒ] - - phage [faʒ]

A palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative in English is represented by the symbol /∫/. In English this kind of sound is produced the same as the sound /ʒ/. However, when sound /∫/ is produced, the vocal cord is not vibrating therefore this sound is categorized into the voiceless sound. In English this sound can occur in all position of word. As the writer told before that Dayak

Embaloh language never produces sound by raising the body of the tongue toward the front of the palate. Therefore this kind of sound is not produced in Dayak Embaloh language. In Dayak Embaloh the sound that seems similar with the /∫/ is sound /s/. However, this sound is produced in the alveolar ridge instead of in palatoalveolar. 60

Table V. 5.2 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - sheep [∫i:p] /∫/- - - shame [∫eIm] - - shark [∫:k] - - fission [fI∫n] -/∫/- - - fissure [fi∫Ə] - - passion [pæ∫n] - - bush [bu∫] -/∫/ - - banish [bænI∫] - - flash [flæ∫]

A palatoalveolar-voiceless-affricate in English is represented with the symbol /t∫/. The sound involves a complete closure, as plosive but the release phase is not with plosive but friction. In English, this kind of sound can occur in all position of word. In Dayak Embaloh language this kind of sound does not exist and is considered as a foreign sound. Dayak Embaloh language never produces sound in the palatoalveolar. However, there is a consonant sound that also seems similar with the English consonant sound /t∫/, it is /c/. This kind of consonant is actually not

Dayak Embaloh consonant sound but it is derived from Indonesia loan word like cacing, candi, etc.

Table V. 5.3 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - church [t∫з: t∫] /t∫/- - - chapter [t∫æptƏ] 61

- - chicken [t∫IkIn] - - mature [mƏt∫℧Ə] -/t∫/- - - nature [neIt∫Ə] - - capture [kæpt∫Ə(r)] - - fetch [fet∫] -/t∫/ - - catch [kæt∫] - - match [mæt∫]

A palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate in English is represented with the symbol /dʒ/. This kind of sound can occur in all position of English words. In Dayak Embaloh, however, this kind of sound does not exist. There is one sound that is similar to this kind of sound that Dayak Embaloh has, it is sound /ḓʒ/. The writer use /ḓʒ/ symbol in order to differentiate /ḓʒ/ from /dʒ/ of English sound.

/ḓʒ/ in Dayak Embaloh is voiced affricate. The difference between

/ḓʒ/ and /dʒ/ is just on the place of articulation. /dʒ/ is produced in the alveolar ridge while /dʒ/ is produced in the palatoalveolar. In

Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound occur only in the initial and medial position of words. In initial position as in jarum [ḓʒarum], jolo[ḓʒolo], jajangat [ḓʒaḓʒaŋat]/ in medial position as in majar

[maḓʒar], bajao’ [baḓʒao], and bajalam [baḓʒalam] 62

Table V. 5.4 D.E and English palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - jack [dʒæk] /dʒ/- - - jar [dʒ:] - - jelly [dʒeli] - - ledger [ledʒƏ] -/dʒ/- - - legend [ledʒƏnd] - - legible [ledʒƏbl] - - judge [dʒΛdʒ]

-/dʒ/ - - engage [In’geIdʒ]

- - lounge [la℧ndʒ]

VI. Palatal

The production of a palatal-voiced-approximant in both

English and Dayak Embaloh language is similar means that it is

produced with near-closure between the front of the tongue and

hard palate. In English this kind of consonant sound is represented

with symbol /j/. The occurrence of palatal-voice-approximant is

restricted: it is found in initial position, and in initial consonant

combinations after certain consonants, e.g you [ju:], beauty

[bju:ti], queue [kju:]. In English it also can occur in medial

position of word intervocalically as in beyond [bI’jɒnd]. Palatal-

voice-approximant in Dayak Embaloh, however, only occurs in

medial position of words or intervocalically as in bayu’[baju’],

bakaya [bakaja], talayong [talajoŋ], mamayoang [mamajoaŋ]. 63

Table V.6.1 D.E and English palatal-voice-approximant Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - you [ju:] /j/- - - yard [j:d] - - yellow [jelƏ℧] bayu’ [baju?] computer [kƏm’pju:tƏ(r)] -/j/- mamayoang [mamajoaŋ] molecule [mlIkju:l] talayong [talajoŋ] security [sIkj℧ƏrƏti] - - - - -/j/ ------

VII. Velar

A velar-voiceless-plosive is represented by symbol /k/ in

both Dayak Embaloh and . The sound production

of this phoneme is the same in Dayak Embaloh and English that is

by involving a closure between the back of the tongue and soft

palate. However, it does not cause the vocal cord vibrating

therefore it is voiceless. This phoneme can occur in all position of

words in both Dayak Embaloh and English.

Table V.7.1 D.E and English velar-voiceless-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription kangkaman [kaŋkaman] king [kiŋ] /k/- kayoko’ [kajoko?] car [k:(r)] katoo [kato:] curious [kj℧ƏriƏs] iko [iko] second [sekƏnd] -/k/- ikam [ikam] biker [baIkƏ] ukit [ukit] racket [rækIt] 64

bauruk [bauřuk] take [teIk] -/k/ ababak [ababak] make [meIk] lauk [lauk] like [laIk]

A velar-voiced-plosive is represented by symbol /g/ in both languages. The sound production of this phoneme is also the same as phoneme /k/. However, this kind of sound causes the vocal cord vibrating (voiced). In English this consonant can occur in all position of words. In Dayak Embaloh language this consonant does not occur in the final position.

Table V. 7.2 D.E and Englishvelar-voiced-plosive Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription gulungan [guluŋan] good [g℧d] /g/- gulung [guluŋ] garbage [g:bIdʒ] gado [gado] garment [g:mƏnt] paragoleng [pařagoleŋ] dragon [drægƏn] -/g/- bagao [bagao] beggar [begƏ(r)] gugulung [guguluŋ] single [siŋgl] - - dig [dIg] -/g/ - - dog [dg] - - bag [bæg]

A velar-voiced-nasal is represented by symbol /ŋ/. The production of this consonant is the same in Dayak Embaloh and

English that is by involving a closure between the back of the tongue and soft palate. Both in English and Dayak Embaloh language this consonant never occurs in the initial position of words. 65

Table V. 7.3 D.E and Englishvelar-voiced-nasal Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - - - /ŋ/------sangari [saŋaři] linger [lIŋƏ(r)] -/ŋ/- mangalit [maŋalit] singer [sIŋƏ(r)] mangita [maŋita] jungle [dʒΛŋgl] tolang [tolaŋ] lung [lΛŋ] -/ŋ/ piang [piaŋ] sing [sIŋ] batang [bataŋ] ring [rIŋ]

VIII. Glottal

A glottal-voiceless-fricative in English and Dayak Embaloh

is represented by symbol /h/. The production of this consonant is

similar in both language that is by pivoting and closing the vocal

folds. In Dayak Embaloh this kind of sound occurs in final position

while in English consonant /h/ occurs mainly in initial position of

words, although it is also sometimes found medially.

Table V.81 D.E and English glottal-voiceless-fricative Dayak Embaloh English Phonetic Phonetic Word Word transcription transcription - - hear [hiƏ(r)] /h/- - - high [haI] - - hut [hΛt] - - vehicle [vi: Əkl] -/h/- - - ahead [Əhed] - - uphill [ΛphIl] kah [kah] - - -/h/ lah [lah] - - bah [bah] - - 66

E. Dayak Embaloh English students’pronunciation

In this part the writer will discuss about Dayak Embaloh English

learners’ pronunciation.The pronunciation will be classified based on the

phonological process that is made by Dayak Embaloh English learners’

pronunciation. As Lado said in his book Linguistics Across Cultures

(1957:27) that when a phoneme in a foreign language does not exist in the

native language the students tend to substitute the native phoneme that

seems nearest within the whole structure of his native language. This

happens to Dayak Embaloh English learners when they pronounce English

words that contain phonemes which do not exist in their native language.

The results of the discussions in this part were summarized into the table

below;

Table VI Substitution and deletion of consonants

Dayak Embaloh English consonant pronunciation

θ t ð d / t ∫ s ʒ s /ḓʒ t∫ t∫/ t dʒ ḓʒ/ t z ḓʒ/ s b final position p d final position t g final position k v f j medial position Ø t final position Ø 67

The discussion of Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation will be categorized based on the phonological processes that occur. The following are discussion of phonological process that is made by Dayak Embaloh students.

I. Consonant Change

Dayak Embaloh English learners tend to change the English

consonants that do not exist in their native language and the

distributions are not the same.

I.1.a Substitution of [t] for [θ]

All of Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for

English phoneme [θ]. Some of them have correct pronunciation for

phoneme [θ].

Table VII.1.1 Substitution of [t] for [θ] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation thin [θIn] [tIn] 100% think [θIŋk] [tIŋ] lethal [li:θl] [litƏl] 100% cathedral [kƏθi:drƏl] [kƏti:drƏl] cloth [klθ] [klot] 100% death [deθ] [det]

The Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by inserting the

tip of the tongue between upper teeth and lower teeth. Therefore,

whenever there are English words that contain phoneme [θ] Dayak

Embaloh students get difficulty to pronounce it, and tend to 68

substitute [θ] into their native phoneme [t] that sound similar to

English phoneme [θ]. To find out why they tend to substitute [t] for

English phoneme [θ], the writer make matrix that indicate the feature of both phonemes.

[θ] + fricative [t] + stop + interdental + alveolar - voiced - voiced

Based on the matrix above, as to manner of articulation [t] is a stop in contrast to [θ]. As to place of articulation [t] is an alveolar in contrast to [θ]. It is reasonable that Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for [θ] because based on the table

II.1.2: Dayak Embaloh Place and Maner of articulation in page

37, Dayak Embaloh only has [s] and [h] for fricative and it is impossible for them to substitute [s] or [h] for English fricative [θ] because the fricative [s] or [h] sound is less alike to English fricative [θ].As Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between upper teeth and lower teeth therefore they tend to naturalize English [θ] to the closest place of articulation. The closet place of articulation is in the alveolar.

Moreover, the English [θ]which is spelled as ‘th’ in initialas in

‘thin’, medial as in ‘cathedral’and final position as in ‘death’can become the factor they (students) tend to substitute [t] for [θ]. The

Dayak Embaloh students’pronunciation can be formulated as follows; 69

θ → t / #_____VC

θ → t / CV____VC

θ → t / CV_____#

The rule above indicates that Dayak Embaloh students tend

to substitute alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] for interdental-voiceless-

fricative [θ] in initial, medial and final position.

I.1.b Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð]

Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [d] for English

phoneme [ð] in initial position and medial position of words.

Table VII.1.2 Substitution of [d] and [t] for [ð] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation this [ðIs] [dIs] 100% that [ðæt] [det] father [fðƏ(r)] [fadƏr] 100% mother [mΛðƏ(r)] [madƏr] clothe [klƏ℧ð] [klout] 100% with [wIð] [wit]

This case is the same as the case before. As Dayak

Embaloh phonological system has never produced sound by

inserting the tongue between the upper teeth and lower teeth,

therefore they tend to substitute their native consonant [d] for

English [ð]. It will be analyzed based on the articulatory feature. 70

[ð] + fricative [d] + stop + interdental + alveolar + voiced + voiced

Based on the matrix above it is reasonable that Dayak

Embaloh students tend to substitute [d] for English [ð] in the initial and medial position. As Dayak Embaloh never produces the sound by inserting the tip of the tongue between the upper teeth and lower teeth, therefore they tend to naturalize English [ð] to the closet place of articulation. And the closest place of articulation is in the alveolar ridge.

In the final position Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] for English [ð]. As Dayak

Embaloh has never produced voiced sound in the final position, therefore it is reasonable that they tend to substitute [t] for English

[ð] instead of [d] which is [+voiced] in final position. The substitution that is made by Dayak Embaloh students can be formulated as follows;

ð → d / #_____VC

ð → d / CV __ VC

ð → t / CV______#

The rule above indicates that interdental-voiced-fricatives

[ð] become alveolar-voiced-stop [d] whenever it is in the initial position before vowel and medial position between vowels. And 71

interdental-voiced-fricatives [ð] becomes alveolar-voiceless-stop

[t] in final position after the vowel.

I.1.c Substitution of [s] for [∫]

Table VII.1.3 Substitution of [s] for [∫] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation sheep [∫i:p] [sip] 100% shame [∫eIm] [seim] fission [fI∫n] [fIsIƏn] 100% passion [pæ∫n] [pesIƏn] banish [bænI∫] [benIs] 100% flash [flæ∫] [fles]

All of Dayak Embaloh students substitute [s] for English

[∫]. Back to the table II.1.2 in page 37, it shows that Dayak

Embaloh has never produced sound in the palatal. In other words,

Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by raising the body of the

tongue toward the front palate. Therefore, whenever there are

English words which contain the palatoalveolar-voiceless-fricative

[∫], Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for [∫]. The

matrix bellow will help the writer to find out why they tend to

substitute [s] for English [∫];

[∫] + fricative [s] + fricative + palatoalveolar + alveolar - voiced - voiced 72

Based on the matrix above, it shows that as to place of

articulation [s] is an alveolar in contrast to [∫], and both of them are

[+fricative, - voiced]. As Dayak Embaloh has never produced

sound by raising the body of the tongue toward the front palate,

therefore it is reasonable that they naturalized palatal [∫] to the

closest place of articulation. The alveolar ridge is close to palate.

The substitution above can be formulated as follows;

∫→ s / #______

∫→ s / CV____VC

∫→ s / ______#

The rule above indicate that the palatoalveolar -voiceless-

fricative [∫] becomes alveolar-voiceless-fricative [s] in all position

of words.

I.1.d Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ]

Table VII.1.4 Substitution of [s] and [ḓʒ] for [ʒ]

D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation gigolo [ʒigƏlo] [ḓʒigolo] 80% jabot [ʒabo] [ḓʒabo] vision [viʒƏn] [fisiƏn] 95% measure [meʒƏ(r)] [mesƏ(r)] rouge [ruʒ] [rus] 90% phage [faʒ] [fas] 73

Based on the table above, it shows that Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for English [ʒ] in the medial and final position of words. The English [ʒ] as in gigolo [ʒigƏlo], vision

[viʒƏn], rouge [ruʒ], etc, has several feature. It is a voiced in contrast to Dayak Embaloh [s] as in sidua’ (meet)which is voiceless. As in place of articulation [s] is an alveolar in contrast to

[ʒ] which is palatoalveolar.

[ʒ] [s] Place of Articulation + palatoalveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + fricative + fricative Voice + voiced - voiced

It is reasonable that they tend to substitute [s] for English

[ʒ] in the medial and final position. The first premise is all Dayak

Embaloh fricatives are voiceless. The second premise is spelling; the English [ʒ] in the medial position which is spelled with s can become the factor they substitute the [s] for [ʒ]. The third premise is Dayak Embaloh never produces voiced consonant in the final position, except voiced-nasal. Therefore, they tend to substitute the voiceless [s] for English voiced [ʒ] in the final position.

The table above also shows that most of Dayak Embaloh students substitute [ḓʒ] for English [ʒ] in initial position. As in 74

place of articulation, Dayak Embaloh [ḓʒ] is an alveolar in contrast to English [ʒ] which is palatal. As in manner of articulation [ḓʒ] is affricate in contrast to [ʒ] which is fricative, and both of them are voiced.

[ʒ] [ḓʒ] Place of Articulation + palatoalveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + fricative + affricate Voice + voiced + voiced

It is reasonable that they tend to substitute [ḓʒ] for English

[ʒ] in initial position. As Dayak Embaloh never produces sound by raising the body of the tongue toward the front palate therefore they naturalize it to the closest place of articulation, and alveolar ridge is close to the front palate. The second premise, why they tend to substitute [ḓʒ] instead of [s] which is also [+fricative,

+alveolar], is because for them [s] is less alike to English [ʒ] when it is in initial position. It sounds less alike for them to pronounce gigolo as [sigolo] or jabot as [sabo] if compare to gigolo pronounced as [ḓʒigolo] or jabot pronounced as [ḓʒabo]. These substitutions can be formulated as follows;

ʒ→ ḓʒ/ #____VC 75

ʒ→ s / CV __ VC

ʒ→ s / CV____#

The rules above indicate that palatoalveolar-voiced-

fricative [ʒ] becomes alveolar-voiced-affricate whenever it is in

initial position of words before the vowel. Palatoalveolar-voiced-

fricative [ʒ] becomes alveolar-voiceless-fricative whenever it is in

the medial position between vowel and final position after vowel.

I.1.e Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫]

D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation chapter [t∫æptƏ] [ṱ∫eptƏ] 95% chicken [t∫IkIn] [ṱ∫IkIn] mature [mƏt∫℧Ə] [mƏtuƏr] 70% nature [neIt∫Ə] [neItƏr] fetch [fet∫] [feṱ∫] 85% catch [kæt∫] [keṱ∫]

Table VII.1.5 Substitution of [ṱ∫] and [t] for [t∫]

Based on the table above, most of Dayak Embaloh students

tend to substitute the Indonesia [ṱ∫] for English [t∫] in initial position

and final position of words. As Dayak Embaloh language is

influenced by Bahasa Indonesia as the second language which is

used in school, therefore the consonant [ṱ∫] is derived from Bahasa 76

Indonesia as in words like candi, cinta, cagar alam, etc. The

Indonesia [ṱ∫] is produced in the alveolar ridge. As the writer mentioned before that William Samarin used symbol ( for fronting consonant, therefore the symbol used for Indonesia) affricate-voiceless is [ṱ∫] to show that it is alveolar

[t∫] + affricate [ṱ∫] + affricate + palatatoalveolar + alveolar - voiced - voiced

Indonesia [ṱ∫] is an alveolar in contrast to English [t∫]. Both of them are [-voiced, +affricate]. As Dayak Embaloh and Bahasa Indonesia never produce sound in the palate, therefore it is reasonable that

Dayak Embaloh naturalizes the English [t∫] to the closest place of articulation. The close place of articulation is in the alveolar ridge.

In the table above can be seen that Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for English [t∫] in the medial position of words. This case is the same as the case that Dayak Embaloh students substitute the [s] for English [ʒ] in the medial position of words. The main reason is spelling. The English [t∫] is spelled as t in the medial position of words. Therefore, it is reasonable that they tend to substitute the [t] for English [t∫] in the medial position.

The substitution can be formulated as follows;

t∫→ ṱ∫/ #__VC 77

t∫→ t / C V __ V C

t∫→ ṱ∫/ CV__#

The rule above indicate that palatatoalveolar -voiceless-

affricate [t∫] becomes alveolar-voiceless-affricate [ṱ∫] in the initial

position of words before the vowel and final position after the

vowel. Palatatoalveolar -voiceless-affricate [t∫] becomes [t] in the

medial position of words between the vowel.

I.1.f Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ]

D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation jack [dʒæk] [ḓʒek] 100% jelly [dʒeli] [ḓʒelI] B legend [ledʒƏnd] [ḓʒƏn] 100% o legible [ledʒƏbl] [leḓʒibƏl] judge [dʒΛdʒ] [ḓʒat] 95% engage [In’geIdʒ] [IngeIt]

Table VII.1.6 Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [t] for [dʒ]

Based on the table above can be seen that Dayak Embaloh

students tend to substitute [ḓʒ] for English [dʒ] in the initial and

medial position of words. The English [dʒ] is produced in the front

palate, while Dayak Embaloh does not have palatal consonant.

Therefore, whenever there are English words which contain 78

phoneme [dʒ] they tend to substitute their native phoneme that sound nearest with The English [dʒ].

[dʒ] + affricate [ḓʒ] + affricate + palatoalveolar + alveolar + voiced + voiced

Based on the matrix above, the Dayak Embaloh [dʒ] is an alveolar in contrast to English [dʒ] which is palatoalveolar.

Therefore, it is reasonable that they tend to naturalize the English palatal [dʒ] to the closest place of articulation. And the close place of articulation is alveolar ridge.

In the final position of words most of Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [t] for English [dʒ] instead of [ḓʒ] which contrast only in place of articulation with English [dʒ]. It can be seen clearly in the table below;

[dʒ] [ḓʒ] [t] Place of Articulation + palatoalveolar + alveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + affricate + affricate + stop Voice + voiced + voiced - voiced

Based on table above both [dʒ] and [ḓʒ] are voiced sound while [t] is voiceless. Therefore it is reasonable that they tend to substitute the voiceless [t] for English [dʒ] in the final position instead of voiced [ḓʒ], it is because Dayak Embaloh never produces the voice consonant in the final position of words. The 79

substitution that is made by Dayak Embaloh can be formulated as

follows;

dʒ→ ḓʒ/ #__VC

dʒ→ ḓʒ/ C V __ V C

dʒ→ t / CV__#

The rules above indicate that the palatoalveolar -voiced-

affricate [dʒ] becomes alveolar-voiced-affricate [ḓʒ] in the initial

position of words before the vowel and medial position of words

between vowels. Palatoalveolar-voiced-affricate [dʒ] become

alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] in final position of words after the

vowel.

I.1.g Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z]

D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation zero [zIƏrƏ℧] [ ḓʒIrou] 90% zip [zIp] [ḓʒIp] desert [dezƏt] [desƏt] 90% design [dIzaIn] [dIsaIn] gaze [geIz] [geIs] 95% size [saIz] [saIs]

Table VII.1.7 Substitution of [ḓʒ] and [s] for [z]

Based on the table above most of Dayak Embaloh students

tend to substitute [s] for English [z] in the medial position and final 80

position of words. In the table II.1.2 Dayak Embaloh Place and

Manner of Articulation clearly can be seen that there is no alveolar- voiced-fricative [z] produced. Therefore, whenever there are

English words which contain alveolar-voiced-fricative [z], Dayak

Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for [z] in the medial and final position of words.

[z] + fricative [s] + fricative + alveolar + alveolar + voiced - voiced

Based on the matrix above it reasonable that the Dayak

Embaloh students tend to substitute [s] for [z] in the medial and final position of words. As in place of articulation and manner of articulation both of them are alveolar and fricative respectively.

The [s] is only a voiceless in contrast to [z] which is voiced. In the medial position of words, the spelling also becomes the factor they tend to substitute [s] for [z]. In the medial position the [z] is spelled as s as in words like desert, design. Dayak Embaloh phonological system never produced voiced sound in the final position. This is also the factor they tend to substitute the voiceless [s] for voiced

[z] in the final position of words.

In the initial position of words Dayak Embaloh students tend to substitute [dʒ] for English [z]. The main reason is it will sound less alike for them whenever they substitute [s] for English

[z] in the initial position, e.g zero is pronounced as [sIƏrƏ℧] instead 81

of zero is pronounced as [ḓʒIƏrƏ℧]. Moreover, the Dayak Embaloh

[ḓʒ] is only affricate in contrast to English [z] and both of them are

alveolar and voiced.

[z] [ḓʒ] Place of Articulation + alveolar + alveolar Manner of Articulation + fricative + affricate Voice + voiced + voiced

The substitution that made by Dayak Embaloh students can

be formulated as follows;

z → ḓʒ/ #__VC

z → s / C V __ V C

z → s / CV__#

The rules above indicate that the alveolar-voiced-fricative

[z] becomes the alveolar-voiced-affricate [ḓʒ] in the initial position

before the vowel. Alveolar-voiced-fricative [z] becomes alveolar-

voiceless-fricative [s] in the medial position of words between

vowels and in final position after vowel.

I.1.h Substitution of [p] for [b]

Table VII.1.8 Substitution of [p] for [b]

D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation Robe [rƏ℧b] [roup] 100% Rub [rΛb] [rap] 82

Mob [mb] [mop] Grab [græb] [grep]

All of Dayak Embaloh students substitute [p] for [b] in final position of words. It is reasonable they tend to substitute the [p] for

[b] in final position of words because in Dayak Embaloh phonological system, the voiced consonants never occur in the final position of words, therefore, when there are English words that contain voiced consonant in the final position, the Dayak

Embaloh naturalized it into the voiceless consonant.

[p] [b] Place of Articulation + bilabial + bilabial Manner of Articulation + stop + stop Voice - voiced + voiced

As in place of articulation both of them are bilabial and as in manner of articulation both of them are stop. However [p] is voiceless in contrast to [b] which is voiced. As Lado said in his book Linguistics Across the Culture (1957:17) that even the native language has a similar phoneme and the variant are similar, if it does not occur in the same position as the native language, the students will have trouble producing and hearing it in the position in which it does occur in the foreign language. The substitution of

[p] for [b] can be formulated as follows;

b → p / CV__# 83

The rule above indicates that the bilabial-voiced-stop [b]

becomes bilabial-voiceless-stop [p] in the final position of word

after vowel.

I.1.i Substitution of [t] for [d]

Table VII.1.9 Substitution of [t] for [d] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation bid [bId] [bIt] bad [bæd] [bet] 100% deed [di:d] [dit] wood [w℧d] [wut]

Based on the table above most of Dayak Embaloh students

substitute [t] for [d] in the final position of words. As in place and

manner of articulation both of them are alveolar and stop. The [t] is

voiceless in contrast to [d] which is voiced. In the Dayak Embaloh

phonological system the voiced consonant never occurs in final

position. Therefore, it is reasonable that whenever there are English

words that contain voiced consonant in the final position, Dayak

Embaloh students substitute the voiceless consonants in the final

position of words. The substitution of [t] for [d] can be formulated

as follows;

d → t / CV__# 84

The rule above indicates that the alveolar-voiced-stop [d]

becomes alveolar-voiceless-stop [t] in the final position of words

after vowel.

I.1.j Substitution of [k] for [g]

Table VII.1.10 Substitution of [k] for [g] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation dig [dIg] [dIk] dog [dg] [dok] 100% bag [bæg] [bek]

All of Dayak Embaloh students substitute the [k] for [g] in

the final position of words. As in place of articulation and manner

of articulation both of them share the same feature that are velar

and stop. The main reason they substitute the [k] for [g] in the final

position of words is because [k] is voiceless in contrast to [g]

which is voiced, while the voiced consonant never occur in the

final position. The substitution of [k] for [g] can be formulated as

follows;

g → k/ CV__#

The rule above indicate that the velar-voiced-stop [g]

becomes velar-voiceless-stop [k] in the final position after vowel. 85

I.1.k Substitution of [f] for [v]

The contrastive theory which says that when the foreign

language uses a phoneme that does not exist in the learners’ native

language, that is, when there is no phoneme in the native language

that could be transferred into foreign language the student will not

be able to produce that phoneme readily in learning the foreign

language is sometimes true but sometimes not true. The fact is

some of Dayak Embaloh students are able to produce the

consonant [f] without difficulty. It can be seen in the table bellow;

D. Embaloh English Phonetic Students Percentage words transcription Pronunciation find [faIn] [faIn] 100% fill [fIl] [fIl] prefer [pri:fз:r] [prIfƏr] 95% reface [prefƏs] [prefƏs] life [laIf] [laIf] 95% enough [InΛf] [Inaf]

The fact that they can produce the labiodental-voiceless-

fricative [f] without difficulty is because the students are

influenced by Bahasa Indonesia which is used as second language

means that it is used in formal situation (in school). Therefore, it is

reasonable that they can produce labiodental-voiceless-fricative [f]

as in Indonesia words like falsafah, mufakat, fa’edah, manfaat etc. 86

The main problem is most of Dayak Embaloh students substitute the labiodental-voiceless-fricative [f] for labiodentals- voiced-fricative [v]. As can be seen in the table bellows;

Table VII.1.11 Substitution of [f] for [v] D. Embaloh English Phonetic Students Percentage words transcription Pronunciation vain [veIn] [feIn] 95% victim [vIktIm] [fIktIm] poverty [pvƏti] [pofƏtI] 100% savior [seIvjƏ(r)] [sefiƏr] live [laIv] [laIf] 95% give [gIv] [gIf] The main reason is the Dayak Embaloh students have less experience to distinguish between the voiced-labiodental and voiceless-labiodental. In Bahasa Indonesia the [v] tend to be pronounced as [f] like in borrowing words versi, variable,visi, virus, visum are pronounced as [fersi], [fariable], [fisi], [firus],

[fisum] respectively. The substitution of [f] for [v] can be formulated as follows;

v → f/ #____VC

v → f/ CV___VC

v → f/ CV___#

The rule above indicates that the labiodental-voiced- fricative [v] becomes labiodentals-voiceless-fricative [f] in all position of words. 87

II. Deletion

Deletion is one of phonological process that deletes consonant cluster or vowel, means that units which occur in some contexts are lost in others.

II.1.a Deletion of [j]

Table VIII.1.1 Deletion of [j] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation computer [kƏm’pju:tƏ(r)] [komputƏr] 85% security [sIkj℧ƏrƏti] [sIkurItI]

Most of Dayak Embaloh students omit the [j] in the medial

position. The main reason is in Dayak Embaloh phonological

system the palatal-voiced-approximant [j] is never combined with

other consonants. Another reason is spelling; [j] is spelled with u as

in computer, and security. Therefore, it is reasonable that they tend

to omit [j] in the medial position. The deletion above can be

formulated as follow;

j → Ø/ CVC__V

The rule above indicates that palatal-voiced-approximant [j]

is omitted in the medial position after the consonant and before

vowel. 88

II.1.b Deletion of [t]

Table VIII.1.2 Deletion of [t] D. Embaloh Phonetic English words Students Percentage transcription Pronunciation detect [dItekt] [dItek] dialect [daIalekt] [daIalek] 100% neglectB [nIglekt] [nIglek] insect [Insekt] [Insek] a

sed on the table above, most of Dayak Embaloh students omit the

[t] in the final position of words after the consonant. In Dayak

Embaloh phonological system, a consonant is never combined with

another consonant. A consonant always occurs after vowel or

before the vowel therefore it is reasonable that Dayak Embaloh

eliminated the [t] in the final position after the phoneme [k]. The

deletion of [t] can be formulated as follows;

t → Ø/ CVC__#

The rule above indicates that the alveolar-voiceless-stop

will be eliminated whenever it is occur in the final position after a

consonant. CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

In the previous chapter the writer had discussed Dayak Embaloh constonants, and how Dayak Embaloh students pronounce some English consonants. As Dayak Embaloh language (Jarum Banuaka’) is the first language, it means that it is the language that is used in daily life except in formal situation, it becomes the factor that Dayak Embaloh English learners (students) have their own characteristic in pronouncing some English words. It is because each language has its own phonological system which is different one from the other.

Some consonants might exist in one of that language, but some might not.

Therefore, it becomes the factor that Dayak Embaloh students tend to pronounce the English words with they own way. As Lado said that when there is no phoneme in the native language that could be transferred into a foreign language the student will not be able to produce that phoneme readily in learning the foreign language, and it happens to Dayak Embaloh students when they pronounce some English consonants which do not exist in Dayak Embalh language.

Based on the writer’s analysis, there are two phonological processes occur in their pronunciation. They are Substitution and Deletion. Most of them tend to substitute the English consonants which do not exist in Banuaka language (jarum

Banuaka) and which do not share the same distribution. The English consonants like /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /t∫/, /dʒ/, /z/ tend to be substituted to the Dayak Embaloh

89 90

consonants that seem similar and whose features are closest to the English consonants ( /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /∫/, /ʒ/, /t∫/, /dʒ/, /z/ ). Although some English consonants sounds do not exist in Dayak Embaloh, some Dayak Embaloh students can pronounce those consonants without any difficulty. Most of Dayak Embaloh students could pronounce the English consonants like /t∫/ and /f/ without difficulties. It is because Dayak Embaloh language is influenced by Bahasa

Indonesia as the second language which is used in formal situation like in school.

Another substitution occurs on voiced-stops /b/, /d/, /g/, it is because in Dayak

Embaloh phonological system the voiced consonants never occur in final position of words except voiced-nasal.Therefore, they tend to substitute the voiceless consonants for voiced consonants in final position.

The spelling also becomes the factor that Dayak Embaloh students substitute the English phoneme. The English /z/ is pronounced as /s/ as in the word like desert, the English /ʒ/ is pronounced as /s/ as in word like vision, the

English /t∫/ is pronounced as /t/ as in word like nature, and mature.

Deletions also occur in Dayak Embaloh students’ pronunciation. Dayak

Embaloh students tend to eliminate the consonant that is combined with another consonant. Based on the writer’s analysisDayak Embaloh students tend to delete

/t/, /k/ in the final position of words as in insect and think, and /j/ in the medial position of words as in computer and security. It is because that in Dayak

Embaloh phonological system the consonant has never been followed or preceded by another consonant in the final position of words. 91

In Dayak Embaloh phonological system the combination of the consonants sounds in the medial position of words only between nasal and plosive like in words angkan [aŋkan], lamba’ [lamba?], and mandait [mandait]. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnoff, Mark & Janie Ress-Miller. The Handbook of Linguistics. New York: Blackwell. 2002.

Baugh, Albert & Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 1935.

Connor, J.D. Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1992.

Fisiak, J. Contrastive linguistics and the language teacher. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1981.

Fromkin, Victoria & Robert Rodman. An Introduction to Language. Los Angles: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, 1974.

Jackson, Howard. Analyzing English; An Introduction to descriptive linguistics. New York: Pergamon Press Ltd, 1982.

Jeffries, Lesley. Discovering Language; The structure of Modern English. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

Lado. Robert. Linguistics across Culture. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1957.

Nickel, G. Papers in contrastive linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1971.

Pike, Kenneth L. Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. 1978.

Samarin, Wiliam J. Field Linguistics; A Guide to Linguistics Field Work. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1967.

Wolfram, Walt & Robert Johnson. Phonological Analysis; Focusing on American English. Engelewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1982.

Weinrich, Uriel. Language in Contact. New York: Linguistic Circle of New York. 1953.

92 APPENDIX

BASIC VOCABULARIES ENGLISH - DAYAK EMBALOH

A kind of fruit Takalong [takaloŋ] Accursed Rabor [řaboř] All Gulungan [guluŋan] All Samua [samua] Alone Kakale [kakale] Already Namin [namin] And Nana [nana] Animal Inatang [inataŋ] Ashes kutu awu [kutu awu] At Di [di] Back Balakang [balakaŋ] Bad Ajau' [aḓʒau:?] Basket Bakul [bakul] Beat Tiang [tiaŋ] Because Kule'a [kule?a] Become Dari [daři] Belly Batang [bataŋ] Beside Biring [biřiŋ] Big Bara [bařa:] Bird Burung [buřuŋ] Bite Mangokot [maŋokot] Black Nanarum [nanařum] Blind Bauta [bauta] Blood Dara' [dařa?] Blow Maniap/Pabalan [maniap] / [pabalan] Blow Tiap [tiap] Bone Tolang [tolaŋ] Bore Bapu’ [bapu?] Borrow Mainjam [mainḓʒam] Breakfast Sangari [saŋaři] Breast Susu' [susu?]

93 94

Breathe Mamatak nyawa [mamatak nyawa] Bring Mawa [mawa] Brother Sairun Babaka [saiřun babaka] Burn Manutung [manutuŋ] Carry for s.o Mawin [mawin] Catch Maningkam [maniŋkam] Chaotic Bagao [bagao] Chiken Manuk [manuk] Child Nangkanak [naŋkanak] Chose Maile’i [maile?i] Circle Gugulung [guguluŋ] Claw Kuku [kuku] Cloth Sape [sape] Clothing Kamamasan [kamamasan] Cloud Doom [do:m] Cold Badingin [badi:ŋin] Collapsed Arurun [ařuřun] Come Mondok [mondok] Cook Marikoan [mařikoan] Corpse Bangkayoan [baŋkajoan] Count Mangira [maŋiřa] Crack Aratak [aratak] Cross the river Tarear [tařeař] Crowded Rami [řami] Cut Manatak [manatak] Cut Tatak [tatak] Dance Mandaria' [mandařia?] Dark Araun [ařa:un] Day Aso [aso] Deaf Babong [ba:boŋ] Deceive Makal [makal] Deep Bajalam [badʒalam] Deflate Takapis [takapis] Deliver Mantat [mantat] Die Mate [mate] Different Laan [la:n] Dig Mangali [maŋali] 95

Dirty Akotor [akoto:ř] Dog Asu [asu] Drink Mainyum [mainyum] Dry Akaring [akaři:ŋ] Dull Batimpul [bati:mpul] Dust Abu [abu] Ear Talinga [taliŋa] Earth Dunia'en [dunia?en] Eat Angkan [aŋka:n] Echo Aling [aliŋ] Egg Intalor [intaloř] Eight Lapan [lapan] Enough Ada’a [ada?a] Enough Jangka'a [ḓʒaŋka?a] Extinct / Barren Atampus [ata:mpus] Eye Mata [mata] Face Lindo' [lindo?] Fall Alao' [alao:?] Far Bajao' [baḓʒao?] Fast/Quick Bariar [bařiař] Fat/Grease Bakok [bakok] Father Ama' [ama?] Fear Atakut [ata:kut] Feather Bulu [bulu] Few Kakapit [kakapit] Fight Mansang/Sijai [mansaŋ] / [siḓʒai] Find Mandua’aŋ [mandua?aŋ] Fire Api [api] Fish Lauk [lauk] Five Lima [lima] Timbul/Ambol- [timbul] / [ambol- Float ambol ambol] Flow Areang [aře:aŋ] Flower Bunga [buŋa] Fog Aun [aun] Follow Malola’ [malola?] Foot Kaki [kaki] 96

For a moment Sikadang [sikadaŋ] Four Ampat [ampat] Freeze Atanak [atanak] Fruit Bua' [bua?] Full Pano' [pano?] Get something Kule' [kule?] Give Mameang [mameaŋ] Give birth Aranak [ařanak] Go down Indoor [indo:ř] Go home Mole' [mole?] God Alatala [Alatala:] Gold Amas [amas] Good Maam [ma:m] Grandmother Piang [piaŋ] Grass Rimput [řimput] Greedy Bakalong [bakaloŋ] Green Mamata' [mamata?] Ground Tana’ [tana?] Guts Parut [pařut] Hair Buuk [bu:k] Hand Tangan [taŋan] He Ia [ia] Head Ulu [ulu] Hear Mandalinga [mandaliŋa] Heart Jantung [ḓʒantuŋ] Heavy Aborat [abo:řat] Help Manggulungi [maŋguluŋi] Hemmed Takapit [takapit] Here Ndi'ang [ndi?aŋ] Hit Mabal [mabal] Hold Manjaput [manḓʒaput] Hold Tako' [tako?] Hole Loang [loaŋ] Horn Tarompet [tařompet] House Sao [sao] How Aisilo'a [aisi:lo?a] Human being Mantuari [mantuaři] 97

Hundred Ratusan [řatusan] Hunt Maruru [mařuřu] Hurt Apadis [apadis] Husband Laki [laki] I Iak [iak] Ice Es [es] If Ati' [ati?] In I lalam [i la:lam] Kill Mauno' [mauno?] Kingdom Kangkaman [kaŋkaman] Knee Lingkutut [liŋkutut] Know Manamu [manamu] Lake Kokoan [kokoan] Language Jarum [ḓʒařum] Laugh Tatawa [tatawa] Leaf Daun kayu [daun ka:ju] Leftside Kayoko' [kajoko?] Leg Kaki [kaki] Lie Pakoako [pakoako] Live Tio' [tio?] Liver Ate [ate] Long Balangke [balaŋke] long Langkee [la:ŋke:] long time ago Jolo [ḓʒolo] Louse kutu [kutu ] Make Mamola [mamola] Male Babaka [babaka] Man Babaka [babaka] Many Ambat [ambat] Many Bayu' [baju?] mean Rati [řati] Meat Isi [isi] Meat fragmentation Jukut [ḓʒukut] Medicine Pole' [pole?] Meet Sidua’ [sidua?] Moon Bulan [bulan] morning Makap [makap] 98

Mother Indu' [indu?] Mountain Ukit [ukit] Mouth Baba' [baba?] Name Asan [asan] Narrow Asekot [asekot] Naughty Kabal [kabal] Near Mainso' [mainso?] Neck Kalong [kaloŋ] New Baru [bařu] News Dongo [doŋo] Night Malam [malam] Noisy Gado [gado] Nose Ingar [iŋař] Not Na'an [na?an] Not yet Na’anpi [na?anpi] Nothing left Topak [topak] Offering Talayong [talajoŋ] Old Toa [toa] One Sera [seřa] Other Anu bokan [anu bokan] Outside Saluan [saluan] Over there Ninang [ninaŋ] Paper Karatas [kařatas] Person Tau [tau] Pig Bawi [ba:wi] Play Sasiyo' [sasijo?] Possible Maba' [maba?] Prohibition Tata’ [tata?] Pull Tarik [tařik] Punch Bukut [bukut] Push Juluang [ḓʒuluaŋ] Quiet Lalako’ [lalako?] Rain Sauran [sauřan] Red Dadara' [dadařa?] Resemble Sabalu’ [sabalu?] Rice Ase [ase] Rice Daun [daun] 99

Right Ampuna [ampuna] Rightside Katoo [kato:] River Sunge [suŋe] Road Dalan [dalan] Room Bilik [bilik] Root Urat [uřat] Rope Tali [tali] Rotten Abauruk [abau:řuk] Round Galung [galuŋ] Rub Mangusuk [maŋusuk] Salt Sia' [sia?] Sane Taupande [taupande] Say Manjarumang [manḓʒařumaŋ] Scratch Tairis [taiřis] Sea Maruang jawa [mařuaŋḓʒawa] See Mamele [mamele] see Mangita [maŋita] Seed Banyia' [banyia?] Sell Mamet [mamet] Seven Tujuh [tuḓʒuh] Sew Mandait [mandait] Shame Bawa' [bawa?] Share Tawa' [tawa?] Sharp Bataram [bata:řam] Shattered Ararak [ařařak] Shoot Manimbak [manimbak] Short Pondok [pondok] Show Mamayoang [mamajoaŋ] Sing Banyanyi [banya:nyi] Sister Sairun Babainge [saiřun babaiŋe] Sit Aduduk [aduduk] Skin Kulit [kulit] Sky Suan [suan] Slave Pangkam [paŋkam] Slave Ulun [ulun] Sleep Tindo' [tindo?] Small Keke' [keke?] 100

Smell Arabau [ařabau:] Smoke Rimbu [řimbu] Smooth Alus [alus] Snake Urar [uřař] Snot Mingkas [miŋkas] Snot Mingkas [miŋkas] Snow Salju [salḓʒu] Soak Raram [řařam] Some Sapadua [sapadua] Sometimes Sakule’ [sakule?] Spear Ulis [ulis] Spilt Manumbangang [manumbaŋaŋ] Spirit Sumangat [sumaŋat] Spit Malasu [malasu] Spoiled Bari [ba:ři] Squeeze Mamara' [mamařa?] Stab Manikam [manikam] Stand Akadeng [akade:ŋ] Star Bintang [bintaŋ] Stay/ Live Lako’ [lako?] Steal Mangalit [maŋalit] Step Lengka' [leŋka?] Stick Tungkat [tuŋkat] Stingy Pangkuatan [paŋkuatan] Stone Batu [batu] Stop in / Stop by Seŋka’ [seŋka?] Straight Maninting [manintiŋ] Stretched out Paragoleng [paragoleŋ] Stupid Agol-agol [agol-agol] Suck Sosop [sosop] Sun Mataso [mataso] Sweat Palo’ [palo?] Sweet Mamis [mamis] Swell Akambang [akamba:ŋ] Swim Arananang [ařananaŋ] Tail Ingko' [iŋko?] Teach Majar [maḓʒař] 101

Tell the story Manutul [manutul] Ten Sapulo' [sapulo?] That Indin [indin] There Inang [inaŋ] They Ira [iřa] Thick Batabal [batabal] Thin Anipis [anipis] Thin Jajangat [ḓʒaḓʒaŋat] Think Bapikir [bapikiř] This Indi' [indi?] Thou Iko [iko] Three Talu [talu] Throw Unjaang [unḓʒa:ŋ] Tie Dasi [dasi] Together with Sanuan [sanuan] Tongue Lila' [lila?] Tooth Isi [isi] Torn Aripak [aři:pak] Tree Batang kayu [bataŋkaju] tree trunk Akat [akat] Tremble Tatagar [tatagař] Turn Sipalao' [sipalao?] Twenty Dua pulo' [dua pulo?] Two Dua [dua] Uncle Kamo’ [kamo?] Vegetable Saringkan [sařiŋkan] Vegetable Saringkan [sařiŋkan] Very Palin [palin] Vomit Tamunta' [tamunta?] Wake up Asading [asadiŋ] Walk Lamba' [la:mba?] Wall Siring [siřiŋ] Warm Aduruk [adu:řuk] Wash Mamuti' [mamuti?] Watch Tilik [tilik] Water Danum [danum] We Ikam [ikam] 102

Wet Abasa' [aba:sa?] What Aisi [aisi] When Inaindisi [inaindisi] Where Ndensi [ndensi] White Baute' [baute?] Who Itainsi [itainsi] Wide Ababak [aba:bak] Wife Bainge [baiŋe] Wind Angin [aŋin] Wings Saap [sa:p] Wipe Manyawar [manyawař] With Nana [nana] Woman Babainge [babaiŋe] Woods Kayu [kaju] Work Karaja [kařaḓʒa] Worm Lati' [lati?] Worm Ngonggolang [ŋoŋgolaŋ] ye Iko [iko] Year Taun [taun] Yellow Tantamuan [tantamuan] Yours Daiko [daiko]