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1 CASE STUDY: CONTEMPORARY BRITISHBRITISH CINEMACINEMA 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 • Institution: what is a British film? • British film-makers and film-making traditions 9 • British film culture • References and further reading 10 11 12 13 This case study allows us to apply some of the ideas world. These contradictions (i.e. neither a big industry 14 explored in a wide range of chapters to a definable or a successful art cinema, but significant nonetheless) 15 media operation – making ‘British films’. It appears stem for the most part from the relationship between 16 here following ‘Production organisation’, ‘Production British film production and the Hollywood studio 17 techniques’ and ‘Distribution’, but it could also have majors. Sharing a language with Hollywood is both 18 been a case study for ‘Institutions’, ‘Industries’ or a blessing and a curse. 19 ‘Whose globalisation?’. Since the 1920s, when the Hollywood studios 20 The British film industry is widely discussed in became established as the dominant force in 21 the UK press, often in terms of ‘boom’ or ‘bust’, cinema across the world, they have been active in 22 characterised by the success of a single film on the UK, making films in their own or rented 23 Oscar night or the revelation that so many ‘publicly studio facilities, distributing American (and some 24 funded’ British films have never even been released British) films and sometimes building cinemas to 25 to cinemas. More intriguing are these two comments: ensure that the films are shown. At the same time, 26 • French New Wave director François Truffaut the studios have lured British talent – actors, writers, 27 claimed that the terms ‘British’ and ‘cinema’ just directors, cinematographers, etc. – across the 28 didn’t go together – film is not treated seriously Atlantic to Hollywood itself. By the 1930s it was 29 as an art form in the UK’s impoverished cultural obvious that British working-class audiences, in 30 life. particular, preferred American to British films. 31 • Many British film-makers have complained that There have been periods when ‘home-grown’ 32 there is no UK ‘industry’ as such (i.e. compared to British films have done particularly well at the box 33 Hollywood). Film-making is a ‘practice’ with very office, but the long-term bias is firmly in favour 34 little structure and no sense of continuity – it is of Hollywood. In recent years the domination 35 more like a series of ‘cottage industries’. has been almost total. In 2003, 61.7 per cent of all 36 And yet the British film industry retains an importance UK admissions were to purely American films, 37 in the global media economy. In terms of the number 19.9 per cent to American co-productions with 38 of films produced and the size of the cinema audience, other countries and a further 13.2 per cent were 39 Britain may lag behind India and France, but London for joint US/UK productions. That left just 40 is in many ways the capital of the ‘international film 2.5 per cent for UK films (including co-productions 41 industry’ (‘international’ = outside North America), with non-US partners) and 2.7 per cent for the rest 42 and successful British films sell very well around the of the world’s producers.

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In England, making a film was seen like an director and some British actors, but was primarily an 1 indulgence – something you should be punished American film. 2 for, but in America it was more like a way of 3 life. Institution: what is a British film? 4 (John Boorman speaking about going 5 to America in the 1960s in British Cinema – It seems reasonable then to ask the question, ‘What 6 the End of the Affair? (BBC4 2002)). is a British film?’ It is an important question because 7 the UK government, like many others, is aware of the 8 need to support ‘indigenous film production’ for 9 ACTIVITY 13.5 economic, social and cultural reasons and they may 10 subsidise ‘British’ productions. The total ‘spend’ 11 John Boorman on films by consumers in the UK is over £3 billion. 12 Find out what kinds of films John Boorman made in the (Most is spent on satellite and cable film channels, 13 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. What does his choice of films, followed by video/DVD retail, cinema tickets and 14 and where he made them, suggest about the British film finally video/DVD rental.) Much of that money will 15 industry? end up in Hollywood but it may well come back to 16 the UK if a Hollywood studio then invests in a new 17 blockbuster to be made at Pinewood or Shepperton 18 In practice, it is difficult to distinguish between ‘British’ Studios. Overall, the British film industry does not 19 and ‘American’ film-making. Consider the Top 20 ‘UK’ have such a disastrous effect upon the balance of 20 films of 2003 as listed by the UK Film Council. The top payments as those in some other European countries 21 four films, which took the bulk of the box office, were and, with the television industry as a ‘net earner’, film 22 all American co-productions. Of the four, two were and television production roughly break even in the 23 examples of the most successful form of ‘international’ UK (i.e. imports balance exports). 24 film production, as practised by the UK company 25 Working Title. Love Actually and Johnny English both The money 26 had budgets far larger than any UK producer could 27 afford without the support of a Hollywood distributor. One way to distinguish what is a ‘British’ film is to 28 Although made with British crews and British talent, track the money involved in any production back to its 29 the films offer an internationally recognisable set of ‘owners’. This may sound quite straightforward, but 30 characters and comedy conventions. Calendar Girls, the financing of films is often complex and the tax 31 by contrast, is a uniquely British story which could, considerations in particular mean that productions 32 arguably, have been made as a purely UK film. The may seek to move physical operations between 33 possibility of repeating the success of The Full Monty countries in order to satisfy tax regulations and to 34 (UK 1997) (which scriptwriter Simon Beaufoy has benefit from various allowances. Film producers 35 referred to as setting up impossible expectations distinguish between ‘hard’ money (usually a direct 36 for subsequent British productions) meant that the investment in a film production) and ‘soft’ money 37 idea behind the film was pitched to a Hollywood (forms of public subsidy via grants or tax concessions). 38 distributor and ended up including a disposable There is a somewhat macho culture involved when 39 American sequence. Finally, Cold Mountain was based American producers claim to prefer ‘hard’ money, 40 on a story about the American Civil War, shot largely seeing the Europeans as ‘soft’ in their dependency on 41 in Romania for a Hollywood company. It had a British ‘handouts’. In practice, of course, all film producers 42

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1 will consider soft money options if they mean that Muslim woman whose Pakistani husband is arrested 2 films can be made. (But the corollary of this is that soft as a terrorist suspect after 9/11. Scottish Screen 3 money may cause some films to be made just because provided research funds for its Scottish director 4 it is possible and not because the film-makers have and Screen Yorkshire supported the shoot in West 5 anything worthwhile to say.) Yorkshire. Post-production was funded by a German 6 In the UK, the majority of films are made by organisation, Euro-Arts Medien AG. Channel 4 also 7 production companies set up specifically to make supported the film and screened it early in 2005 before 8 a particular film. These are known as SPVs or its DVD release (the film was not released in cinemas). 9 single-purpose vehicles. (The SPV will be a trading name for one or two individuals with some kind of 10 My Summer of Love (UK 2004) 11 industry track record who come together to produce 12 a specific film.) In 2003 there were 181 production Again a relatively low-budget film (under £2 million), 13 companies active in the UK (UK Film Council, 2004), My Summer of Love was originated by its director Pawel 14 but 166 of these were either SPVs or small companies Pawlikowski who ‘optioned’ the original novel about 15 that were involved in only one film in that year. Only two girls by Helen Cross and developed the project 16 four companies were involved in making more than with his partner Tanya Seghatchian for their own 17 three films in 2003. (In 2005, a new UK tax policy company, Apocalypso Pictures. Pawlikowski’s long 18 proposal suggested support for film productions association as a director with the BBC helped bring 19 across a slate of films.) The SPVs will not be able to BBC Films on board to fund the development until 20 find all the production budget themselves and will seek the bulk of the money was provided by The Film 21 partners and access to various soft money schemes. Consortium (which ran one of the franchises for film 22 Potential partners might be: investment set up by the UK Film Council). The 23 • a UK film or television company with a production Film Consortium also had deals with tax partners 24 budget, such as BBC Films Baker Street and sales agency The Works. (Source: 25 • a Hollywood studio www.skillset.org/film/stories/my_summer_of_love/arti 26 • a European co-production partner (possibly a cle_3636_1.asp.) 27 French, German or Spanish TV company). 28 Other funding sources could include: • the UK Film Council 29 The Phantom of the Opera • Regional Screen Agencies (RSAs) in England or 30 (US/UK 2004) 31 Scottish Screen, Sgrin or Northern Ireland Film 32 and Television Commission. The screen version of Andrew Lloyd Webber’s stage 33 If you look carefully at the credits on any British film production was produced by Lloyd Webber himself 34 or check the companies involved (use IMDB or the for his own company, Really Useful Group, and 35 British Council’s film site at www.britfilms.com), you director Joel Schumacher’s company, with Warner 36 will find that most films show this mixture of partners Bros as US distributors for the $60 million budget 37 and funds. Here are a few examples. film. The UK company Scion Films helped organise 38 financing and tax deals and Odyssey Entertainment acted as international sales agents. The film was made 39 Yasmin (UK 2004) 40 at Pinewood and was extremely successful in the 41 A small production company, Parallax Independent, international market, achieving the majority of its $150 42 made this low-budget film about a young British million box office outside the UK and the US.

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O’Brien initially to make Sweet Sixteen in 2002 after 1 Loach’s previous relationship with Parallax Pictures 2 broke up (see Yasmin in this case study). 3 4 Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason 5 (UK/France/Germany/Ireland/US 2004) 6 7 Like The Phantom of the Opera, this film recouped its 8 large ($70 million) budget by performing spectacularly 9 around the world ($251 million), with the majority 10 box office again coming from outside the UK and 11 Figure 13.7 Roisin (Eva Birthistle) and Casim (Atta Yaqub) in Ae US. The difference is that the main ‘players’ in the 12 Fond Kiss (UK/Italy/Ger/Bel/Spain 2004). production were the established UK company 13 Working Title (see below) and their Hollywood 14 partners at Universal Pictures. Miramax, French Ae Fond Kiss (UK/Italy/Germany/ 15 company Studio Canal and Irish company Little Bird Belgium/Spain 2004) 16 were also involved. The film was shot in the UK, 17 Ken Loach has been making films in the UK since Thailand, Italy and Austria. 18 the 1960s. Since 1996 he has been working mostly 19 in Glasgow with the writer Paul Laverty. Loach has Talent and location 20 developed specific ways of working with a long-term 21 group of collaborators and he favours projects which Is a film ‘British’ if it is made by UK technical crews 22 attract money from small European companies. Ae in the UK and employs UK ‘talent’ (actors, writers, 23 Fond Kiss depicts the affair between a young Muslim composers as well as director)? The references to 24 man in Glasgow and an Irish music teacher at his Cold Mountain, Phantom of the Opera and Bridget Jones: 25 sister’s school. It was produced by Sixteen Films, the The Edge of Reason all point to the difficulty of using 26 company set up by Loach and producer Rebecca nationality of personnel and geography as criteria. 27 28 29 Funding for Ae Fond Kiss 30 ‘The film was pre-sold to “our usual partners”, namely EMC in Germany, Diaphana in France, Bianca and BIM 31 in Italy, Tornasol in Spain, Cineart in Belgium and Holland and Film Coopi in Switzerland, who function as 32 distributors and as co-producers. As long as we can raise the money, it makes sense to make the film with our 33 regular European partners. The relationships go back over a number of films so there’s a great deal of trust. We 34 describe the film and how we’ll do it and that’s enough, which is a real luxury.’ 35 The £3 million production was assisted by a British tax scheme, allowing investors to offset tax by investing 36 in the film, through Azure Films, who provided 30 per cent of the total investment needed. Scottish Screen 37 contributed vital investment finance alongside a grant from the Glasgow Film Fund, completing the funding structure. 38 ‘The film will also benefit from a sale and lease back arrangement, which is a British tax incentive in addition 39 to the tax back scheme. We simply sell the film to a financial partnership and they lease it back to us’ (Rebecca 40 O’Brien from the Production Notes for Ae Fond Kiss). 41 42

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1 UK film-makers, both in front of and behind the Council to some extent usurped the function of the 2 camera, do not face language barriers working in British Film Institute which had previously taken 3 America, or indeed anywhere in the world where the lead in defining what was a British film in its 4 ‘international’ films (i.e. films in English, usually annual BFI Film and Television Handbook. The BFI is now 5 distributed by Hollywood studios) are made. effectively the agency responsible for film culture and is 6 funded via the UK Film Council. The UK Film Council’s definition of a British film is based on concepts of 7 British cultural identity 8 ‘domestic’ and ‘inward’ investment and different forms 9 It is important to distinguish between ‘the British film of co-production. The statistics group ‘British films’ 10 industry’ and the concept of ‘British cinema’. The first into four categories: 11 describes the business of film production in the UK. • ‘Inward feature films’ (single country) The 12 The second refers to the concept of ‘national cinema’ majority of these films will be American-financed 13 that has developed within academic film studies. British films (over 50 per cent of total funding) attracted 14 cultural content is not necessarily a prerequisite for a to the UK by its film industry infrastructure 15 ‘British film’, as Cold Mountain illustrates. On the other (studios/facilities, crews, locations, etc.). These are 16 hand, Cold Mountain is not part of ‘British cinema’ just what might be termed ‘Hollywood British’ films 17 as Hollywood productions of Shakespeare plays are (seventeen films, £410 million investment in 2003). 18 not usually accepted as part of British cinema, even • ‘Inward feature films’ (co-productions) This 19 though Shakespeare is the most produced British category refers again mainly to American films, 20 writer. ‘British cinema’ is concerned largely with but the co-production deal implies a UK company 21 issues of representations of British culture and the has a significant stake in the film (thirteen films, 22 aesthetics adopted by British filmmakers. Again, this £320 million). 23 is not clear-cut. Anthony Minghella, in 2005 the chair • ‘Domestic UK feature films’ Films made wholly 24 of the British Film Institute as well as the director of or partly in the UK, by UK production companies 25 Cold Mountain, might not figure on many British cinema (forty-four films, £270 million). 26 courses, but Michael Winterbottom, director of • ‘UK co-productions’ (other than inward) 27 films like Code 46 set in Shanghai and The Claim Films made in co-production deals with partners 28 set in the Californian Rockies, probably will. from countries with which the UK has formal 29 (The reasons for this are complex, but Minghella’s co-production arrangements (not American – 30 flirtation with big-budget features made for Miramax mostly European, but also Canada) (ninety-nine 31 and Winterbottom’s interest in the aesthetics of films, £158 million). 32 his films, which do often feature distinctively British These are useful categories, but it is important to 33 culture, e.g. in Twenty-Four Hour Party People about note that the statistics do not cover the following film 34 the 1980s Manchester music scene, would be among production activities: 35 them.) • any productions with budgets below £500,000 36 • work on Indian films, not classified as ‘British’, using the UK as a location 37 The UK Film Council 38 • work on filmed series destined for television 39 In 2003 the UK Film Council published its first set broadcast 40 of detailed statistics about the UK film industry • any other services (e.g. effects work) by UK 41 (offered as a free download on the website at companies offered to the international film industry 42 www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk). In doing so, the UK Film for work on films not classified as ‘British’.

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In addition, they refer only to the money spent by 1 UK companies or by foreign companies in the UK ACTIVITY 13.6 2 (i.e. ‘inward investment’) and not the total budget for 3 films made as co-productions. Reading the credits 4 The next time you have the chance to watch a 5 British film in the cinema, read the credits carefully at Budgets 6 the beginning and at the end of the film. 7 A clear distinction emerges from the figures between • What was the name of the production company? 8 ‘Hollywood’ and ‘domestic’ films. The average Was it obviously an SPV? 9 production budget for American films made in the UK • Were there any public funds invested 10 is £24 million, whereas the average for domestic films (UK Film Council, Arts Council of England, etc.)? 11 is £6.11 million. Perhaps more useful, the ‘median’ • Was there television money in the film? 12 figure (the best statistical representation of the • Where was the film made (locations, studios)? 13 group of differently sized budgets) is £47 million for • Could you place the film in one of the four 14 Hollywood and £3 million for domestic (the ‘average’ categories used by UK Film Council? 15 is skewed by a handful of low and high figures in 16 the group). Put simply, a domestic feature cannot 17 compete with a Hollywood film in terms of budget. the British industry since the 1920s, is extremely 18 A ‘large-budget’ UK film costing £15 million ($27 difficult to answer. The success of occasional British 19 million) is still only a medium budget film in Hollywood films abroad has always tempted producers to go for 20 terms. US blockbusters cost $70 million and upwards. the big market. Invariably, they have been unable to 21 How much does the disparity in budgets matter? sustain this policy for long, and many production 22 In itself, a low budget is not necessarily a ‘bad thing’. companies have overreached themselves and 23 Some ‘domestic’ UK films have been highly praised and collapsed. This is as true now as for previous decades. 24 have had relatively successful international distribution. Only Working Title of the current producers looks 25 But this is likely to happen only if they are picked up like answering the question positively (and even so, 26 by a Hollywood distributor. Many UK films fail to Thunderbirds (2004) was a box-office disaster). 27 find a release at all. Of those that do, many will have 28 only a limited release on twenty screens or less in the 29 Why is the decision so difficult? UK. Even within the UK, British films tend to need a 30 Hollywood distributor to get them to every cinema. The UK film market is not large enough on its own to 31 (See Chapter 13.) sustain a company making films costing more than £5 32 million. A quick glance at the box-office chart shows 33 that in 2003, only five ‘UK’ films made more than The financial dilemma 34 £5 million at the box office and all of these were 35 British film-makers face a number of problems in essentially ‘Hollywood British’ films. A ‘domestic 36 deciding what kinds of films to make. Most of feature’ is usually judged a success if it makes over 37 these are problems associated with the size of the £1 million. Clearly, international success is essential 38 UK market compared to the American market. for profitability. (See Chapter 7 on box-office ‘rentals’ 39 Should film-makers aim to produce films for the UK for more on the economics of the industry.) 40 market alone, or should they go for America and the The North American market is roughly ten times 41 international market? This question, which has faced bigger than in the UK (five times the population and 42

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1 twice as many cinema visits per head) and the potential films suffered because UK television was of such 2 international market is also around ten times bigger. ‘high quality’. The truth is that without support from 3 The 10:1 ratio works out fairly regularly for American television, ‘British cinema’ might have disappeared 4 films ($100 million box office in North America and altogether in the 1980s. Channel 4 saved the industry 5 $10 million in the UK), but almost never the other way in its darkest days and in the 1990s Film Four, BBC 6 round. Take a very successful film like 28 Days Later, Films and to a lesser extent Granada and Sky helped 7 made for around £5 million and grossing just over £6 to expand the industry. Now Channel 4 and ITV plc 8 million in the UK (approximately $10 million at 2002 are themselves under pressure and have had to cut 9 exchange rates). Its North American take of over $45 back their operations. The BBC continues to be the 10 million makes it one of the most succesful UK films source of at least some of the funding for British film 11 ever in that territory – but it still falls way behind the production – linked to broadcast opportunities. The 12 10:1 ratio. UK films are still ‘foreign’ in the US, unless UK Film Council statistics show that although 22 per 13 they have a major US star. 28 Days Later also did well cent of all films shown on UK terrestrial television 14 in the international market – a further $25 million. in 2003 were ‘British’, only 2.8 per cent were less 15 Needless to say, much of this success was due to than eight years old. Many British films are older and 16 the support of the Hollywood studio 20th Century shown outside peak viewing, which is dominated by 17 Fox, which distributed the film through its Fox Hollywood (ironic, then, that Billy Elliot, a film that had 18 Searchlight brand. BBC involvement, gained the biggest film audience 19 What films like 28 Days Later, Bend It Like Beckham, on television in 2003 – 12 million viewers or the 20 etc. have in common is relatively low budgets, clear equivalent of £56 million at the UK box office). 21 genre appeal and confidence in their ‘Britishness’, Television is equally important in other European 22 which doesn’t need to be ‘toned down’. There is countries, both as a funder and as an exhibitor. In 23 a sufficiently large market abroad to sustain these countries such as France, there are quotas which 24 relatively modest but distinctive films. Bigger-budget require television channels to show French films. 25 films that must seek a mainstream audience often In the UK, BSkyB is the organisation that makes 26 fail because they lose that distinctive edge, ending most money from cinema via its subscription channels, 27 up as ‘mid-Atlantic’ – neither British nor American. yet its support of the British film industry is not 28 The same criticism has been made of international commensurate either in funding production or in 29 co-productions. Earlier in the case study we referred showing recent British films. 30 to Ae Fond Kiss, a film which performed better in France than in the UK and will have covered its costs 31 British film culture 32 without compromising on its content. For British 33 film-makers the lesson seems to be to keep budgets British audiences love films and in the 1940s British 34 down and preserve identity – or pitch your idea to a cinemas had some of the largest audiences ever seen 35 Hollywood studio. anywhere. With 1.6 billion admissions for a population 36 of around 40 million in 1946, each person in the country went to the cinema on average forty times a 37 The importance of television 38 year. The figure is now less than three visits, but add 39 The UK cinema industry certainly suffered its together DVD sales, rental and pay-TV and most of us 40 biggest decline in audiences when ITV spread around are still willing to pay to watch a large number of films 41 the country in the late 1950s. Later, a common each year. There is a film-watching habit in the UK, 42 observation by social commentators was that British but not a vibrant film culture. The idea of film as an ‘art

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form’ is not widely endorsed and the films actually The current UK audience figures are rising, but this 1 seen by large groups of people do not represent a is mostly benefiting multiplexes showing Hollywood 2 diversity of ideas and representations. This may seem products. Overall, people in the UK still go to the 3 a surprising statement in a country where film and cinema less frequently than in many other countries, 4 media studies are rapidly growing academic disciplines, on average under three visits per year (see Chapter 7 5 but there are several important indicators: on Irish audiences). 6 • It is more difficult to persuade funders of the 7 importance of ‘cultural film’ rather than straight 8 ‘commercial film’ in the UK. (The Film Council is ACTIVITY 13.7 9 responsible for both ‘industry’ and ‘film culture’.) 10 • The range of different kinds of films given a wide Your views 11 release is narrow by international standards. Do you have your own concept of what is a British film? 12 • There are proportionately fewer ‘independent List the reasons why you do or don’t think it is 13 cinemas’ showing non-Hollywood films in the UK important to be able to distinguish a British film. 14 compared to other European countries. 15 • Foreign-language films perform less well at the UK 16 box office than elsewhere in Europe, where both 17 dubbing and subtitling are more readily accepted. British film-makers and 18 Certain internationally respected British • film-making traditions 19 film-makers (e.g. Ken Loach, Mike Leigh) often earn 20 more from overseas box office than from the UK. The creative talent employed by the British film 21 • Most television coverage of cinema concentrates industry faces a number of constraints and 22 on Hollywood and rarely goes beyond uncritical ‘institutional factors’ that influence how films are 23 promotion. made. For example, theatre and television are 24 relatively highly regarded in the UK compared to film. 25 If there’s one thing to fight against it’s being British actors are far more likely to be trained for the 26 bland and homogenous. They call films theatre than for film, and British writers are likely to 27 ‘products’. I think a film can be commercial gain more prestige from writing a successful television 28 and interesting. drama series than from scripting a successful film. As 29 (Lynne Ramsay, director of Ratcatcher a consequence, it might be argued that it is more 30 (UK 1999) and Morvern Callar difficult to produce the kinds of film stars who grace 31 (UK 2002) speaking in British Cinema – Hollywood films or to develop a professional film 32 the End of the Affair? (BBC4, 2002)) scriptwriting industry along Hollywood lines. Familiar 33 arguments about British cinema that might arise from 34 In this climate, it is perhaps not surprising the theatre background are: 35 that many UK film-makers either attempt to • British films are more ‘talky’ and less at ease with 36 make Hollywood-style films in the UK or move dynamic movement. 37 to Hollywood themselves. Unless the British film • The acting is less fluid and spontaneous than in 38 audience becomes more aware of a wider film culture, Hollywood. 39 it will remain difficult for British film-makers to get These are quite old arguments and may be out of date 40 innovative films into cinemas. ‘Film education’ is in the twenty-first century. What do you think? Is it 41 crucial to the future of the British film industry. still the case that there is much more encouragement 42

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1 for drama education that leads to stage productions • The scale and ‘look’ of British films is often 2 rather than screen productions? ‘televisual’ rather than cinematic. 3 Having theatre and television as cultural resources • Directors trained in advertising are more likely to 4 for film production is not necessarily a bad thing. UK produce ‘glossy’ and stylish films, possibly devoid 5 theatre directors Sam Mendes and Stephen Daldry of substance. 6 were responsible for the very successful American You will notice that these charges are to some 7 Beauty (US 1999) and Billy Elliot (UK 2000) respectively, extent contradictory – are British films visually dull 8 but veteran cinematographers Conrad Hall and Brian or too frenetically busy? And what does ‘televisual’ 9 Tufano must have had a great deal to do with the look actually mean? The charges are certainly worth 10 of the films. The theatrical background obviously investigating – might it be true that Ridley Scott’s art 11 helped with the excellent performances given by the school and advertising background is evident in his 12 actors, but it would be possible to mount an argument films? Tony Scott, Hugh Hudson, Adrian Lyne and Alan 13 about how other aspects of the film narrative were Parker all emerged from UK advertising in the 1970s 14 handled. (Billy Elliot also had a first-time scriptwriter, and gravitated towards Hollywood. In the 1990s, 15 the award-winning radio writer Lee Hall.) Danny Boyle and Michael Winterbottom began their 16 British films are perhaps more likely to be careers in television and in the last few years Jonathan 17 produced with this kind of ‘imported’ talent because Glazer has emerged from advertising and music 18 of the relatively small number of graduates from the video (a promising source of directorial talent, given 19 National Film School and the difficulties they face in the strength of the UK music industry). Perhaps the 20 getting a first job. Again, by comparison, American most critically lauded of recent directors is Pawel 21 and French film schools produce more graduates Pawlikowski (Last Resort and My Summer of Love) who 22 who appear to get more opportunities. ‘Training’ spent spent several years working on documentaries, 23 for the film industry was almost non-existent mostly for the BBC. Paul Greengrass is another 24 (crafts were learnt ‘on the job’ – a job obtained documentarist who made the ‘drama-documentary’ 25 often through nepotism or working up from being a Bloody Sunday (2002) and then the Hollywood action 26 ‘runner’) before the establishment of the Industry film The Bourne Supremacy (US 2004). 27 Training Body, Skillset, in the early 1990s. In July 28 2005, Skillset announced that seven newly designated Realism 29 ‘Film Academies’ had been accredited as part of 30 a new network of FHE centres of excellence for One of the major factors in both the production of 31 vocational education and training in film production British films and their reception by audiences and 32 (see www.skillset.org/film/training_and_events/ critics is the legacy of ‘realism’. (See Chapter 14.) 33 screen_academies/). The ‘British documentary movement’ of the 1930s 34 The career route for aspiring film-makers is and 1940s was the first significant British film 35 likely to take them through television or advertising movement to be recognised by critics outside Britain. 36 before an opening in film production becomes Documentary gave the British film industry prestige, 37 available. It is also likely that many British films will and this was further boosted during and just after the 38 be made with funding from television companies Second World War when British feature films learnt 39 with a view to a television screening soon after from the documentarists how to shoot on location, 40 the theatrical release. This strong television and how to use ‘authentic’ props and costumes, etc. In the 41 advertising link has led to two charges about the late 1950s the industry went further and used more 42 effects on British film: realistic dialogue (and a wider range of actors). Since

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then ‘British realism’ has become associated with two these points in a brief look at three types of British 1 types of films: film-making. 2 • ‘Costume’ or ‘period’ films displaying a very high 3 level of ‘authentic detail’ – e.g. films based on 1 Mainstream UK film-making 4 nineteenth-century ‘classic novels’ or more modern 5 novels about the 1930s and 1940s. This is an issue The most commercially successful British films have 6 of ‘surface realism’, recreating period detail, and is Hollywood studio support and a much higher budget 7 recognised by some audiences as a mark of ‘quality’. than is usual for a UK film. Many of the biggest 8 • ‘Social realist’ films dealing with recognisable social domestic and international successes for the British 9 problems, filmed in ‘real’ locations, often using film industry share similar production backgrounds. 10 some form of ‘documentary style’ camerawork and In 1993 Four Weddings and a Funeral was produced by 11 an avoidance of any notions of ‘glamour’ or false Polygram (the film division of then Dutch media 12 ‘prettiness’. conglomerate Philips) with Channel 4 and Working 13 To many older and more middle-class audiences, Title, the UK production company headed by Tim 14 and certainly for many audiences overseas, these two Bevan and Eric Fellner. Working with only the average 15 types of films are what British cinema is all about. The UK budget of the time of £2 million, the creative 16 approaches are epitomised for these audiences by the team produced a film that made over £200 million 17 period adaptations of Merchant–Ivory productions and worldwide. In 1996 Working Title and Polygram, 18 films such as Vera Drake (2004) or Billy Elliot which use this time with UK independent Tiger Aspect, spent 19 social realism as part of a mix of elements. considerably more money (£16.2 million) on sending 20 Such recognition perhaps works in the opposite Rowan Atkinson to America in Bean. Again worldwide 21 way for UK working-class audiences (who usually box office topped £200 million. The trick was repeated 22 prefer Hollywood films). They may well steer clear with Notting Hill in 1999 and Bridget Jones’ Diary in 23 of both period films and social realism. Nevertheless, 2001, but by this time Polygram had been bought by 24 ‘popular British films’ such as gangster and comedy Universal. 25 films may still be influenced by a general British Bevan and Fellner are two of the most powerful 26 feeling for realist detail, and it is certainly true that men in the British film industry, but they are also 27 determinedly ‘fantastic’ or expressionist film-makers Hollywood ‘players’ since Working Title is closely 28 in the UK, such as Terry Gilliam or Sally Potter, have 29 had to work harder to gain critical acclaim. In one 30 sense, the critical support for realism over ‘fantasy’ 31 could be seen as a reflection of a narrow film culture. 32 British film scholarship has attempted to counter 33 the critics’ reliance on realism. Work on Carry On 34 films and Hammer horror from the 1950s and 1960s 35 is evidence of a recognition of the commercial 36 success of these series and the ways in which they 37 utilised traditional British genre forms on low 38 budgets. Scholarship has perhaps been less successful 39 in increasing the profile of contemporary British Figure 13.8 Notting Hill opened in the summer of 1999 with a 40 directors who take risks in developing new aesthetics premiere run at the Odeon Leicester Square, the launching pad for 41 for British films. Let’s try to draw together some of prestigious British films since the 1940s. 42

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1 tied in to Universal. The films listed above are just the The British genre tradition highest-profile titles in their portfolio (the ‘low-budget’ 2 During its genuine ‘studio period’ from the 1930s 3 brand WT2 produced Billy Elliot). They have worked to the 1970s, the British film industry managed to 4 consistently with a group of creative talents – the four produce a steady stream of genre films with carefully 5 films above were all scripted by Richard Curtis – but it managed production budgets – comedies, crime 6 is noticeable that they aim for the international rather thrillers, horror, etc. This tradition survives in the 7 than UK (or, indeed, American) market. In terms of form of occasional ‘one-offs’ drawing on genre 8 British film culture, it is their smaller titles, including traditions. Good examples of this practice include 9 those from director Stephen Frears, that are perhaps successful films such as 28 Days Later and Shaun of the 10 more significant. Their most adventurous partnerships Dead (UK 2004), with their different takes on British 11 tend to be with the Coen brothers on resolutely horror/science fiction and comedy. 12 American projects. The Hole (UK 2001) is a good example of this 13 Working Title have succeeded in maintaining practice and helps us confirm many of the points made 14 output where other UK production companies have in this case study. It is clearly a ‘genre’ film, combining 15 failed. Arguably, this is because they have sheltered the teen film and psychological horror/thriller. Made 16 within the embrace of a major studio and applied with a production budget of £4.16 million (i.e. slightly 17 Hollywood production methods: ‘It’s extraordinary to above the average for a ‘domestic feature’), The Hole 18 walk into a British film company on Oxford Street . . . achieved a UK box office of £2.2 million – better than 19 and it’s run with complete L.A. efficiency, instead of it most UK productions. This was achieved from an 20 being a bunch of ex-BBC, very nice amateurs’ (Hugh unusual ‘wide’ release on 322 prints. Abroad, The 21 Grant quoted in Premiere magazine, March 2001). Not Hole did well in Europe with 2.8 million Euros in 22 all their films have been hits, but so far they have been Spain and perhaps half that amount in France and 23 able to ‘cross-subsidise’ hits and misses. 24 Italy (European releases over 2002 and 2003). These 25 strong European returns mean that the film will have been close to covering costs on a theatrical release 26 ACTIVITY 13.8 27 – a major achievement. The most surprising aspect of its release is that it didn’t get into US cinemas at all 28 Working Title – despite the presence of American stars (see below). 29 Research Working Title and the careers of Tim Bevan The eventual DVD release in North America wasn’t 30 and Eric Fellner. Use the Internet Movie Database to until 2004. Ancillary markets in the UK had the film in 31 list all their productions and find out about their films. the usual way, a few months after the theatrical release. 32 Check the company website at www.workingtitlefilms. Here is a brief summary of some of the aspects of 33 com to see what is coming soon. British film that The Hole highlights. 34 To what extent does the list suggest that they have 35 been crucial to a sense of the British film industry and 36 British film culture since the late 1980s – or are they Setting, thematic 37 more like an international film company that just 38 happens to be based in London? The story is set in an English public school – a mixed 39 residential school. The British film industry has always 40 had problems producing American style ‘high school 41 pictures’. Partly this is because of the lack of uniformity 42 in UK secondary schools (i.e. comprehensives,

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grammar schools, public schools, etc.), and partly These two companies with Granada provided the 1 because of the strong tradition of youth pictures three producers on the film, with Pathé’s Andrea 2 associated with ‘social realism’ or the ‘social problem’ Calderwood as executive producer. The final 3 genre (i.e. links to delinquency). The Hole is a rare contribution came from French pay-TV company 4 attempt to make a UK school-based film with genre Canal+. 5 elements easily recognised in the international market. Director Nick Hamm had already succeeded as a 6 theatre director and had made a well-received short 7 film. The Hole was his third feature film. He read the Casting 8 novel (by the seventeen-year-old Guy Burt) on which 9 Three of the leads are American (Thora Birch, the film was based in 1993 and persuaded several 10 Desmond Harrington and Embeth Davidtz), although production companies to take an option on the rights. 11 only Harrington is actually playing an American When this finally led to a production, the scriptwriters 12 character. Americans (often cast as ‘Canadian’) were were two recent graduates of the National Film 13 a common feature of British films in the studio period. School, Ben Court and Caroline Ip. They have not 14 They lent lower-budget British films a sense of had another script produced yet, but Hamm went on 15 ‘glamour’ and sometimes American actors with their to make Godsend (2004) in America. 16 different backgrounds and approaches to film acting 17 gave producers something different to use in certain Black British film 18 types of genre films. In this instance, the casting of 19 Thora Birch was something of a coup since she had One of the challenges for the British film industry is to 20 recently starred in the surprise success of American make films that are in some way representative of life 21 Beauty (US 1999) and the less mainstream but critically in a modern multiracial and multicultural society, both 22 acclaimed Ghost World (US/UK/Germany 2001). because they want to sell films to every audience and 23 also because ‘diversity’ is a priority for the agency 24 responsible for film culture, the UK Film Council. Production 25 Black and Asian British writers and directors face 26 Another connection between Ghost World and The all the problems outlined above in producing films, 27 Hole was Granada Films, the vehicle whereby the plus the extra challenge of making films that run 28 UK television company invests in features. However, the risk of only appealing to a minority of the UK 29 the main source of funding (and the rights holder) audience. One feature of UK film distribution since 30 was Pathé Pictures, the UK distributor/production the 1980s has been that even Hollywood films that 31 company. Pathé was awarded one of the ‘franchises’ focus specifically on African-American culture, such 32 through which the Film Council distributed National as Denzel Washington’s directorial debut Antwone 33 Lottery funding and £1.5 million of Lottery money Fisher (US 2002), are likely to receive only a limited 34 was spent on The Hole. The other partners in the distribution (forty-six prints for Antwone Fisher), 35 production were two small British production opening in cities with significant Black populations. 36 companies, Cowboy Films and Impact Pictures. In very broad terms, the history of African- 37 Both these companies had experience and contacts Caribbean film in the UK can be traced back to 38 in the international film business, Cowboy Films in British Film Institute Production Board funded films 39 advertising and music video, Impact Pictures in such as Horace Ové’s Pressure (1975) and Menelik 40 features, often drawn from video games, made by Shabazz’s Burning an Illusion (1981). These films were 41 Paul W.S. Anderson (e.g. Event Horizon, UK/US 1997). accompanied by more commercial films, set in Black 42

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1 communities but made by white film-makers, such as attempt to address issues about racial violence 2 Black Joy (1977) and Babylon (1980). In the 1980s more by viewing events from the perspective of the 3 avant-garde Black film-makers in collectives such as perpetrators of that violence. Asante’s central 4 Black Audio (Handsworth Songs (1986) etc.) and character is Leigh-Anne a seventeen-year-old white 5 Sankofa (Territories (1984) etc.) made films directly single mother living ‘on benefit’ in a South Wales 6 about the political struggles of Black people in the UK community and the effective driving force behind a 7 which were supported and screened by Channel 4 as trio of young men who make a violent attack on one 8 part of its remit to broadcast new forms of television of her neighbours. 9 and cater to more diverse audience groups. 10 However, there was nothing in mainstream film Wales has a history of some of the oldest Black 11 culture to match the emergence of Black British communities in Europe. It’s very different to 12 popular music, and in the 1990s, without the London, a lot of the diversity began to grow 13 support of the BFI and Channel 4, even the more around Cardiff and the docks areas in South 14 avant-garde film-making fell away. Instead, the 1990s Wales about a hundred years ago. I wanted to 15 saw the gradual rise of British Asian film-making, with explain how that history might impact on us 16 the career of Gurinder Chadha in particular. Bhaji on today. There is this idea that if you’re talking 17 the Beach in 1993 was co-written with Meera Syal and about modern UK, a film should be set in 18 achieved something of a cult status as well as critical London, but these are Valleys kids. They don’t 19 acclaim. After working in America, Chadha returned know a lot of black people and that to me 20 to UK production in 2002 with the highly successful represents the majority of the UK. 21 Bend It Like Beckham, in many ways a ‘feelgood’ film (Amma Asante, from the 22 with a Hollywood-style narrative. Meanwhile, Meera production notes for the film) 23 Syal has become a powerful figure in UK television 24 through shows such as Goodness Gracious Me and The The ugliness of the poverty and the violence is 25 Kumars at No. 42. Syal’s semi-autobiographical novel contrasted with the beauty of some of the scenes 26 Anita and Me became a feature film in 2002, directed shot in natural light. The characters are poor – 27 by Metin Hüseyin. There have been several other and ignorant. The damage they do is despite the 28 important films from British Asians since the 1980s mixed-race backgrounds of both attackers and victims, 29 and a wider perspective on the history of both Black which are not properly understood by either side 30 British and British Asian film can be gained by visiting (and which Asante emphasised by her casting 31 www.screenonline.org.uk, the resource on British film choices). 32 culture produced by the British Film Institute. A Way of Life was made by Rampart Films, Asante’s 33 The year 2004 was significant for the diversity of partnership with TV producer Charlie Hanson (one of 34 UK film culture, with two films by white film-makers the producers of Desmond’s, the Channel 4 sitcom on 35 that focus on Muslim communities in the UK (Yasmin which Asante worked in the 1980s) and AWOL Films, 36 and Ae Fond Kiss, see above). These were followed an SPV set up for the production. Support came from 37 in 2005 by two films that in their different ways the UK Film Council, Arts Council Wales and ITV 38 signal a revival in Black British film. A Way of Life is a Wales. Although Amma Asante won several prizes at 39 remarkable film written and directed by Amma Asante. film festivals such as London, Miami and San Sebastian, 40 Starting out as an actor in Grange Hill, Amma Asante A Way of Life received only a limited theatrical 41 has developed into a writer, producer and director of distribution by Verve Pictures, a new distributor 42 television and now cinema features. A Way of Life is an focusing on less mainstream British titles. A Way of Life

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Figure 13.9 The gang at the centre of A Way of Life are shown Figure 13.10 Ricky (Ashley Walters) and Wisdom (Leon Black) in 12 in, literally, a ‘good light’ in this still. Their brutal actions are linked Bullet Boy. directly to a sense of exclusion, exacerbated by a confusion over 13 their own sense of ‘identity’. 14 15 may have more impact than some of the earlier Black the work of other British film-makers through the 16 British films because of DVD distribution. camerawork of Marcel Zyskind (the young Danish 17 Verve also distributed Bullet Boy (2005) in cinemas cinematographer on Michael Winterbottom’s In This 18 and this film had a relatively ‘wide’ release for what World (see ‘Case study: Images of migration’ and 19 was still seen as a ‘specialised film’ (seventy-three Code 46) and Danny Boyle’s editor on several of his 20 prints, concentrated in areas with significant films, Masahiro Hirakubo. 21 African-Caribbean communities). The release was At the time of writing, Bullet Boy had not yet been 22 characterised by an extensive programme of preview released in North America or Europe. It will be 23 screenings and strong interest from the press. interesting to see what kind of response the film 24 The white director Saul Dibb comes from a generates and whether it will prove to be ‘distinctively 25 documentary background and clearly has an affinity British’, while still appealing to audiences who don’t 26 for the street culture of Hackney where the story is know the specific community. 27 set and where co-writer Catherine Johnson lives. Very 28 much a Black film in its thematic, Bullet Boy looks at 29 questions of masculinity and ‘boys without fathers’. It’s ACTIVITY 13.9 30 family melodrama in which street violence becomes 31 the disruptive agent. Bullet Boy 32 Starring the former child actor and music star Look up the film on the Internet Movie Database or 33 ‘Asher D’ (Ashley Walters), Bullet Boy has been any other website with audience responses. 34 favourably compared with celebrated films focusing • What do audiences think about this film? That it is 35 on similar themes, such as La Haine (France 1995) and distinctively British? 36 Boyz ’n’ the Hood (US 1991). This suggests a film with • Or do they complain about what they see as an 37 ‘universal appeal’, but one which also links to other American formula applied to a British cultural context? 38 developments in UK culture, such as the vibrant • Look back through this case study. How would you 39 Black theatre movement which has produced the approach an analysis of Bullet Boy as a ‘contemporary 40 similarly themed Elmina’s Kitchen written by Kwame British film’? 41 Kwei-Armah. Aesthetically, Bullet Boy is also linked to 42

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1 References and further reading Murphy, Robert (ed.) (2001) The British Cinema Book, 2 London: British Film Institute. ‘Contemporary British Cinema’ (2002)The Journal of 3 Popular British Cinema, 5. 4 Websites Hill, John (ed.) (2001) Supplement on ‘Contemporary 5 British Cinema’, Cineaste, XXVI, 4. www.bfi.org.uk/filmtvinfo/library/publications/16+/briti 6 British Cinema – the End of the Affair?, (2002). tx BBC4. shcontemp.html 7 Kirkup, Mike (2004) Contemporary British Cinema, www.launchingfilms.com 8 Leighton Buzzard: Auteur. www.screenonline.org.uk 9 Murphy, Robert (ed.) (2000) British Cinema of the 90s, www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk 10 London: British Film Institute. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42

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