Chapter – I Introduction

CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Growth of agriculture

Agricultural progress has emerged as a potential strategy to economic progress in most developing countries for which India cannot be exceptional. Failures on agricultural front would create formidable problems for future development of any country. China gave priority to agriculture in order to absorb the surplus rural population and use its growing productivity for local diversification. All people realized the importance of the agricultural sector, particularly in the context of the growing rural population.

Agricultural development should receive top priority because cost effective production can be raised more easily in this sector than in any other sectors. A country cannot think of a large-scale transfer of the farming population to non-farming sectors without sufficient food surpluses or considerable reduction in food deficits. A rise in agricultural productivity precedes or accompanies economic development.

Extensive use of modern inputs gradually leads to greater commercialization and increased levels of agricultural produce. This would help farmers not only to produce more output per unit area, but also to generate surplus crop which would contribute to economic development, raise of income levels of farmers and meet the food requirements of the ever- increasing population.

An increased market surplus resulting from commercialization of agriculture would help in releasing labour force from agricultural sector to non-agricultural sector without causing a decline in agricultural output. The boost in agricultural exports would enable the country to import the much needed capital goods and other raw materials required for rapid industrialization.

Four main stages in the agricultural development process in the rural sectors are (i) Traditional subsistence agriculture (ii) Institution- building development (iii) Institution-based development and (iv)

Capital intensive development. Although the share of agriculture in national income declines over the long run, this trend should occur naturally, neglecting agriculture and forcing its share to go down faster depresses economic growth.

The reasons for growing importance of the agricultural sector in most developing countries are not far to seek. It is the agricultural

2 sector which supplies basic goods like food grains and cereals. The demand for food products is bound to go up with the population levels going up and the per capita incomes in these countries, if food grain output is not satisfactory, food prices go up affecting the rural population to a great extent the poor, besides raising the prices of industrial goods, in other words, the general price level largely depends on the availability of agricultural goods. Also, food shortage would force a country to resort to food import on which a poor country cannot afford to spend its precious foreign exchange.

Agricultural prosperity certainly exercises a positive impact on poverty situation. The interdependence of agriculture and industry is well known. The agricultural sector supplies raw materials and labour force to the industrial sectors which could be met only through utilization of surplus labour in the agricultural sector. Agricultural prosperity provides considerable demand for industrial goods; industrialists get worried in a drought year not only because of fall in the supply of raw materials but also fall in demand for their products from the farming community. Also, the foreign exchange earned through agricultural exports would enable a country to import machinery and equipment required for industrialization.

Agricultural sector plays a strategic role in the process of economic development of a country. It has already made a significant

3 contribution to the economic prosperity of advanced countries and its role in the economic development of less developed countries is of vital importance.

In U.S.A. and Japan agricultural development has helped to a greater extent in the process of their industrialization. Similarly various under-developed countries of the world now engaged in the process of economic development have by now learnt the limitations of putting over-emphasis on industrialization as a means to attain higher per capita real income. It is seen that increased agricultural output and productivity tend to contribute substantially to an overall economic development of a predominantly agricultural and over-populated country. In the early stage of the economic development of the country, it will be rational and appropriate to place greater emphasis on further development of the agricultural sector. Agricultural production can be raised more rapidly with lesser amount of capital investment. To a certain extent, productivity can be increased even without additional capital. The increasing agricultural productivity will make substantial contributions to the general economic development of the country.

In economic growth of a country, agriculture literally feeds the process of development. It meets the needs for food grains on account of rise in incomes, as also of increase in population. Self-sufficiency in food gives greater confidence and freedom to a country than in any

4 other commodity. The health and nutrition of a vast multitude of population also depends on the development of agriculture. Jacob

Viner once wrote that, “It is not a case of ‘agriculture versus industrialization’ but of ‘poverty and poverty’ is due to both poor agriculture and poor industrialization. The path to economic development is through making the population literate, healthy and well fed. No nation can develop if its population is not receiving adequate nutrition”.

Development of agriculture provides not only cheap food and raw materials but also helps in keeping the wages down. This checks cost-push inflation. When in due course of time industries develop they do not find lack of purchasing power for their goods. It also contributes to development through the supply of labour. An agricultural country by definition provides work to almost the entire labour force of the country.

In the under-developed countries, quite a significant proportion of the labour force remains in disguised unemployment as agriculture, being unprogressive and subject to constraints like the given supply of land, is not able to absorb all the increase in the labourers productively.

Agriculture can contribute a great deal in earning foreign currencies. The export requirements can be easily met by adding a crop or two within existing crop-pattern and that too with little incentives and with perhaps no additional capital investments. Further, since such

5 exports have to cater to the existing and familiar international markets, no additional costs are involved to discover or nurse new markets.

Since exports from any single country constitute a small fraction of the total world supplies, such goods face a fairly elastic demand schedule.

India has all such advantages. So there is a need to pursue a consistent policy of export promotion in this field, and for this purpose it is necessary to integrate domestic production with the requirements of the international market, something which was neglected in the past.

It also contributes to a growing country’s needs for large capital resources. This is all the more important because with the existing modern capitalist sector being small, the little that can come from this sector by way of surpluses or profits for investments. On the other hand, agriculture is a big-sized industry. In the cases of successful development of major countries, a rise in agricultural productivity has either proceeded or accompanied industrial development. When agriculture is well developed through commercialization, farming communities’ incomes will go up as a result of enhanced market and surplus. This provides stimulus to demand for industrial goods and raises the profits of capitalists, savings and capital formation.

The significance of agriculture in India rises also from the fact that the development in agriculture is an essential condition for the development of the national economy. Thus agricultural development

6 should be given greater emphasis in India. The capital output ratio is very high in agriculture. A small input of capital will bring in a large output of agricultural goods. To achieve a rapid increase in incomes a greater proportion of investment should be made in agriculture.

It is the life line of the National Economy and its growth is very vital for sustainable food security and well being of its citizen. The foremost priority of the Government is to ensure adequate availability of food to all. The food crisis that had occurred in the previous years due to floods and drought had been managed on account of due importance given to Agricultural sector through various interventions made in increasing the area, production and productivity of crops that are used as raw materials for agro based industries such as textiles, sugar and edible oils besides major food crops.

Over the time, contribution of agricultural sector to the national

GDP as well as to the State GDP has been steadily declining. The share of agricultural sector in Gross State Domestic Product which was about 45.9% during 1970-71 has come down to 24.7% in 2000-01 and further it has fall down to 14.1% in 2011-12. Agriculture would continue to be a key sector in the economic development of a State. The table

1.1 shows the slow growth rate of agricultural sector in Indian economy.

TABLE - 1.1 GROWTH RATE OF AGRICULTURE FROM 2005-2006 TO 2011-2012 Growth rate (in GDP Year %) 2005-06 18.3 2006-07 17.4 2007-08 16.8 2008-09 15.8 2009-10 15.7 2010-11 14.5 2011-12 14.1

Source: CSO and Economic survey

In order to increase the share of agriculture, sustainable agricultural system should be followed. Sustainable agriculture system refers the system which can be followed for long time to improve production and productivity of this sector. This should also helpful to increase the income of farmers. This system includes crop rotation, crop residue, improving soil nutrients, appropriate mechanical cultivation, organic farming etc.

Therefore in this study researcher made an effort to find agricultural sustainability between traditional method and SRI (System of Rice Intensification) method in the study area. The traditional method refers conventional techniques followed by the respondents.

SRI system has evolved over the last few decades of the 20th century and offers a radical departure in the way of growing more rice with

8 fewer inputs. It is based on six principles. They are nursery raising, transplantation, space between plants, water management, proper weeding and organic manures of growing rice and it is different from traditional rice cultivation techniques.

1.2 Need for sustainable agriculture

The need for a sustainable agriculture has become universal agreement as to what is required to achieve it has not. As more parties sign on to the sustainable agriculture effort, perceptions about what defines sustainability in agriculture have multiplied.

Sustainable agricultural systems are designed to use existing soil nutrient and water cycles, naturally occurring energy flows for food production. Such systems aim to produce food that is both nutritious and without products that might harm human health. In practice, such systems have tended to avoid the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives, instead relying upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, appropriate mechanical cultivation, and mineral bearing rocks to maintain soil fertility and productivity.

Fostering sustainable agriculture and rural development remain the key national priorities. Agriculture is the key to economic development and poverty alleviation in rural areas, it is the largest

9 private enterprise operated in the state mainly with small-scale investments by the rural masses. The social harmony will suffer serious setback if the food security is not achieved. Though the industries play a pivotal role in the growth of a nation, agriculture continues to play a supportive role to these industries due to the powerful boost given to this sector.

Given the importance of agriculture in the income of the poor, growth in agricultural output plays a significant role in reducing the rural poverty of small producers. Specifically small and marginal farmers earn higher real wages for agricultural labourers through higher farm yields.

As Agricultural development increasingly becomes technology propelled, the relative importance of introducing various innovative technologies for achieving higher production and productivity also increases. The Government will implement various schemes to increase the food grain benefitting small and marginal farmers.

Sustainable agriculture is both a philosophy and a system of farming. It has its roots in a set of values that reflects an awareness of both ecological and social realities. It involves design and management procedures that work with natural processes to conserve all resources, minimize waste and environmental damage, while maintaining or

10 improving farm profitability. Working with natural soil processes is of particular importance.

In practice such systems have tended to avoid the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. These substances are rejected on the basis of their dependence on non-renewable resources, disruption potential within the environment, and their potential impacts on wildlife, livestock and human health.

1.3 Statement of problem

The performance of the Indian economy is crucially dependent upon agriculture. It supplies food and raw-materials for the industry.

Agriculture provides a market for the non-agricultural products and services. At present performance of agricultural sector in the country has turned out to be quite dissatisfactory because of sharp deceleration in growth rate of agricultural output.

Ministry of Finance, Planning Commission, and Office of Prime

Minister are emphasizing concerted measures to address poor growth rate in agriculture, partly because poor growth rate has serious implications for large percent of India’s population that depends upon agriculture for livelihood, and partly because poor growth of agriculture affects growth of overall economy. There are apprehensions that high

11 growth rate in non-agricultural sector alone would not help India to realize high growth rate in total economy if agriculture continues in low growth trap.

Thus, in the agricultural sector while some economists consider modernization of Indian agriculture to be necessary and desirable others think that the economic and social conditions in India are entirely different from the advanced countries where mechanization is found to be profitable. Here people mostly stick on to the tradition and traditional method of agriculture. Even though, the science has gained importance and developed a lot, since most of the agricultural people are illiterate or some do not have the awareness of technology and its change there was not much influence of technology till late 1980’s. But now thanks to mass media, the benefits of technology in agriculture are known by the people. Hence, there is a need to study the nature of the problem.

Sustainable agricultural production calls for effective planning and environment-friendly technologies and policies. In the light of the agricultural problems faced by the farmers in India, this study investigates into the sustainability of paddy cultivation by comparing conventional agriculture system and SRI system in Thanjavur District.

Thanjavur District is one of the important paddy cultivation centres. The unique physical features of the Thanjavur District such as the availability of fertile soil and water resources from the Grand

Anaicut Canal, Cauvery-Mettur project and Vadavar River are highly conducive for the agricultural development in the district.

1.4 Need of the study

Agriculture is the main source of livelihood for most of the people of Thanjavur. Cultivation has been the major occupation of the local inhabitants of Thanjavur since the land is ideally suited for growing crops like rice and wheat. Thanjavur is a deltaic region where rice is the major food crop grown in the fields. Rice production has increased in the recent years and thus it is being largely marketed in the neighboring states which are further boosting up the economy of

Thanjavur. The total rice production has been maintained at 10.615

L.MT and 7.077 L.MT The land suitable for irrigation and farming has also grown subsequently.

The Department of Agriculture has been taking effective measures in order to improve the production of agriculture in

Thanjavur. Several irrigation projects are being implemented within this city much for the benefit to the farmers. Other crops, which are grown in the rich land of Thanjavur are cholam, wheat, ragi, red gram, green gram, sugarcane and maize.

The maximum portion of Thanjavur land is used up for cultivation and agriculture. The total percentage of land fit for cultivation is 58%. The city of Thanjavur consists of tertiary, alluvial and cretaceous types of soil. The major portion of Thanjavur land consists of alluvial deposits. The eastern region of Thanjavur abounds in alluvial type of soil fit for agriculture. This region thereby produces the maximum number of crops. Eventhough farmers produce different crops, paddy is the major crop, which is produced by huge number of cultivators.

Farmers adopt different methods to increase the yield and to reduce cost of cultivation in order to maximize their income. SRI is the new method of paddy production in the study area. Therefore the researcher made an attempt to study the difference in SRI method over conventional method.

1.5 Scope of the study

Thanjavur District is well known for paddy cultivation. the cultivators in the study area adopt different techniques and methods to increase the production of rice. This study has been focused towards the paddy cultivation under Conventional method and SRI method.

This also focuses which method is more sustainable in the study area based on cost-return and yield. It would pave the way for agricultural

14 development, which would promote economic and social conditions of farmers. This would also result in the protection of the natural resources and in utilizing them for the social upliftment of the country.

1.6 Objectives of the study

The following are the objectives of the study.

1. To understand the concept of agricultural sustainability and to study the sustainable agricultural techniques.

2. To assess the input-output structure and cost-return structure of conventional method and SRI method of paddy cultivation in Thanjavur District.

3. To analyse the determinants of yield in conventional and SRI methods of paddy production.

4. To understand the technological difference between the

Conventional method and SRI method in the study area using discriminant analysis.

5. To estimate the level of satisfaction of respondents in conventional and SRI method with respect to farmers’ age, income and experience.

1.7 Hypotheses of the study

To attain the above objectives, following hypotheses were framed in the study and analysed with the help of statistical tools.

H01: There is no significant difference between SRI method and

Conventional method of paddy cultivation regarding profit.

H02: There is no significant difference in yield of paddy by adapting SRI and conventional methods.

H03: There is no significant difference between SRI and

Conventional method regarding the level of satisfaction of the respondents.

1.8 Methodology

(i) Pilot study

Pilot study is necessary for carrying out a proper research. It is the primary step of research to study the universe and to get an early idea about the study. Pilot study was conducted in

Thanjavur District with 20 numbers of farmers. This ensured reliability

16 and validity of the interview schedule. After conducting the pilot study necessary modifications were made in the interview schedule.

(ii) Selection of district, blocks and villages

The empirical context of this study is Thanjavur district in

Tamilnadu. It is located in the south part of Tamilnadu. Among all the districts of the state, Thanjavur is called as rice bowl since paddy is the principal crop grown in three seasons viz. Kuruvai, Samba and Thaladi.

So, this district has been purposively selected for this study.

This district is divided into two distinct regions viz, the deltaic region and the non-deltaic region. The deltaic region covers the whole northern and eastern portions of the district. It comprises the whole of

Kumbakonam taluk and parts of Thanjavur and Papanasam taluks.

This district consists of 14 blocks and 8 taluks. Of these 8 taluks, kumbakonam is wholly covered by deltaic region and it is selected for this study. It is located in the north end of Thanjavur district below the river Coleroon. It covers the geographical area of 18,856 hectares. The total cultivable area accounts 13,207 hectares and paddy shares 9,963 hectares in it. Sugarcane, coconut, banana and blackgram forms the next major crops. Mostly the crops were irrigated by various river canals. Borders of the block are in north Kollidam river, in south

Nannilam block, in east Thirupananthal and in the West Papanasam.

There are 47 Panchayat villages in this block. Among these villages 20 villages were identified for the study which is mainly based on agriculture.

(iii) Selection of households

After selecting the villages for the study the list of all the households was prepared by making a census survey of each village.

Then 5 % of households were selected in each method from all selected villages for the primary survey. The selection of households is presented in the following figure 1.1.

Figure - 1.1

HOUSEHOLD SELECTION CHART

Tamilnadu

Thanjavur district

Kumbakonam block

20 Villages of Kumbakonam block

Selected households

(iv) Data collection

The direct personal interview method has been adopted to collect the data regarding the farm structure, size of holding, cropping pattern, costs and return and other aspects relating to the overall objectives of the study.

Secondary data relating to the location, climate, rainfall, soil type, land utilization pattern, operational land holding, sources of irrigation, area, production, yield of major crops, and the like were collected from the district and taluk level from the block office,

Assistant Director’s Statistical Office, Thanjavur and block statistical officers from Thanjavur District.

(v) Sampling Technique

The proportionate multi-stage random sampling technique has been adopted for the present study. Thanjavur district comprises 7 taluks. Kumbakonam was selected for the present study.

The revenue villages of this block were assigned in an ascending order according to the area under cultivation in each village. Out of the total number of villages listed, 20 villages were selected. In all, 300 farmers were randomly selected from 20 villages of Kumbakonam taluk. It consist both conventional and SRI farmers. The list of sample village and number of farmers are presented in table 1.2.

TABLE - 1.2

LIST OF VILLAGES AND LIST OF RESPONDENTS INCLUDED UNDER

THE STUDY

Respondents Respondents following Sl.No. Name of the villages following SRI Total Conventional Method Method 1 Swamimalai 8 7 15 2 Enambur 7 9 16 3 Thirupurambiyam 7 9 16 4 Baburajapuram 7 9 16 5 Puliamcheri 8 5 13 6 Udaiyalur 7 9 16 7 Sundaraperumal Kovil 7 7 14 8 Valaiyapettai 8 5 13 9 Ullure 7 7 14 10 Perumandi 7 7 14 11 Asur 9 8 17 12 Koranattu Karuppur 7 8 15 13 Kovilacheri 8 7 15 14 Chattram Karuppur 7 7 14 15 Selampadi 8 8 16 16 Nathan Kovil 7 8 15 17 Sakkottai 8 7 15 18 Thipirajapuram 8 8 16 19 Marudha Nallur 8 8 16 20 Maadakudi 7 7 14 Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data

In each method (SRI and Conventional methods) 150 samples were included in the study, totally there were 300 samples were collected as given above.

(vi) Statistical tools

In the present study researcher had used various statistical tools. The data are coded, tabulated and analyzed using

SPSS and MS-Excel.

To analyse input-output structure of conventional and SRI method, to study the cost-return structure of two methods, to understand the technological difference between the conventional and

SRI method and to know level of satisfaction of the respondents in the study the following tools were used.

Paired t-test used to analyse input-output structure of conventional and SRI method

To compare the cost-return structure of two methods of paddy production in the study area Cost A and Cost C concepts used by farm management studies have been adopted.

To examine the nature and extent of inequality in net income of respondents in the study area frequency distribution, decile distribution and pie chart were used

To identify and to compare the factors influencing yield of paddy in two methods Multiple linear regression model was used.

To measure the level of satisfaction of respondents under two method Chi-square test, Likert scale and Rank correlation were used.

To understand the technological difference between the two methods of paddy production such as, SRI and conventional methods discriminant analysis was used.

(vii) Period of the study

In this study data were collected from the respondents during 2010-11.

1.9 Limitations of the study

The data and information for this study were collected through a sample survey by conducting personal interviews with the sample farmers. They did not maintain any record of the cultivation expenses, application of various inputs and returns. Therefore, some amount of recall bias is found to be associated with the collected data. To minimize the recall bias, cross checks were made in the field itself.

Generalization of the results is made with caution, as the study is confined to a particular agro climatic region.

1.10 Organization of the Thesis

The report of the study has been presented in six chapters as detailed below:

Chapter – I - Introduction

The first chapter after introducing the subject deals with

the design and execution of the study.

Chapter – II – Review of Literature and variables of the

study

This chapter is concerned with the review of literature

connected with the stated problem. Hence earlier studies

relating to the present study was scrutinised carefully. This

chapter also includes major definitions of concepts and variables

used in the study.

Chapter – III – Profile of the study area

This chapter provides details about demographic and

geographical features of the study area and profile of Thanjavur

District and Kumbakonam block.

Chapter – IV – Evolution and Elements of Sustainable

Agriculture

This chapter provides details about sustainable agriculture like evolution, elements and steps in sustainable agriculture.

Chapter – V – Cost Return structure and Determinants of

Yield

This chapter analyses the cost return structure of conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation and cost- return structure, determinants of yield under the two methods of paddy cultivation.

Chapter – VI – Technological difference between the two methods and Level of Satisfaction of respondents

It highlights the technological difference between conventional method and SRI method of paddy cultivation using discriminant analysis and also includes level of satisfaction of respondents under the two methods.

Chapter – VII – Findings, Suggestion and Conclusion

This chapter reveals the findings of the study and provides suggestions and explores scope for further research.

CHAPTER - II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND

DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS IN THE STUDY

The past literature helps one to adopt modify and improve the conceptual frame work and acts as a guide line for the present study.

Hence, an attempt is made in this chapter to review the earlier studies on issues relevant to the research problem undertaken. This chapter also includes definitions of concepts which are used in the present study.

2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

For any research, a review of the theory and the past studies related to the subject are useful in several ways. It helps in defining concepts and operational definitions in formulating testable hypothesis, in specifying test conditions, in the choice of analytical tools as empirical models and in evaluating the finding of the research vis-à-vis, the results of the studies, so as to explain the difference if any.

For the purpose of convenience and better exposition of literature the review is organized under the following headings.

1. Sustainable Agriculture and Technological changes

2. SRI method

3. Cost and Return structure

4. Production efficiency

2.1.1 LITERATURE RELATING TO SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES

Ngware S et al. (1993) examines trends in Tanzania’s economic situation and looks at agricultural performance and the impact of structural adjustment policies on the agricultural sector. The main part focuses on the food marketing policy of and food security in

Tanzania. The evolution of government thinking in its efforts to maintain the interests of both food producers and consumers is traced.

Food marketing and pricing policies are examined with a view to assessing the extent to which these policies have influenced the status of food security in the country. Marketing and institutional arrangements are evaluated to identify constraints. The present situation is observed with particular reference to adjustment policies, their impact on food production prices and food security. With the exception of the last two growing seasons, Tanzania had enjoyed favourable growing conditions since 1985.

Input availability and distribution improved markedly during this time, resulting from an improved availability of foreign exchange. Maize production has remained above 2 mt annually. Official grain agencies have collapsed and the task of serving the public is in the hands of the private traders. The required policy actions for the future include a process of fine-tuning which can translate these policies into clear

26 guidelines for the major actors in the field of food marketing and food security.

Qu F T et al. (1994) examined the experiences, characteristics and effects of sustainable agriculture in China. They argued that food security and income generation must be incorporated into the whole system of sustainable development, and that high external-input is more feasible than low external-input in achieving sustainability in the developing countries, especially those with dense population. They concluded that, to achieve sustainable development, it is important for developing countries to search for their own way forward that can effectively deal with specific issues such as food shortages, rural poverty and environmental degradation.

Leiva F R (1998) studied about sustainability of farming systems. Farming activities have the potential to affect the farming system itself and the off-farm environment. This study explains about sustainable agriculture with emphasis on developing countries. The concepts of sustainability and sustainable agriculture are reviewed and discussed. Environmental impacts due to farming activities are examined by emphasizing the need for further research and publication of findings on the links between environment and agriculture. The complexity of the factors that determine farming sustainability requires a systematic, holistic, participative and integrated approach that takes into account environmental, social and economic circumstances.

Rahman M. Z. et al. (1998) conducted research on “Towards sustainable agriculture - the impact of technology adoption for agricultural development”. It is the comparative study conducted in

Bangladesh and Japan to explore the situation of agriculture with respect to technology adoption and utilization of fertilizers, manures, pesticides, and farmer’s responses to selected environmental problems issues in agriculture, practices used by farmers to mitigate environmental problems and considered as sustainable for future use.

They concluded that both countries have environmental problems, although the types and intensities differ.

Szakal F (1999) discussed about the relationship between sustainability and agriculture of rural regions in Hungary. The impact on the rural area of the industrialization of agriculture is described and considered unsustainable. The study concluded that, a sustainable integrated and multifunctional agriculture as a basis for rural development is proposed taking into account, land use, the environment, food processing location, and the changes in agricultural policy that will be required for success.

Yli-viikari A (1999) discussed about Indicators for sustainable agriculture a theoretical framework for classifying and assessing indicators. This study examines agricultural systems with a view to identify the points and levels at which the sustainability of these

28 systems can be assessed. The agri-environmental indicators are presented within the Pressure-State-Response framework. Although suitable for ecological indicators, this framework is not highly relevant for economic and social indicators, which were studied from a more general theoretical perspective. As the concept of sustainability includes a number of different value-laden definitions, the setting of indicators should be seen as an ongoing re-evaluation rather than a technical process of measuring certain parameters. The need to refine the assessment methods was recognized in several subthemes of agricultural sustainability.

A major shortcoming was found to be the lack of tools for evaluating qualitative phenomena such as landscapes and animal welfare. Likewise, in economics and the social sciences, much needs to be done to promote understanding of the interactions between these disciplines and environmental processes. Moreover, the basic framework of the assessments requires further examination, for instance, when interpreting the indicator results, when dealing with uncertainty and when seeking to identify cause-effect chains, even though these questions are no longer purely matters of indicator methodology.

Tisdell C (1999) studied “Economic, aspects of ecology and sustainable agricultural production”. He overviewed the concepts involved in agricultural sustainability. This study particularly referred

29 about indigenous agricultural non-sustainability, exogenous sources for agricultural non-sustainability, externalities and agricultural sustainability, intensity of land use, time, techniques and agricultural sustainability, downward drift in the production function and lack of sustainability. This study concluded that economic systems and biophysical cannot satisfactorily be considered as independent entities.

The sustainability of agricultural techniques depends not only on their biophysical sustainability, but also on their economic viability and social acceptability.

Walkins B and Teasdale J (1999) studied Economic analysis of sustainable agricultural cropping systems for Mid-Atlantic States. They evaluated the profitability and economic risks associated with four cropping systems for the sustainable agriculture Demostration site at

Bestsville, Maryland, USA, for the 1994-97 periods. Each system follows a 2-year rotation of maize in the first year and winter wheat and soyabean in the second year. The four systems are a no-tillage system with recommended fertilizer and herbicide inputs, a no-tillagesystem with crown vetch living mulch; a no-tillage system with winter annual cover crop system is the most profitable. Even though farmers desire a cropping system that maximizes profits, the variability, of profits, or risks, can influence the desirability of the cropping system. In terms of risks, no-tillage is the most preferred using a safety-first criterion for risk-averse farmers. The manure-based system is an organic system and it was not profitable in 1996 and 1997 because of weed

30 infestations. However, the manure-based system shows potential to be the most profitable if some methods can be found to control weeds without resorting to herbicides and its crops can be certified as organic and sold at premium prices.

Szoskiewiez J, et al. (1999) studied sustainable development of the rural area and specific natural and economical conditions of

Wielkopolska region with regard to soils, climate, land use, pollution, agricultural structure, agricultural production, environmental protection and agricultural development. They found that, the potential for development of high quality food production in the region is good.

Economic, social and environmental aspects of sustainable agriculture were studied by Martins (1999). In this he explained about the historic development of discussions regarding sustainability and sustainable agriculture in South America specifically Brazil.

Biggelaar-c-den; Suvedi.M (2000) described the results of a six year study based in a village in Igalaland, Nigeria, designed to compare an external vision of agricultural sustainability with internal perspectives. Data related to three key sets of sustainability variables like cropping intensity, soil fertility and labour were collected through a questionnaire on fertility decline administered in 1997 and 1998, the monitoring of labour inputs for 299 plots planted to a variety of crops and cropping systems, and the tracking plot histories on 6 farms.

Cropping intensities were high, and change was apparent over the study period, for example, a decline in production of maize and an increase in production of Cassava and some legumes. From an external perspective many of the indicators pointed towards unsustainability in agriculture, with the main driving force being individual household circumstance, and particularly the availability of labour. Households were dynamic, with constant immigration and emigration of males and females, but all members of the family saw emigration of youngmales as positive as it adds to household sustainability. Agricultural sustainability was seen as negotiable, and often played off against wider concerns of family sustainability. If stakeholder participation is seen as a fundamental human right rather than just a methodological fix, the the internal perspective of what sustainability means and what should be applied to, needs to be considered and perhaps melded with external visions.

Zbierska J and Szoszkiewiek K (2000) have studied

“Developing sustainable agriculture in Poland during integration with the European Union”. They found that the underdevelopment of environmentally friendly farming in Poland is considered due to the lack of demand and the high quality of products coming from conventional farms. Nevertheless during integration with the European Union the large scale development of agro-environmental programmes is expected as a result of legal requirement as well as support for the

32 programme participants. It is expected that low-input and extensive agricultural systems will be developed, including organic farming.

Santos R.O (2000) studied about “Agriculture and social progress: what sort of public regulation for the 21st century? This study reviews about the place of agricultural activity in the development of future social policy. It remained about traditional models, the division of labour and modern economic activity. It continues with economic theories and their bearing on agriculture, from Adam Smith and

Ricardo with the industrial revolution to the current CAP, and touching on free-market, protectionist, structuralist and Marxist approaches, as well as interventionist approaches connected especially with the CAP.

There has been a tendency in all the cases to regard many of the raw materials of the farmer’s work as inexhaustiable, like air and water, and to fail to take account of the social and environmental aspects of it.

Post-war, technology and the consolidation of holdings, designed to bring rural incomes up to urban levels, has resulted in a drift away from the land and increased urban migration. This also focus on to the more recent emphasis on sustainable agriculture, which demands systems of intergenerational management, with implications for the question of rights in land and their transmission and the shift from the state as provider to the state as facilitator, in the sense that is now trying to scale down direct support while ensuring increased social responsibility in agriculture.

Marshall .A (2000) studied “Sustaining Sustainable Agriculture: the Rise and Fall of the Fund for Rural America”. Sustainable agriculture has lately made significant inroads into US agricultural policy discourse. An examination of the life cycle of the fund for rural

America or FRA provides an example of the complex and contested ways in which the goals of sustainable agriculture are advocated, negotiated and implemented at the level of national policy, in the context of the evolving political and institutional arrangements of the

US agricultural policy.

The fund is emblematic of the both the growing political effectiveness of the alternative agricultural movement and the increasing institutionalization of alternative agriculture representatives in federal agencies. The untimely demise of the fund in the appropriation process, however, illustrates the extent to which certain key spaces within the state remain outside sustainable agriculture’s broadening sphere of influence. This suggests that while some aspects of the movement’s organizing strategy are indeed effective, some may need to be rethought in light of the experience with the FRA.

Jang-heo (2001) studied “Sociological aspects of sustainable agriculture and its practice: the Korean case” which focuses on conceptual aspects of sustainability and sustainable agriculture, historical development of Korean sustainable agricultural development and characteristics of sustainable agricultural farmers and sustainable

34 agricultural product consumer; and the possible convergence of sustainable agriculture and sustainable rural development.

Karpov.A, et al. (2001) discussed the situation in the agricultural sector of the countries of the former Soviet Union about the possible agricultural features, the characteristics of the transitional period, environmental responsibility and sustainable agriculture and the strategies for achieving sustainable agriculture in the Soviet Union countries.

Jitsamguan.T (2001) studied about sustainable agricultural systems for small-scale farmers in Thailand. Agriculture has been found to be a social safety net in Thailand, in terms of food security and as a source of employment, while the country is undergoing a recession as the result of the recent economic crisis. He found that the agricultural sector needs restructuring, in response to this need, to increase the agricultural labour force and utilize farm resources more intensively. Five sustainable farming systems like integrated farming, organic farming, natural farming, agro forestry and new theory farming for small-scale farmers and their profitability are described in this study.

It is shown that there is evidence that sustainable agriculture is not only financially viable, but also enhances environmental quality, for the benefit of farmers and Thai society in general. It concluded that development and assistance policies should be implemented to spur the growth of sustainable agriculture in Thailand.

Mekhalev.s (2002) observed the main aim of modern system of farm management. In his study discussed that, sustainable agriculture has begun to be seen as an alternative to traditional intensive farming practices, which have become associated with a wide range of adverse environmental and socio-economic effects. A farming system may be considered sustainable if it provides the desired level of production, and also provides agronomic, ecological, economic and social stability.

There are many definitions of sustainable agriculture; the different understanding of the concept “sustainable agriculture” that are prevalent in the USA amd Europe are discussed, and programmes aimed at fostering its development in the USA and Europe are outlined.

In Russia, the focus tends to be on the environmental aspect of sustainable agriculture. However the many complex problems affecting

Russian agriculture make the widespread introduction of organic farming principles unlikely, in particular because of the drop in output that would be associated with such a move. Sustainable farming systems must incorporate modern production methods in order to maintain the productivity and competitiveness of farms. Examples cited include the use of biological pest control measures and biological nitrogen fixation.sustainable agricultural systems need to take into account the welfare of rural populations, and should encompass investment in physical infrastructure and social services. This requires significant government support, perhaps in the form of subsidies, market regulation, price support, quotas and compensatory payments.

Factors inhibiting the development of sustainable agriculture in Russia and in developing countries are also discussed.

Pretty.J (2002) in his study on “Social and human capital for sustainable agriculture” described several kinds of social relationships that are particularly important for sustainable agricultural development.

This study also discussed about the elements of sustainable agriculture, the social processes for sustainable innovation and the dependence of sustainable agriculture on new and more varied ways of learning.

Soler.C (2002) presents the results of consumers’ motives for engaging in a local ecological cooperation in the region of Jarna,

Sweden. The result shows that consumers can act as change agents aiming at sustainability only if they are knowledgeable enough to see how their lives are related to the sustainability issue at hand. The respondents in the study buy practically nothing but biodynamic products and other ecological products. They eat vegetarian food to a high degree; they all understand this food as increasing life-quality and well-being. For the respondents, buying biodynamic or other ecological food is better for the environment.

Faridah-Ahmad (2002) in his study on “Sustianble Agriculture

System in Malaysia” focused about the agricultural programmes that aim at high productivity while ensuring conservation and utilization of

37 natural resources on a sustainable basis. Researcher found that introduction of integrated agriculture with main emphasis on agro forestry, mixed farming, rehabilitation of marginal land, recycling of organic wastes, mulching, cover cropping, composting, organic farming and soil and water conservation are some of the measures taken to support sustainable agriculture.

S.Arockiasamy (2003), conducted a study to know the awareness of farmers towards sustainable agriculture, impact of the use of fertilizers, pesiticides and high yielding of variety of seeds on paddy production and to identify whether sustainability is maintained in the kuruvai and in the sambha cultivation seasons. From his study he suggested that the distribution of fertilizers should be carried out properly and in time, efforts should be taken to assess the soil erosion and the wastage of water and farmers should be trained to use chemical fertilizers.

Diwakar M.C and Vishwanath (2003) studied “Integrated pest management for sustainable agriculture in India – An overview” with the objective of future prospects and potential of utilizing biotechnology and molecular biology for the development for sustainable agriculture.

Browwer,F.M. et al. (2004) presented their views on

“Sustainable agriculture in the picture.” Their study provides an overview of the agricultural results achieved in practice in the

Netherlands for the three dimensions of sustainable agriculture, namely economics, ecology and socio cultural.

Lal.R et al. (2004) in their book “Sustainable agriculture and the international rice wheat system” described about the rice-wheat farming system which is the key to food security in South Asia. Authors explain about food security and environmental sustainability in South

Asia. This also include the theme of no-till farming, including historical development, problems and challenges, and opportunities, constraints for future development and social and economic issues.

Karimuna.L (2004) undertook a research with the objective, to assess the potential areas in Tiworo district which are suitable for peanut – a local most beneficial cultivated plant species of the region.

In Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, the increasing population density and the rapid increase in land demand for resettlement result in shifting of agricultural land uses to non-agricultural purposes that gradually causes the declining of potential agricultural land annually.

Consequently, agricultural development increasing land and water shortages forces the farmers to shorten the traditional fallow periods more and more. These factors caused a trend to declining site productivity and increasing food deficiency for the smallholding population.

Therefore, maintaining productivity and creating technological options for development are the most important issues to agricultural research.

Egharevba.R.K and Iweze.F.A (2004) conducted a study on

“Sustainable agriculture and rural women: Crop production and accompanied health hazards on women farmers in six rural communities in Edo state Nigeria.” The farming activities of women in six rural communities of three local government council areas were investigated. These included land preparation, planning, crop management practices, harvesting, processing and marketing. The results revealed that health problems experienced by women included muscular fatigues five, dermatitis, migraines, respiratory diseases, impaired vision and hearing as a result of exposure to expreme temperature use of chemicals, fertilizers dusts and insect bites. It is advocated that agricultural policies in developing countries should focus on health hazards of rural women so that ergonomic measures could be taken if crop production through female participation is to be enhanced.

Lopez.M.V et al. (2004) conducted a study to determine the main constraints in rice-based farming systems, their causes and adverse effects. They found two constraints in the study area, they were flooding and saline water intrusion caused by various biophysical factors. The constraints resulted in interrelated problems of low yield

40 and crop intensity, high risk of failure, seasonal availability of employment, high cost of production, and ultimately in low income to farmers. To overcome constraints, alleviate problems and increase potentials in rice-based farming systems, farmers evolved the following adaptive strategies empoldering; installation of peripheral nets around the farm; pumping out of water from the rice fields; raising adaptable aquatic species of animals; utilization of locally available biological resources and high level of farmer to farmer communication.

Wicheins.D (2004) conducted a study on “The impact of public policies on the sustainability of rice and wheat production on the Indo-

Gangetic plains.” This study describes how subsidy programmes implemented to motivate adoption of green revolution technologies use of inputs and the resource degradation that may be causing the declining rates of growth in crop yields in the indo-gangetic plains. The impressive growth rates in rice and wheat yields achieved in Asia during the 1960s and 1970s were not maintained in the 1980s and

1990s. Cereal yields are still increasing, but the rates of increase have slowed and many farmers are applying larger amounts of purchased inputs to maintain and extend earlier gains in productivity.

Kukua.S and Zarychta.M (2004) conducted a study on

“Sustainable agricultural production.” According to them sustainable agriculture production may be defined as a farming system where the production is likely to increase constantly and environmental safety is

41 maintained. The implementation of this farming system must be accompanied by an application of the principles of good agricultural practice based on the indicators of agricultural production development such as soil fertility, proper selection of plant species and varieties, fertilizer application and plant protection. If the individual components of crop production technology are implemented properly, it can be combined with socioeconomic conditions of sustainable agriculture.

However, the organization-economic conditions of polish agriculture seem to considerably limit the application of most of the above- mentioned principles. Therefore, they argued that if the individual components of crop production technology are implemented properly, it can be combined with socio-economic conditions of sustainable agriculture.

Udomsade.J et al. (2005) studied “The development of sustainable agriculture system in Huay Raeng-Klong Feet watershed of

Trad province.” This study surveyed the socio-economic factors relevant to the development of a sustainable agriculture system in

Huay Raeng-Klong Feet watershed in Trad province, Thailand and determined the need for appropriate technology and the suitable forms of technology transfer in the area. Totally 182 respondents were surveyed. In this study many agricultural problems like low and unstable prices of agricultural products, high costs, lack of knowledge in agriculture, agriculture, agricultural land and marketing. The major

42 finding of this study is majority of the farmers expressed a need for an agroforestry training course.

Bessaoud-o et.al, (2005) studied Sustainable rural development in the Mediterranean. The objective of the study is to know the processes that are observed as playing a major role in the structuring of the Mediterranean rural world. They concentrated on population trends, rural economy and social proportions, agricultural and rural policies, sustainable development policies, and changes in systems of governance in the rural world.

Anderson,R.L (2005) studied “Improving sustainability of cropping systems in the Central Great Plains. He concentrated in crop rotations of grow corn, millet or sunflower. Rotations are changing in the semiarid Central Great Plains because of no-till systems and crop residue management. With improved precipitation storage in soil, producers grow corn, proso millet or sunflower in sequence with winter wheat and fallow. A long-term cropping systems study was started at

Akron, Colorado in 1990 to evaluate rotations that minimize frequency of fallow. After 10 years, it was examined ecological trends associated with soil structure, nutrient cycling and pest management as affected by rotations. Soil structure and nutrient cycling improved with continuous cropping, whereas, arranging winter and summer annual crops in a cycle-of-four improved pest management. Producers are seeking rotations that not only are economical, but also improve soil

43 quality; they view fallow and tillage as detriments to long-term sustainability.

V.G.Thomas and P.G.Kevana (2005) argued that sustainable agriculture must derive from applied ecology, especially the principle of the regulation of the abundance and distribution of species in space and time. Inter-specific competition in natural ecosystems has its counterparts in agriculture, designed to divert greater amounts of energy, nutrients, and water into crops. The natural ecosystems select for a diversity of species in communities, recent agriculture has minimized diversity in favour of vulnerable monocultures. Such systems show intrinsically less stability and resilience to perturbations.

Some kinds of crop rotation resemble ecological succession in that one crop prepares the land for successive crop production. The rotations enhance soil organic processes such as decomposition and material cycling, build a nutrient capital to sustain later crop growth, and reduce the intensity of pest buildup.

Pretty.J (2005) explained about the changes necessary for pest and pesticide management towards a more sustainable agriculture. The researcher reviewed pesticide use and the environment, presented the health impacts of pesticides also provided a comprehensive analysis of the full cost of pesticides and analysed a variety of approaches for low-to-zero-pesticide use in tropical agro ecosystem particularly in Africa.

Topal, R.S. (2005) outlined measures to eradicate poverty, change the unsustainable patterns of consumption and production and protect and manage the natural resources based in his study

“sustainable agriculture and social responsibility”. To remove poverty intersections between biodiversity and sustainable agriculture must be considered. In this study SRI method can be considered as a method of intersections between biodiversity and sustainable agriculture.

D-haeze.-D, et al. (2005) concentrated on environmental and socio-economic impacts of institutional reforms on the agricultural sector of Vietnam. They described the reasons for the quick expansion and investigate the consequences in ecological and social terms. This is based on a large-scale natural resources inventory, land suitability analysis for robusta coffee and participatory rural appraisal combined with secondary statistical records from DakGam commune.

Carolan.M.S (2005) studied, “Barriers to the adoption of sustainable agriculture on rented land; an examination of contesting social fields.” This study was conducted in USA while over half of the cropland is rented; interest in land tenancy within sociological circles has been sporadic at best. So, the research has been conducted to investigate the effect that the rental relationship upon the various aspects of rural life. He examined the social dynamics among landlords, tenants and agricultural agency professionals to better

45 understand how those dynamics affect the adoption of sustainable agricultural methods on rented land. Three phases of data collection personal interviews, focus groups, and in-depth examination was adopted to collect data. Through this study researcher argued that multiple social fields make up the social body of agricultural production, leading to contestation and field reconstruction. It helps to promote a more widespread utilization of sustainable agricultural practices on rented land. Therefore, researcher suggests options for developing rotations with continuous cropping. Crop diversity and sequencing in conjunction with residue management and no-till may provide advantages that minimize need for fallow in risk management.

Mark Lubell and Lauren Shaw (2009) studied “The evolution of

Local Partnerships for sustainable agriculture.” This study analyses the evolution and effectiveness of the sustainable Winegrowing Program in

Lodi, California. Three different theories like diffusion of innovation, cultural change and social capital of grower behavior suggest complementary reasons for the effectiveness of sustainability partnerships.

Horne J.E. and Mc Dermott M. (2009) examined the far- reaching problems inherent in industrial agriculture and introduce an alternative system that gives more consideration to future generations.

It synthesizes the goals of sustainable agriculture into eight comprehensive steps like create and conserve healthy soil, conserve

46 water and protect its quality, manage organic wastes to avoid pollution, select plants and animals adapted to the environment, encourage biodiversity, manage pests with minimal environmental impact, conserve non-renewable energy resources, and increase profitability and reduce risk.

Salehin MM et al. (2010) studied ‘Socioeconomic changes of farmers due to adoption of rice production technologies in selected areas of Sherpur district’ with the aim to find out the changes occurred in different aspects of socioeconomic conditions of the farmers due to adoption of rice production technologies. This study also found a significant increase in annual income, food consumption expenditure, housing environment and family status of the farmers.

William Lockeretz and Molly D.Anderson (2011) studied involvement of farmers in sustainable agriculture. This study is an appropriate mix of applied versus basic, short-term versus long-term, and component-level versus system-level studies.

Santhakumar V (2011) conducted a research on sustainable agriculture in wet-tropical Kerala. A number of farmers in Kerala today practice innovative methods of sustainable agriculture. As they constantly interact with their agricultural system, their understanding is more holistic. Since agriculture directly contributes to their life, they can value the non-monetary benefits offered by the system. However, the

47 generalization based on these experiments is very problematic. The size of the farm is an important factor.

Leo Horrigan et al. (2011) conducted a study on ‘How sustainable agriculture can address the environmental and human health harms of industrial agriculture.’ They outline the environmental and human health problems associated with current food production practices and discuss how these systems could be made more sustainable.

Chandrasekharnemani (2012) analysed about ‘Adaptive sustainable agriculture: crop system intensification in Andhra Pradesh’.

Along with the soil and water conservation programmes, promotion of agricultural techniques and practices is equally important in sustaining the livelihoods of the people in the long term. The objective of adaptive sustainable development approach is to promote low external inputs, increase land productivity, use of indigenous seeds, and reduce cost of cultivation. This involves promotion of agricultural demonstration plots, vermin-compost pits, training farmers on better practices of transplantation, crop geometry, soil and manure preparation, correct tillage operations, seed treatment, better sowing methods etc.. The idea and purpose is to promote resilient, adaptive and sustainable agricultural practices and thinking that generate optimum output per drop of water.

2.1.2 LITERATURE RELATING TO SRI METHOD OF PADDY

PRODUCTION

Ramasamy et al. (1997) studied “The role of cytokinins, growth harmone regulating the cell division in plants.” The high yields with SRI method were attributable in general terms to the shortened phyllocrans

-the greater number of growth cycles completed before anthesis which reflects an accelerated rate of cell division and accelerated biological clock.

Joelibarison (1998) conducted pull test regarding root growth of

SRI cultivated plants with normal cultivated plants. He observed that under SRI conditions single rice plant requires 53 kgs of force when compared with normal conditional rice plant clump of 3 plants which required 28 kgs of force.

Uphoff and Fernandes (2002) compiled the main findings and comments reported from SRI adopted countries. Specific advantages mentioned were increased yield levels of 4 – 8 tonnes per hectare, increased returns to labour and environmental benefits, while saving most of the resources. But, requirement of more labour and seedling mortality were reported to be the constraints for SRI method.

Anthofer (2004) studied “The performance of SRI cultivation in

Cambodia” and found that SRI increased yield level from 1629kg per

49 ha to 2289 kg per ha (41%), while increasing both land and labour productivity and lowering the expenditure on seeds and fertilizers. The per hectare gross margin of SRI was $120 as against $ 209 in conventional method (74%). Economic risk was also less in SRI to achieve same desired per hectare gross margin than that in conventional method.

Reddy et al. (2005), while comparing the economics of normal rice and SRI method rice found that the total operations cost of SRI method of rice (Rs.9456.29/acre) was higher than the total operational cost of normal rice (Rs.8235.72/acre). However, a net return per acre was high in the case of SRI method of rice (Rs.7805/acre) than the normal rice (Rs.5915/acre).

The major attributing factor for the high operational cost in SRI method of rice was human labour. The study revealed that the higher total operational costs were compensating the yield advantage of SRI method of rice. Nevertheless, SRI method of rice reduced the water requirement, which was not accountable in the free-regime of power supply to agriculture.

Rajendra (2005) studied “The performance of SRI of Bansahan variety in Magan District, Nepal.” The per hectare yield of SRI was 8.5 tonnes as against 4 tonnes of traditional method. He observed that SRI

50 required less seed rate (5-10 kg) and small quantities of water to achieve the mentioned yield level.

Erika Styger et al. (2011) studied “The system of rice intensification as a sustainable agricultural innovation: Introducing, adapting and scaling up a system of rice intensification practices in the

Timbuktu region of mali”, with the objectives of the technical adaptation of SRI practices to the Timbuktu environment, farmer’s and technicians’ know-how of the SRI technocal requirements, collaboration with the government extension and research agencies and the funding level in Timbuktu. The number of SRI farmers evolved from 450 farmers from year 1 to 3. Most of the farmers achieving highly superior yields and income compared to their current system. SRI practice have induced a dramatic shift in the perception and understanding of how to achieve sustainable and productive rice cropping systems, stimulating farmers and technicians to initiate a series of innovations inspired by the SRI system.

2.1.3 LITERATURE RELATING TO COST AND RETURN

STRUCTURE

Shukla (1969) has categorized cost into cost A1, cost A2, cost

B and cost C. Following are the items included under each of them cost

A1, includes the cost of seeds, manures and fertilizers, plant protection, live stock expenses, hired human labour, irrigation charges, land revenue, interest on working capital, depreciation of fixed assets and other miscellaneous expenses. Cost A2 = Cost A1 + rent paid for leased inland. Cost B, includes cost A2+ rental value of owned land + interest on fixed capital minus land revenue on owned land. Cost C includes CostB+imputed value of family labour.

Singh and Govindaralu (1979), in their study, “New

Technology of paddy yield: Adoption and yield differentials” found that the cost of production and cost-output ratios revealed the cultivation of high-yielding varieties to be more economical than the local varieties.

In the cost structure, operating cost shared for about 3/4th of the total cost. Labour followed by the fertilizer input was the most important item of cost in all the taluks.

Low.A.R.C (1994) studied “Environmental and economic dilemmas for farm-households in Africa: when ‘low-input sustainable agriculture’ translates to ‘high-cost unsustainable livehoods’. From his

52 study it is understood that the change to more environmentally sustainable farming methods will come about by altering incentives for using input combinations. And the promotion of sustainable agriculture is possible through the introduction of new technology, or changing price-rations or regulations.

Matsumoto.N and Nohguchi.R (2003) studied “Characteristics and significance of systematization in a sustainable agriculture producing district”. They found that Ayo- Cho in Miyazaki prefecture is an example of a village with successful environmental agriculture. This village produces a great variety of farm products, but is hampered by high trading costs and expenses for research and investments; the

Bokashi centre aims to adjust the demand supply gap in both products and production factors. It is the place for farmers to store and exchange their knowledge and technology.

Solis.D and Browo-Ureta.B.E. (2005) studied “Economics and

Financial sustainability of private agricultural extension in E1 Salvador”.

The main objective is to evaluate the sustainability of the Farm

Management Centre (FMC) model as a specific private agricultural extension option in E1 salvador. To pursue this objective, an extent economic and financial cost-benefit analysis based on a multi period linear programming model is performed. The general results of this study suggest that a combination of better farm prices reallocation of resources, and crop diversification, which would be promoted by an

FMC can lead to an increase in farm level profits that is sufficient to

53 cover the operation of a private farm management centre which also generating net gains in household income. It is pointed out that public support is crucial as an initial injection to get the FMCs started.

Moreover, this public support could help to break the inertia typically shown by peasant farmers in getting incolved in new endeavours.

Kishore (2009) attempted to calculate the external cost resulting from pest resistance to pesticide using a simulation model. He indicated that annual external cost (damage to non-cotton crops in

Guntur and all crops in other potentially effected districts), could be as high as Rs.66.8 Crores which implies an increase in the existing cost of cotton cultivation by 52 per cent and would require an offsetting price increase of about 41 per cent. The annual expected value of catastrophic losses due to “complete crop failure” would be about

Rs.13 Crores with an increase in the cost of cultivation of cotton almost ten per cent.

Tripathi (2009) studied “the Economics of cabbage production in high-hills of Uttar Pradesh.” The study found that operational and commercial costs were Rs.2,215 and Rs.7,094/ha and labour cost accounted for nearly 74% of the total cost, whereas materials cost was about 16% in cabbage production. The net returns received from cabbage production were Rs.23,705, Rs.23,225 and Rs.18,826/ha

Over costs ‘A’,’B’ and ‘C’ respectively. The net returns were highest on the largest size group of farms. The benefit: cost ratio was the highest on 0.4-0.8 ha size group on operational cost, whereas over cost ‘C’ it

54 was the highest on the largest size group of farms. The cost (per quintal) of production of cabbage was most economic on the largest size group. All the input resources showed significant positive impact on crop yield. The return from cabbage cultivation can be increased through increased use of fertilizer, manure, bullock labour, human labout and more area under this crop.

Engindeniz (2009) studied the economic analysis of pesticide use on processing tomato in Turkey. This study analysed the economics of pesticide use on processing tomatoes grown in Torbali-

Izmir to determine the problems of pesticide use. The average area of tomato production was 3.81 ha with 74341 kg ha-1. The average cost of tomato production was $3410 ha-1. Gross margin and net profit were calculated to be $2833 and $1794 ha-1 respectively. The average usages per hectare of active ingredient of insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and acaricides were determine to be 228,1367,1007 and 9 g respectively. Total pesticide and pesticide application costs were $141 ha-1, which were 5.9% of variable costs and 4.1% of total costs, respectively. The economic threshold for pesticide use was determined to be 2014 kg ha-1.

Seal and Baranowski (2010) studied “The Economic use of pesticides in Ukraine.” The study found that the total value of agricultural production in the Ukraine amounted to $ 30 billion,

55 equivalent ot 30% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The annual cost of pesticide inputs was estimated to be $200-225 million.

Herbicides and insecticides accounted for approximately 50% and 30% of pesticide use, respectively.

Tzouvelekas et al. (2010) studied “The Economic returns of pesticide use in conventional and organi olive-growing farms in Crete,

Greece.” The economic returns of pest control inputs against olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) for a sample of conventional and organic olive- growing farms in Western Crete, Greece. The proposed methodology captures both the biological and economic role of pesticides and permits indirect estimation of crop damage. The study found that the economic returns of pesticide use are significant and should be taken into account when analyzing their productivity.

Demircan and Ylmaz (2010) analysed the pesticide use in apple production in Isparta, Turkey. The study revealed that average usage of pesticide was 2226 g per decare as an active ingredient. The percentage of used pesticides is 74.32, 23.43 and 2.25% for fungicide, insecticide and acaricides used 5.71-186%, 14.71-116.67% and 12.00-

105.26% more than the recommended dosages, respectively. In the research area, it was calculated that 48.37% of average pesticide cost per decare was due to the overuse of pesticides in apple production. It

56 was found out that proportion of plant protection cost in total production cost and variable costs were 21.64 and 29.83% respectively.

Dasgupta et al. (2010) in a survey conducted on rice, potato, bean, eggplant, cabbage, sugarcane and mango growing farmers in

Bangladesh found that over 47% of farmers were found to be overusing pesticides. With only 4% of farmers formally trained in pesticide use of handling, and over 87% openly admitting to using little or no protective measures while applying pesticides, overuse was initially modeled using a three-equation, trivariate probit framework with health effects and misperception of pesticide risk as endogenous dummy variables. Significance tests revealed that health and misperception were not endogenous to overuse, suggesting a bivariate probit model for health effects and misperception and a separate, probit model for overuse.

2.1.4 LITERATURE RELATING TO PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY

Sharma (1964), in his study “Impact of selected aspects of labour and land on per acre productivity”, observed wider variation in productivity per acre and also in human labour in respect of wheat and millet-growing districts as compared to rice growing areas. He fitted a linear production function and analysed the impact of nine independent variables on productivity. He also observed that in predominantly rice-

57 growing districts, other factors remaining constant, unit increase in human labout per acre tended to reduce marginal labour productivity.

Jumankar (1972) analysed the profit maximization behavior and competitive behaviour using Cobb-Douglas profit function with input demand equation. The study was conducted in Thanjore district of

Tamilnadu during 1969-70. Farm management studies data were used.

The study revealed the non-profit maximizing behavior of Indian farmers under competitive conditions. Both small and large farmers were not found to operate in the same market.

I.J.Singh et al. (1974) in their study, “Production functions for commercial crops in Haryana”, estimated the marginal value productivity of inputs. They applied the Cobb-Douglas of production function and concluded that the marginal products of irrigation and human labour for cotton, fertilizers and irrigation for sugarcane and human labour for oilseeds were negative.

Haridoss (1997) in his study on “Sugarcane cultivation – An econometric analysis” concluded that the reforms per acre and net income of small farmers were higher than those of large farmers. Small farmers incurred higher cost of production and obtained larger yields per acre than large farmers. The correlation coefficient between two independent variable is greater than 0.8. The inter correlation among

58 the independent variables is less than R that is, coefficient of multiple correlation than the variations in the dependent variables can be better explained by the independent variable included in agricultural production functions and do not obstruct their use in further analysis.

Sharma B L and Bhardwaj P (1998) discussed about sustainable agricultural development in India. This study mainly focused about the concept of sustainable agriculture, plants and the ecosystem, the present scenario of land potentiality, sustainability of agricultural development.

Piekut K et al. (1999) studied sustainable development of the rural areas and the natural and economic specificity of the Middle-

Eastern Region. They outlined the main natural, agricultural, social and economic conditions of the Middle Eastern Region of Poland. They also assessed agricultural production factors such as private farm size structure, share of farms, herd size structure and agricultural production growth.

Zdruli P and Eswaran H (1999) studied the various determinants of sustainable agriculture in the southern coastal plains of

Albania. The Southern Coastal plains consist of flat to undulating land bordered on the eastern side by low hills. On the seaward side, depressions with swamps and marshes which have been drained and

59 reclaimed in the past, are present. This is the major agricultural area of the country endowed with good soils and climate and with a tradition of good land use. Since the beginning of this decade, the centrally controlled system of agriculture has been transformed to private ownership of land. Sustainable agriculture depends on a good match between land quality and land use, with socioeconomic and political factors of the region and the country largely determining the latter.

Degradation and unsustainability results when there is a mismatch.

Kumm-K.T (2001) in his study “Towards Sustainable Swedish

Agriculture”, made the research on how to make agriculture sustainable with regard to production capacity, environment and profitability. A future development of conventional agriculture and a future development of organic agriculture were studied. Future conventional achieves the production and profitability goals as well as the goal of less nitrogen pollution and increased production capacity.

The optimal solution is a “unified vision” consisting of most cereal, oilseed, root crop, pig and poultry production with future conventional technology and most hay, milk and beef production with future organic technology.

Yadav,L.S. (2002) studied “Appropriate mechanization for sustainable agriculture in North East India”. Under this study he proved that introduction of appropriate mechanization to various types of land could provide sustainability to agriculture. The small tractor, medium

60 size tractor, bullocks and He-buffaloes were found suitable for agriculture.

Mishra, S.K. (2002) reviewed “Production and productivity of

Indian agriculture.” He examined the food problem in India and the concerns of the government to grow more food. In 1961, the Ford

Foundation began an Intensive Agriculture District Programme, which increased the use of high yielding varieties of seeds and the period became known as the Green Revolution. Policy makers had to encourage farmers to adopt new technology with the use of HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and modern tools and implements. The emphasis was given to providing adequate finance, irrigation, insurance facilities and between marketing facilities.

Ku-yeunechung Im-III Bin, et.al., (2002) studied about different weed management strategies to maintain high productivity agricultural ecology and labour saving. They also enumerate factors to be considered in the management of weeds for sustainable agriculture. It includes the cultivation methods, which maximize competition ability of crops and minimize competition ability of weeds.

Morse,S. McNamara.N (2004) studied “Promoting sustainability: efficacy and adoption of tobacco-based insecticides in

Nigeria”. The promotion of technologies seen to be aiding in the attainment of agricultural sustainability has been popular among

Northern-based development donors for many years. One of these, botanical insecticides have been a particular favourite as they are equated with being natural and hence less damaging to human health and the environment. This study includes 135 farmers who adopted the toabacco insecticide programme. The major finding of this study is yield benefits from using the insecticide were nearly always positive and statistically significant. Adoption of new method may create fear to the farmers.

Obidiegwu.J.E. and Muoneke.C.O. (2004) carried out research using ten pepper genotypes to understand the nature of interaction among some morphological traits. Superior yield was recorded with

PBS 401 (167.58 g) and PBC 398 (155.40 g) to other genotypes.

Linear regression coefficient revealed that number of branches contributed significantly to fruit yield.

B.S.Chandel (2007), works on measuring sustainability of oilseed production using total factor productivity approach. The total factor productivity index is computed as the ratio of aggregate output index to the aggregate input index. Tournquist-Theil index was used for data on outputs and inputs of different oilseeds crops in major oilseeds growing states of India. This study concluded that a sustainable production has a non-negative trend over time in total factor productivity.

Venkatesa Palanichamy et.al, (2010) in their study on

“Production and Marketing of Alfalta: An Economic Analysis” found that the cost of production of Alfalfa per hectare worked out to be Rs.24,428 in which variable cost and fixed cost accounted for Rs.19,386 and

Rs.5,042 respectivley. Among the components of variable costs human labour accounted for 45.85 percent of the total variable costs.

Based on the above criteria the choice of parameters was made to estimate returns to scale, marginal value productivities and inter- regional comparison of marginal productivities. In order to test the existence of muti-collinearity the zero order correlation matrices were to be found for all explanatory variables. The high correlation between the independent variable is found. In such models it might bring down the explanatory ability of the independent variables. The problems of multi-collinearity are found to exist.

Hiremath et al. (2010) in their study on “Resource use efficiency in lime orchards” applied the Cob-Douglas type of production functions. The regression co-efficient for land was 0.71 in medium orchards and it was 1.57 in large orchards this was statistically significant at one per cent level.

The regression co-efficient of land for small orchard was 0.31 but non-significance regression co-efficient of labour was non-

63 significant in small and large orchards whereas in medium orchards it was 0.66 and significant at 5% level. There was no space for increasing the production of time by increasing plant protection chemicals in small sized group and by increasing farm yard manure in large sized group.

Research gap

Most of studies in the field of sustainable agriculture have focused on cropping pattern, marketing policy, basic concepts, funding for improving sustainable agriculture, characteristics of sustainable agriculture, profitability and economic risks associated with agriculture.

No research has been found that surveyed the effectiveness of conventional and SRI method based on level of satisfaction of farmers.

Hence, this research satisfies this gap. And from the literature studies, it is also understood that in the field of sustainable agriculture researches were very limited in India especially in Tamilnadu and most particularly in Thanjavur district even though it is the rice bowl of this state. Due to this reason the researchers made an attempt to study the cost-return structure and yield difference between conventional and

SRI method in Thanjavur district.

2.2 DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS AND VARIABLES

In this part of study, researcher provides important definitions concepts and variables used in the study.

2.2. A DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTS

The following are the few concepts used in the study.

2.2. A1 DEFINITIONS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

American Society of Agronomy (1989) “A sustainable agriculture is one that, over the long term, enhances environmental quality and the resource base on which agriculture depends; provides for basic human food and fiber need; is economically viable; and enhances the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.”

Sustainable agriculture is more frequently defined utilizing its three main aims: environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity (Horrigan et al. 2002). Despite these different goals, each must be pursued at the same time in order to advance sustainability, Ikerd et al. explains this requirement of the concept with the following statement: “All three are necessary and none alone is sufficient.”

At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the UN Food and

Agriculture Organization defined “Sustainable agriculture and rural development” as follows:

‘Sustainable development is the management and conservation of the natural resource base and the orientation of technological and institutional change in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for present and future generation. Such sustainable development conserves land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable’.

In 1995 FAO went on to define sustainable agriculture and rural development more specifically as a process that meets the following criteria:

1. Ensures that the basic nutritional requirements of present and future generations, qualitatively and quantitatively, are met while providing a number of other agricultural products.

2. Provides durable employment, sufficient income, and decent living and working conditions for all those engaged in agricultural production.

3. Maintains and, where possible, enhances the productive capacity of the natural resource base as a whole, and the regenerative capacity of renewable resources, without disrupting the functioning of basic ecological cycles and natural balances, destroying the socio-

66 cultural attributes of rural communities or causing contamination of the environment, and

4. Reduces the vulnerability of the agricultural sector to adverse natural and socio-economic factors and other risks, and strengthens self-reliance.

2.2. A2 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE – MAJOR CONCEPTS

Today, sustainable farming practices commonly include: crop rotations that mitigate weeds, disease, insect and other pest problems; provide alternative sources of soil nitrogen; reduce soil erosion; and reduce risk of water contamination by agricultural chemicals, pest control strategies that are not harmful to natural systems, farmers, their neighbors, or consumers. This includes integrated pest management techniques that reduce the need for pesticides by practices such as scouting, use of resistant cultivars, timing of planting, and biological pest controls, increased mechanical/biological weed control; more soil and water conservation practices; and strategic use of animal and green manures, use of natural or synthetic inputs in a way that poses no significant hazard to man, animals, or the environment.

Sustainability rests on the principle that must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, and it integrates three main goals like environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic

equity. The concept of sustainable agriculture is shown through the

following figure 2.1.

Figure – 2.1

CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMIC ECONOMIC HEALTH PROFITABILITY EQUITY

Sustainable agriculture is a model of social and economic

organization based on an equitable and participatory vision of

development which recognizes the environment and natural resources

as the foundation of economic activity. Agriculture is sustainable when

it is ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just, culturally

appropriate and based on a holistic scientific approach.

It is a whole systems approach to food, feed and other fiber

production that balances environmental soundness, social equity, and

economic viability among all sectors of the public, including

68 international and intergenerational peoples. Sustainable agro ecosystems helps to maintain their natural resource base, rely on minimum artificial inputs from outside the farm system, manage pests and diseases through internal regulating mechanisms and recover from the disturbances caused by cultivation and harvest.

Economic sustainability

In order to be truly sustainable, a farm must be economically profitable. Sustainable agriculture can improve the economic viability of a farm in a number of ways. In the short term, improving soil management and crop rotation can increase yields while, in both the medium and long term, improved soil quality and water availability, as well as other environmental benefits from sustainable practices, may raise the value of the farm and provide for payments for environmental services. Economic viability can also be achieved through reducing machinery, chemical fertilizer and pesticide costs depending on the specific characteristics of the production system.

Environmental sustainability

Sustainable agriculture is frequently described as ecologically sound practices that has little to zero adverse effect on natural eco systems, or even enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends. Typically this is achieved through protecting, recycling, replacing and

69 maintaining the natural resource base such as land, water, biodiversity and wildlife that contribute towards conservation of natural capital.

Synthetic fertilizers can be used to supplement natural inputs, as needed. Under sustainable agriculture, synthetic chemicals known to harm soil organisms, soil structure and biodiversity are avoided or reduced to minimum use.

Social Sustainability

Social sustainability relates to the quality of life of those who work and live on the farm, as well as those in the surrounding communities. It includes ensuring equitable revenue or returns to different stakeholders of the agricultural production chain. In the context of high unemployment, sustainable agriculture can promote sharing of agricultural value added by more members of the community through more extensive use of available labour, at least for some techniques, thus contributing to social justice and cohesion. Fair treatment of workers and choosing to purchase supplies locally rather than from more distant markets are also elements of social sustainability.

Though there are three principles separately in sustainable agriculture, they are not mutually exclusive. Sustainable agriculture meets environmental, economic and social objectives simultaneously.

In many cases, sustainable agriculture practices are not new, but draw

70 on traditional knowledge and practices, many of which have now been positively evaluated by scientific methods.

2.2. A3 CROPPING PATTERN

Cropping pattern has been defined as the proportion of area under different crops at a particular period of time. A change in the cropping pattern means a change in the proportion of area under different crops. Cropping system goes throughout the year in India, provided water is available.

2.2. A4 SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION

System of Rice Intensification – a method of rice production

2.2. A5 COST OF CULTIVATION

Cost of production of any crop livestock product is the sum total of several components of cost. Accurate measurements of all the components of costs is thus of crucial importance for correct assessment of cost of production of any commodity.

Cost incurred on a farm can be classified as cash cost or non- cash cost. Cash costs are the costs for which farmer spends money for acquisition of material inputs like seeds, fertilizer, chemicals or labour inputs like hired labour. On the other hand, non-cash costs are attributable to items of cost, which do not require spending money.

These may be items of cost like family labour, payments made in kind, home grown seeds, manure, exchange labour, depreciation, interest on operating capital.

In the study Cost A and Cost C concepts were used. Cost A refers to expenses incurred on Human labour, Bullock labour,

Chemical fertilizer, Pesticide, Seed cost, Farm manure, Cost of irrigation and Interest on working capital; and Cost C include Rent,

Interest on fixed capital excluding land revenue, losses and taxes, depreciation of implements and machinery.

2.2. A6 FARM HOUSEHOLD

A household can be defined as a group of people who share food regularly, and usually live in the same house or group of houses.

A household is classified as farm household if it possess some land and if at least one of its member is engaged in agricultural activities.

For the purpose of economic analysis, the farm household is the sum of all the productive activities of its members, remunerated and unremunerated. Capital formation is work and investment made to increase production in future years. In this study household refer the respondents included in the study.

2.2. B VARIABLES USED IN THE STUDY

The following variables were used in the study to estimate net income in conventional method and SRI method

2.2. B1 Land

To include the share of land in the stock flow the existing rental value of the owned land in the study area was considered. For leased in land, the actual rent payable was taken into account.

2.2. B2 Human Labour

Human labour was measured in mandays for 8 hours of work for each. All the permanent, family and hired labour were considered alike and valued at existing wage rate.

2.2. B3 Bullock Labour

The prevailing wage rates charged for both owned and hired bullock power in the study area were considered.

2.2. B4 Irrigation

Consumption of electricity oil was calculated at purchased price.

2.2. B5 Seeds

Actual purchase cost of seed was considered. In the case of produced seed it was valued at market price.

2.2. B6 Manures, Fertilizers, Pesticides and Weedicides

These were valued at purchase cost. In the case of owned manure, market value was taken into account.

2.2. B7 Depreciation

It was calculated by straight line method.

2.2. B8 Interest on fixed capital and working capital

Interest on fixed capital was worked out at 11% per annum and

Interest on working capital was worked out at 12% per annum.

2.2. B9 Land Revenue, cess and other taxes

The actual payments were considered.

2.2. B10 Yield per acre

It refers production of paddy during 2010-11 in an acre.

2.2. B11 Net Income

Net income is the difference between Yield and Cost of

production in an acre.

CHAPTER III PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA AND THE RESPONDENTS’ PROFILE

The physical scenario of the place has reflected the economic and social behaviour of the people and hence an attempt is being made to present a brief profile of the study area and analyse the characteristics of the sample farmers.

3.1 PROFILE OF THE STUDY AREA

The details of the study regarding location of the area, soil conditions, agro-climatic conditions cropping pattern, population and infra-structural facilities of Thanjavur District and the selected taluk are discussed.

3.1.1 DISTRICT PROFILE

Thanjavur being the foremost district of the Cauvery delta occupies an important position in the agricultural map of Tamil Nadu state. Since its formation, the district is called as “The rice bowl of

Tamil Nadu.” It was bifurcated and a new district named Nagapattinam was formed during 1993. Nagapattinam district was again bifurcated into Nagapattinam and Thiruvarur districts during 1997. Thus, the

75 erstwhile district of Thanjavur had been trifurcated into Thanjavur,

Nagapattinum and Thiruvarur districts.

This district stands unique from time immemorial for its agricultural activities and is rightly acclaimed as the Granary of the

South India Iying in the deltaic region of the famous river Cauvery and criss-crossed by lengthy network of irrigation canals. This coastal district abounds in green paddy fields, tall coconut groves, vast gardens of mango and plantain trees and other verdant vegetation.

Various testimonials available in the ancient Tamil literature referring to the Cauvery as possessing the sanctity of the Ganges in conformity with the legendry and mythological stories attributed to its divine origin, rightly pointed out why the river is populatly called the Mother Cauvery and its sacredness is evident from ‘Kaviri-Thala-Puranam’.

The river has also been named as ‘Ponni’ because it is yielding

‘pon’-Gold in the form of paddy. That is why it is said with pride that every iota of the earth of Thanjavur is equal to an iota of gold. The tillers in Tamil literature have been rightly called as

‘Kauvirippudhalvargal’, the sons of the Cauvery, as they alone are worthy of this title for the rich production of golden grains in this fertile soil.

Thanjavur attained prominence under the Chola rulers who were paramount in South India during 9th to 12th centuries. They were not only excellent rulers but also mighty builders, who erected a large number of exquisite temples in their empire, some of which constitute the finest specimens of architecture. Hence the district stands distinguished in the state even in its large number of temples, whose legends extend deep into early historic times.

Thanjavur District lies in the East Coast of Tamilnadu. It is situated between 9 50’ and 11 25’ of the northern latitude and 78 45’ and 70 25’ of the Eastern longitude. It extends to an area of 3396.57 sq.kms. The District is bounded on the north by the coloroon which separate it from Perambalur and Tiruchirappalli districts, and on the

East it is bounded by the Thiruvarur and Nagapattinam districts, and on the South by the Palk Strait and on the West by Pudukkottai and

Thiruchirappalli districts.

The district can be divided into two distinct divisions, viz., the deltaic region, non-deltaic region or the upland area. The deltatic region covers the whole northern and eastern portions of the district where the Cauvery with its wide network of branches irrigate more than half of the district. It comprises the whole of Kumbakonam taluk and parts of Thanjavur, Papanasam taluks. The rest of the southern and western areas of the district are non-deltaic or upland region, a good

77 portion of upland regions which was dry has now been brought under irrigation with the help of Grand Anaicut canal, fed by the Cauvery-

Mettur Project and by extension of the Vadavar River. Non-deltaic region is also devoid of hills and slopes gradually seawards.

3.1.1a Population of Thanjavur District

As per the census 2001, Thanjavur district has a total population of about 22.16 lakhs, out of which about 66 percent live in rural areas and the rest live in urban areas. In 2011 the total population was 24.06 lakhs of which 15.52 lakhs people belong to rural area. The details are furnished in following table 3.1.

TABLE - 3.1

POPULATION IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (IN NUMBERS) Year Particulars 2001 2011 Total Population 22,16,138 24,02,781 Male 10,96,638 12,19,669 Female 11,19,500 11,83,112 Total Rural Population 14,67,577 15,52,325 Rural Male 7,26,493 7,65,784 Rural Female 7,41,084 7,86,541 Cultivators 1,44,942 1,32,426 Agricultural Labourers 4,10,718 4,36,614

Source: Census of India 2011

It is a known fact that, population is increasing in India, the same fact is true in the Thanjavur District also. Table 3.1 shows that total population, total rural population and agricultural labourers have

78 increased in Thanjavur District. But the number of cultivators decreased in 2011 compared to 2001.

3.1.1b Cropping Pattern in Thanjavur District

It is no wonder therefore that at the very threshold of the district itself, one can feel the distinguished green vegetation and call

Thanjavur as “the green mansion”, of the south. With the river Cauvery irrigating the district, the cropping pattern followed was Paddy-Paddy-

Rice fallow pulses or cotton or gingelly. The economy of the district is, therefore, primarily agrarian in nature with very few industrial units.

The soils of new deltaic area are amenable to wide variety of crops such as Coconut, Mango, Guava, Pulses, Cotton, Gingelly,

Groundnut and Banana. Cultivation of Oil palm and Soya bean is also carried out in the district wherever assured water supply and drainage facilities are available. The major cultivated crops in Thanjavur district are Paddy, Pulses, Gingelly, Groundnut and Sugarcane. The minor crops like Maize, Soya beans, Redgram are also grown.

Paddy is the principal crop grown in three seasons viz. Kuruvai,

Samba and Thaladi. The following table shows cropping pattern of

Thanjavur district.

TABLE- 3.2

MAJOR CROPPING PATTERN OF THANJAVUR

DISTRICT (2010-11)

Area under Nature of Irrigation Name of the Crop cultivation (in ha.) Rice 338.2

Pulses 6.9

Irrigated Groundnut 10.5

Gingelly 1.9

Sugarcane 15.4

Rice 150.2

Pulses 73.4

Rainfed Groundnut 21.2

Gingelly 23.6

Sugarcane 15.5

Source: Agriculture plan of Thanjavur district, 2011-12.

From table 3.2 it is known that rice is the principle crop in this district both in irrigated area and rain fed area followed by pulses, groundnut, sugarcane and gingelly.

Thanjavur is predominantly a rice growing zone and hence the scope for horticultural crops is very much limited. The farmers are producing medicinal crops also. After the intervention of Horticulture department, the farmers are willing to produce horticulture crops. Only

80 two horticultural crops viz. Mango and Banana are produced under this category.

TABLE - 3.3

HORTICULTURE AND PLANTATION CROP PRODUCE

IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (2010-11)

Total area Production Name of crop (in ha.) ( in MT)

Banana 4,921 2,42,589

Mango 8,42 3,521

Source: Agriculture Contingency Plan of Thanjavur District, 2011-12

It is inferred from table 3.3 that the Banana and Mango were the two horticulture crops in Thanjavur district. Among these two Banana occupies more area of production and it was produced in larger quantity.

3.1.1c Paddy Production in Thanjavur District

Paddy is the principal crop of Thanjavur district. It is produced in three seasons like, Kuruvai, Samba and Thaladi. The following table shows the area under production of paddy from 2005-06 to 2010-11.

TABLE - 3.4

AREA COVERAGE UNDER PADDY IN THANJAVUR DISTRICT (YEAR WISE)

Year Total Area (in ha)

2005-06 1,54,901

2006-07 1,56,474

2007-08 1,43,645

2008-09 1,52,958

2009-10 1,62,938

2010-11 1,63,246

Source: Season and Crop Report, 2012

Table 3.4 shows details of paddy cultivation and the area

covered for the same. Area coverage is increasing year after year to

meet the growing demand for rice.

3.1.2 BLOCK PROFILE

Kumbakonam block consists of 84 revenue villages and 47

village panchayats in 3 revenue firkas. Kumbakonam block is

surrounded by Thiruvidaimaruthur block by North and East.

Valangaiman block of Thiruvarur district by south and papanasam

block by west. This part of the study consist density of Kumbakonam

block, land utilization pattern, area under major crops rainfall and

source of irrigational facilities.

3.1.2a Population of Kumbakonam Block

Population is the major factor in development of area and

economic growth a country. The details relating to population in

Kumbakonam block is given in the following table.

TABLE - 3.5

LEVEL OF POPULATION IN KUMBAKONAM BLOCK

Agricultural labourers Number of Year Male Female Total Male Female Total Cultivators

1991 69,607 70,414 1,40,021 28,377 13,068 41,445 15,157

2001 82,844 84,254 1,67,098 21,154 11,305 32,459 6,932

2011 93,432 93,556 1,86,988 20,179 10,906 31,085 6,591

Source: Block hand book, 2012, Kumbakonam.

From the table 3.5 it could be understood that the total

population is increasing in the study area, but the number of cultivators

and agriculture labourers is constantly decreasing.

3.1.2b Basic Facilities in Kumbakonam Block

Following are the basic facilities available in Kumbakonam

block.

TABLE 3.6

BASIC FACILITIES IN KUMBAKONAM BLOCK

Name of Facility Nature / Number

Road Tar and Mud Road

Educational institutions 62

Hospital and Health centres 47 and 78

Banks

Number of Nationalised Banks 8

Number of Agri. Co-operative 11

Banks 1

Number of Land Mortgage Bank

Number of village Chavadies 15

Transport and Browsing centres Bus and train facilities and

computer centres.

Source: Block hand book, 2012, Kumbakonam.

From the table 3.6 it is clear that, Kumbakonam block have all the basic facilities. It holds the basic facilities like road, educational institutions, hospitals and health centres, banks and co-operative societies, village chavadies and transport facilities.

3.1.2c Land Utilization Pattern of Kumbakonam Block

The pattern of land-use of an area at a particular time is determined by the physical, economic and institutional frame-work taken together. And it has been recognized as one of the important

factors in agriculture. The land utilization pattern include forest, land

put to non-agricultural uses, barren and uncultivable land, cultivable

waste, permanent pasture, fallow land, net area sown, area sown more

than once and gross area sown. The table 3.7 presents the land

utilization pattern in the study area.

TABLE - 3.7

LAND UTILIZATION PATTERN (2010-2011)

Percentage to total Particulars Area (in ha) Geographical Area

Total geographical area 18858 100

Area under forest 421 2.2

Land not available for cultivation 4333 22.98

Other uncultivated land (i) Cultivated waste 369 1.96 (ii) Permanent pasture 15 0.8

(iii) Trees and groove 508 2.69

Fallow land (i) Current fallow 1692 8.97 (ii) Other fallow 2122 11.25

Net sown area 9398 49.84

Area sown more than once 3236 17.16

Gross area sown 12635 67

Source: Block hand book, 2010-11, Kumbakonam.

The total geographical area in Kumbakonam block is 18,858 hectares. Gross cropped area is the total area under all crops including the area sown more than once during a year. The gross cropped area in the study area was 12,635 hectares. The net sown area is 9,398 hectares. The difference between gross area sown and net area sown is under forest or uncultivable land or fallow land. For easy understanding of land utilization pattern in Kumbakonam block it is also presented through the figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Land Utilisation pattern of Kumbakonam Block

2.2

22.98

Area under forest 5.45 land not available for cultivation 67 other uncultivated land Fallow land 20.22 Net sown area Area sown more than once Gross area sown

17.16 49.84

3.1.2d Paddy Production in Kumbakonam Block

In Kumbakonam block, Paddy is the principal crop. It is produced in

all seasons. The following table shows the area under Paddy production in

the study area.

TABLE - 3.8

AREA UNDER PADDY PRODUCTION IN KUMBAKONAM

BLOCK (in ha)

Area under Paddy production (in ha.) Total area Year Kuruvai Samba Kodai (in ha.)

2005-06 2,826 12,960 1,243 17,029

2006-07 2,985 12,538 1,165 16,688

2007-08 2,658 11,730 911 15,299

2008-09 2,731 12,463 1,305 16,499

2009-10 1,813 12,188 1,048 15,049

2010-11 1,791 13,319 395 15,505

Source: Block handbook, 2006-2012, Kumbakonam.

From the table 3.8 it could be inferred that, cultivation in the study

area has steadily decreased. Since most of land area is used for

construction purpose and land fragmentation also lead to under

cultivation.

3.1.2e Details of Rainfall in the Study Area

Rain fall is the most important of the climatic factors. The areas of heavy rainfall exist on the windward. A large part of the country receives, on an average, rainfall less than 1,000 mm per annum. Moreover, the average annual rainfall of 1,050 mm is the highest in any part of the world.

The following table shows rainfall in the study area.

TABLE - 3.9

RAINFALL IN KUMBAKONAM BLOCK DURING 2009- 2010

Rainfall (in mm) Season 2009 2010

Winter Season 17 63.2

Summer Season 87 71.6

South West Monsoon 264.8 334

North East Monsoon 755.4 930.1

Total 1124.2 1398.9

Source: Block hand book, 2010-2011, Kumbakonam.

Through the table 3.9 it could be seen that Kumbakonam block is receiving highest rainfall in North East Monsoon and least rainfall during

Winter Season.

3.1.2f Source of Irrigation

Water is an important determinant factor of production of crops in agricultural sector. Intensive and extensive cultivation of land depend mainly on the availability of water. Medium and minor irrigation schemes are implemented in the state for augmenting the irrigation for agriculture.

The various sources of irrigation are canals, tanks, tube wells, open wells and springs. The number of sources of irrigation is furnished in the table

3.10.

TABLE - 3.10

SOURCES OF IRRIGATION

Sources of Number Net area irrigated ( in ha) Irrigation of sources

Canals 10620 8367 (45)

Tubewells 249 198 (01)

Filter Point Wells 13022 10219 (54)

Source: ADA, Kumbakonam (2010-2011) (Figures in parentheses represent percentage)

It is visualized from the table 3.10 that filter point wells are the

major sources of irrigation accounting for 54 per cent of the total irrigated

area in the district, followed by canals accounting for about 45 per cent of

the gross area irrigated.

3.1.2g Area under Major Crops

Cropping pattern has been defined as the proportion of area under

different crops at a particular period of time. In this study, cropping pattern

is classified based on the irrigational facilities availability.

TABLE - 3.11

AREA UNDER MAJOR CROPS Nature of land Crops grown Area (in ha)

Paddy 15,505 (95)

Sugarcane 474 (2.9) Irrigated Banana 332 (0.2)

Maize 31 (0.14)

Rainfed Pulses 1,103

Source: Block Hand book, Kumbakonam, 2010-2011. (Figures in parentheses represent percentage)

Table 3.11 shows the area under major crops in the study area.

Paddy, Sugarcane, Banana, Maize and Pulses are considered as the

major crops. Paddy is the principle crop in Kumbakonam block and it is

cultivated in 9,693 hectares in the study area.

3.2 PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS

The characteristics of the sample farmers refer to general features of respondents. This include gender classification, age, educational qualification, area of land holdings and nature of land, experience of farmers in agriculture and crops which are frequently produced by them.

3.2a Gender Classification

Gender classification is more necessary in present days, since women get equal importance with men. They are involving in all works with interest. In agriculture also women cultivators and labourers significantly contribute their share. In this study both women and men are included. Table 3.12 shows the gender classification of sample respondents.

TABLE - 3.12

GENDER WISE CLASSIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS

Frequency

Gender Conventional Total SRI Method Method

Male 131 (87) 117 (78) 248 (83)

Female 19 (13) 33 (22) 52 (17)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parentheses represent percentage)

From the table 3.12 it is understood that, 248 male and 52 female cultivators are included in the study. This implies that, women cultivators also contribute their share to agricultural development in the study area.

Among total number of female cultivators 22% were interested in following

SRI method than the conventional method. In the study compared to the male respondents female respondents are more interested in adopting

SRI method of paddy cultivation.

3.2b Age and Educational Qualification

Age is one of the demographic factors that is helpful to illustrate households’ personal situation and gives indication about the age structure of the sample, along with the population. It is generally assumed

93 that elder people have more farming experience which enables them to easily adopt new technologies and also because they have better involvement in different formal and informal groups, which helps them to easily access services and resources. Likewise behavioural change is important in making decisions to take up new technologies. In order to make a right decision adequate information is needed. Education increases the likehood of participating in formal organizations and thus acquiring informal mechanisms of information exchange. So, the age and educational qualification of the respondents are the major factors in determining the farming experience.

TABLE - 3.13 AGE AND EDUCATION WISE CLASSIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS Below 25 26-40 41-55 56-70 Above 71 Total Age (years) / Grand SRI SRI SRI SRI SRI SRI Education CM CM CM CM CM CM Total Method Method Method Method Method Method

Below SSLC 1 (13) 1 (11) 5 (15) 6 (24) 7 (14) 8 (17) 7 (15) 12 (20) 6 (50) 4 (45) 26 (17) 31 (21) 57 (19)

SSLC 2 (29) 2 (22) 7 (21) 2 (8) 10 (20) 6 (13) 6 (13) 10 (16) 2 (17) 3 (33) 27 (18) 23 (15) 50 (17)

HSC 2 (29) 1 (11) 9 (28) 4 (16) 13 (24) 9 (20) 8 (17) 5(8) 2 (17) 1 (11) 34 (23) 20 (13) 54 (18)

Under 2 (29) 4 (15) 5 (15) 6 (24) 9 (18) 10 (22) 10 (21) 11 (18) 1 (08) 1 (11) 27 (18) 32 (21) 59 (19) Graduate

Post - 1 (11) 6 (18) 4 (16) 8 (16) 6 (13) 15 (32) 21 (35) 1 (08) - 30 (20) 32 (21) 62 (21) Graduate

Professional - - 1 (03) 3 (12) 4 (08) 7 (15) 1 (02) 2 (03) - - 6 (04) 12 (09) 18 (06)

Total 7 (44) 9 (56) 33 (57) 25 (43) 51 (53) 46 (47) 47 (44) 61 (56) 12(57) 9 (43) 150 (50) 150 (50) 300 (100) Grand total 16 (05) 58 (20) 97 (32) 108 (36) 21 (07) 300 (100)

Source: Primary data (Figures in parentheses represent percentage)

Table 3.12 shows the age and educational wise classification of respondents in the study area. It could be understood that, most of the respondents 108 (36%) belong to the age group of 56-70 and 97 (32%) respondents fall in the category of 41-55 years. This shows that agricultural activities are mainly followed by the middle age and old age people and majority of the young generation people don’t involve in agriculture because of lower monetary returns and no guarantee for fixed income.

In this study all the respondents have some educational qualification at least studied below SSLC. Among the total 300 respondents 62 were (21%) completed post graduate and 59 (19%) respondents completed under graduate courses. There were 57 (19%) respondents studied only below SSLC level. Through this study it is confirmed that in the study area all respondents have educational awareness.

3.2c Area of land holdings and Nature of land

Land is one of the most important resource for any economic activity mainly in rural areas for agricultural production, since their livelihood is reliant on it. Farm size influences household’s decision on

96 choice of crops. The land which is in the hands of farmers could be of different type. In same way the nature of land also differ from region to region. Generally the nature of land is classified into cultivable and uncultivable land. Cultivable land is further divided into wet land, garden land and rain fed land. The table 3.14 gives details of the respondents’ area of land holdings and the nature of land hold by them.

TABLE - 3.14

AREA OF LAND HOLDINGS AND NATURE OF LAND HOLD BY THE RESPONDENTS

Area of land Less than 4 5-8 9-12 More than 13 Total Grand (in acres) / SRI SRI SRI SRI SRI CM CM CM CM CM Total Nature of land Method Method Method Method Method

Wet land 23 (64) 25 (53) 26 (63) 28 (50) 22 (51) 13 (45) 10 (33) 9 (50) 81 (54) 75 (50) 156 (52)

Garden land 4 (11) 14 (30) 7 (17) 17 (30) 5 (12) 9 (31) 6 (20) 3 (17) 22 (15) 43 (29) 65 (22)

Rain fed 9 (25) 8 (17) 8 (20) 11 (20) 16 (37) 7 (24) 14 (47) 6 (33) 47 (31) 32 (21) 79 (26)

Total 36 (43) 47 (57) 41 (42) 56 (58) 43 (60) 29 (40) 30 (62) 18 (38) 150 (50) 150 (50) 300 (100) Grand total 83 (28) 97 (32) 72 (24) 48 (16) 300 (100)

Source: Primary data (Figures in parentheses represent percentage)

From the table 3.14 it is evident that, 97 (32%) respondents hold 5-

8 acres of land. Out of this 52 per cent of land area is wet land, 26 per cent is rainfed land and the remaining area is garden land. The respondents who hold more than 13 acres are only 48 (16%). And the nature of land is mostly wet in the study area.

3.2d Relationship between Experience in Agriculture and Crop Production

One of the factors for increase in production is the experience of farmers in the field which enhances their skill also. A more experienced farmer has a high level of certainty about the performance of any innovation. Farmers with higher experience have often full information and better knowledge and are able to evaluate the advantage of the technology introduced. Cropping pattern is mainly depending upon the nature of soil, experience of farmers and monetary return. Therefore it is necessary to understand the relationship between experience of the respondents and crop produced by them.

TABLE - 3.15 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EXPERIENCE IN AGRICULTURE AND CROP PRODUCTION Experience (in years) / Name of Less than 5 6-10 11-15 More than 16 Total the crop Paddy 02 (20) 24 (37) 36 (43) 109 (77) 171 (57)

Sugarcane 03 (30) 12 (18) 21 (26) 13 (09) 49 (49)

Banana 01 (10) 22 (33) 18 (22) 09 (06) 50 (50)

Pulses, Cereals 04 (40) 08 (12) 07 (09) 11 (08) 30 (30) and Millets Total 10 (03) 66 (22) 82 (28) 142 (47) 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parentheses represent percentage)

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Table 3.15 implies that 142(47%) respondents who have more experience in agriculture cultivates paddy as the main crop. And paddy is produced by 171 (57%) respondents in the study. Sugarcane and Banana were cultivated by 49 and 50 respondents respectively. There were 04

(40%) respondents’ produce pulses, cereals and millets and their experience is less than 5 years. Based on this study, it is understood that there is a relationship between experience and crop cultivated by the respondents.

In this chapter information about the profile of the study area and basic profile of respondents like gender, age classification, education details and experience in agriculture is provided. Age and educational qualification, area of land holdings and nature of land hold by the respondents and type of crop produced by the respondents with experience in agriculture are also presented in detail.

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CHAPTER IV

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF SUSTAINABLE

AGRICULTURE

4.1 History of sustainable agriculture

Agricultural evolution always has been guided by a perception of what should be, sometimes called the model, the goal, or even the ideology. The difference between that goal and agriculture as it exists presently is the development gap. The breadth of all- inclusiveness of the model likewise changes with time. There are four relevant elements in sustainable agriculture, like a mechanical view of nature, a rigid dichotomy between nature and society, a faith in progress, and a consumerist ethic.

In another view during the 17th century people argues about the social goal of efficiency in agriculture.

However, concern is not here with philosophical content as much as with process. At the turn of the 20th century, U.S. agriculture was in the early stages of industrialization. The conflict between an urban agrarian lifestyle and what were seen as radical changes being brought on by industrialization was already present. More important, however, were the

102 divisions among and between farmers and the growing community of land- grant scientists.

In the early 1900s, popular thinking among farmers had led to rejection of the portion of Jeffersonian thought that held individualism to be supreme. Politically, this led to establishment of organizations, such as the

Grange. Farmers felt that they should develop and share technological knowledge among themselves; there were two sources of that knowledge.

The “systematic agriculturists” looked to the emerging industry as their model. The second group, the “scientific agriculturists,” looked to nature as their model, with the objective of rationalizing and formalizing their experiences as “natural historians.” At the same time, land-grant scientists were beginning to have an impact. It is these philosophies and to these turn-of-the-century debate on sustainable agriculture.

U.S. agriculture was in a major expansionist mode during the early

1990s. The number of farms reached a peak of 6.8 million in the early

1930s. Mechanization was being adopted rapidly, spurred by rising costs and the scarcity of labour brought on both by area expansion and as exemplified by the development and widespread adoption of crop hybrids.

The land-grant system was a major determinant in the articulation of the development paradigm. During the early 20th century, the concepts of conservation evolved, it was first giving emphasis to preservation of

103 natural areas. The progressive conservation movement of the early 1900s established the intellectual foundations of the later conservation programs.

The word sustain, from the latin ‘sustinere’ to keep in existence or maintain, implies long-term support or permanence. As it pertains to agriculture, sustainable describes farming systems that are ‘capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely.

Sustainable agriculture was addressed by congress in the 1990’ farm bill’. Under that law, the term sustainable agriculture means an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site- specific application that will, over the long term satisfy human food and fiber needs; enhance environmental quality and the natural resource based upon which the agricultural economy depends; make the most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls; sustain the economic viability of farm operations; and enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.

At the turn of the 20th century, the concepts of wholism versus reductionism were taking shape. The emergence of thought on wholism, of looking to natural systems as a model, and of the role of farmers in

104 evolving their own systems led to what is today generally referred to as

“alternative agriculture”. Alternative agriculture evolved during the 1900s in a course parallel to that of industrial agriculture, borrowing liberally but selectively from technologies, such as new crop varieties, mechanization, and soil nutrient testing.

Sustainable agriculture is both a philosophy and a system of farming. It has its roots in a set of values that reflects awareness on both ecological and social realities. It involves design and management procedures that work with natural processes to conserve all resources, minimize waste and environmental damage, while maintaining or improving farm profitability. Working with natural soil processes is of particular importance. Sustainable agriculture systems are designed to take maximum advantage of existing soil nutrient and water cycles, energy flows, and soil organisms for food production. As well, such systems aim to produce food that is nutritious, without being contaminated with products that might harm human health.

4.2 Principles of sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is not a specific agricultural practice, technology or system. It is a societal goal to be pursued forever and for

105 everyone and guided by general principles. The following are the certain principles of sustainable agriculture.

A sustainable agricultural system is based on the renewable and recyclable resources such as biological, geothermal, hydroelectric, and solar or wind resources. A sustainable agricultural system protects the integrity of natural systems so that natural resources are continually regenerated. This system improves the quality of life of individuals and communities. To stem the rural to urban migration, rural communities must offer people a good standard of living including diverse employment opportunities, health care, education, social services and cultural activities. Young people must be offered opportunities to develop rural enterprises, including farming, in ways which care for the land so that it may be passed onto future generations in as good or in better condition than it was received.

A sustainable agricultural system is profitable. Transition to new ways of knowing, doing and being require incentives for all participants.

Some of these incentives are necessarily economic. Any system should be based on profitability. Without profit it will not be implementing voluntarily. Profitability is the prime motivating factor in the sustainable agriculture also.

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A sustainable agricultural system is guided by a land ethic that considers the long-term good of all members of the land community. It considers the agro ecosystem. Ecology is a tool to understand sustainable agriculture. An agro ecological approach is used to analyse the success of sustainable farming systems. It is also helpful to identify the ways to improve the productivity, profitability and resource efficiency.

4.3 Steps in Sustainable agriculture

The agro-ecosystem is made up of many interacting components with multiple goals. Soil quality is one important part of sustainable agro- ecosystem management, analogous to water and air quality. Assessing soil quality may help managers identify practices that could be adapted to become more sustainable. Soil quality is one aspect of sustainable agro- ecosystem management.

A. Conserve and create Healthy soil

This is the first step in sustainable agriculture. In this step the farmers shall take efforts to stop soil erosion by terracing, to follow strip cropping, to repair gullies, to add organic matter to soil, to conserve tillage, and to rotate cash crops with hay, pasture or cover crops.

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B. Conserve water and protect its quality

In this stage soil erosion can be reduced by reducing the use of chemicals, by establishing conservation of buffer areas, by growing crops adapted to rainfall received and by following efficient irrigation methods.

C. Manage organic wastes and farm chemicals

Management of organic wastes and farm chemicals depend upon test soil and applying manures and litters only when needed, compost dead birds and litters, store litter piles out of the rain and snow, raise pastured or free-range poultry, raise hogs in hoop houses or free-range, farm chemicals and trash, look for alternatives to chemicals, use the least amount necessary, buy the least toxic chemical, recycle and dispose according to label instructions.

D. Manage pests with minimal environmental impact

This stage depends upon three approaches like; Mechanical approaches, cultural approaches and biological approaches. Mechanical approach includes mowing, flaming, flooding, tillage and controlled burns.

Cultural approach includes the techniques like crop rotation, smother crops, cover crops, planting allelopathic plants and close spacing of

108 plants. Biological approach includes multi-species grazing, rotational grazing, chemical approaches, and integrated pest management, use of narrow spectrum, least-toxic herbicides and properly calibrated sprayers.

The steps in sustainable agriculture are represented in the figure

4.1. It shows a circular effect between each step and it should be followed continuously. To maintain sustainable agriculture farmers have to follow these steps.

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Figure - 4.1

STEPS IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

healthy soil increase profitability conserve and reduce water risk

organic conserve sustainable wastes and energy farm resources agriculture chemicals

pest and bio-diversity weed management selection of plant adapted to the enviroment

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E. Select plants and Animals adapted to the environment

In this stage the farmers shall grow crops and crop varieties well- suited to the climate and they may match crops to the soil.

F. Encourage bio-diversity

Diversifying crops and livestock raise the level of production. Bio- diversity can be encouraged through rotation of row crops with hay crops.

G. Conserve energy resources

To conserve energy resources the farmer shall reduce number of tillage operations and cut use of chemicals and fertilizers. They can also develop production methods that reduce horsepower needs.

H. Increase profitability and reduce risk

In this the last stage, the farmer can expect profitability by diversifying crops and livestock, adapting substitute management for off- farm inputs, maximizing the use of on-farm resources, reducing the machinery, equipment and building costs and selling their production through direct marketing. This will also help them to reduce the risk.

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4.4 Basic Elements of Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is helpful to the farm and community

economies are grounded in five well-established economic development

principles as follows:

(i) Optimum Utilization of Inputs

Sustainable production maximizes on–farm resources. Internally

derived inputs, such as family labour, intensive grazing systems, recycled

nutrients, legume nitrogen, crop rotations, use of renewable solar energy,

and improved management of pest, soils and woodlands are a few

examples of substituted resources. These substitutions can be benefiting

the community by increasing local retail sales and providing a stronger tax

base.

(ii) Diversification

To develop healthy soils and reduce purchased inputs, sustainable

agriculture emphasizes diverse cropping and livestock systems.

Diversification can lead to more stable farm income by lowering economic

risk from climate, pests and fluctuating agriculture markets. This helps to

keep farmers on the land and helps buffer the local economy from the

shock of a dramatic decline in a single commodity.

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(iii) Conservation of Natural Resources

It is standard accounting practice to depreciate capital assets. It

has not been standard practice for farmers to depreciate natural capital

that is depleted by farming methods that do not conserve resources.

Nevertheless, the loss is real, eventually affecting yields, farm profitability,

and sustainability. In sustainable agriculture, economic value is created by

maintaining the productivity of land and water resources while enhancing

human health and the environment.

(iv) Capturing value-added

The marketing of crops and products grown is by far the weakest

link in the farmers’ role in the ‘field to table’ food system. To create and

maintain a truly sustainable agriculture, farmers will have to develop ways

of retaining a higher percentage of value-added on the farm. While

individual farmers can and do design, process and direct-market their own

products, many other value-added strategies will require the formation of a

group of local farmers and a collaborative relationship with the local

community.

(v) Social and Economic Infrastructure

The elements of sustainable agriculture are integral to all

communities. The superiority of a sustainable farming system include

shared commitment to profitability, food security, food safety, open space

113 for water recharge, natural habitats for flora, fauna and recreating and a cooperative and supportive social and economic community infrastructure.

Currently our urban communities are separated from farming communities not only in philosophy, but also in their mutual understanding, particularly in their knowledge of the entire food production and distribution system. Recognition of the role of farming has played in stabilizing our community is critical to disintegrate our rural fabric and preferred standards of living. In other words, it is necessary to rekindle a sense of caring about the welfare of our neighbors for survival of rural and urban communities.

The basic elements of sustainable agriculture are given in the figure

4.2. From the figure it is understood that, there are five elements in sustainable agriculture, namely optimum utilization of inputs, diversification, conservation of natural resources, capturing value added and socio-economic infrastructure.

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Figure - 4.2

Basic Elements of Sustainable Agriculture

Optimum Utilistion of inputs

Social and Economic Diversification Infrasturcture Sustainable Agriculture

Conservation Capturing of Natural value-added Resources

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4.5 Sustainable Agriculture in India

Agricultural sector, world over, has experienced a phenomenal growth since the mid-twentieth century. The growth, driven by Green

Revolution technology, has made a significant change on aggregate supply of food grains, ensuring food security to the growing population.

The next stage of agricultural growth however, faces a serious challenge in terms of sustainability. India can safely be characterized as an agricultural country despite the recent spurt in manufacturing and services and the declining share of agriculture in the national income, since majority of its workforce are still engaged in agriculture and allied activities.

Agriculture has been the noblest profession in India since the time immemorial and has been carried out on sustainable basis. It is only relatively recent phenomenon that large-scale forest areas, grazing lands and waste lands have been converted into croplands to support the rising population, which has caused ecological imbalance and atmospheric pollution. With no further for scope for expansion of agricultural land efforts have been made to enhance the production of food grains using high-yielding variety of seeds, fertilizers and irrigation along with advance farm equipments. However, so-called green revolution is confined to a few

116 crops, viz, wheat, rice and maize and has been possible only in restricted areas, i.e., Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh and certain selected districts of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamilnadu.

Naturally much work is needed to lift the agriculture to a level where it is least affected by vagaries of monsoon and needs little from outside the farm, i.e., lesser dependence on chemical fertilizers and water. The limited success of green revolution has been a mixed bag in that it has given rise to new set of problems: overuse of water and fertilizers.

Excessive use of water results in water logging and excess of fertilizers and pesticide cause pollution of water bodies’ contamination of ground water. In this situation a renewable and lasting alternative, sustainable agriculture, has to emerge for successful agricultural revolution.

Under sustainable agriculture many techniques can be followed for improving production or yield. In India to improve rice production SRI method was introduced. Because, today in rice production number of problems are faced by the farmers. The problems include pest outbreaks, diseases, soil degradation, scarcity of water, conversion of land for industrial and household purpose and adverse soil conditions. To solve these problems an exciting approach SRI has been developed. It increases yields significantly and enhances the livelihood of farmers. It is

117 an environment-friendly method and it does not require more pesticide.

This method satisfies the basic elements of sustainable agriculture.

4.6 Prospects of Sustainable Agriculture in Tamilnadu

Tamilnadu has about 7% of the nation’s population, occupies 4% of the land area and has 3% of the water resources of the nation. The annual average rainfall of Tamilnadu is just 930.70 mm as against the national average of 1200 mm. Eventhough there is scarcity of water in Tamilnadu, the land and other natural resources are fully utilized. The average land holding has come down to 0.83 hectares from 1.25 hectares during 2005-

06 from 1976-1977. The average land holding at national level is 1.33 hectares 91% of the total land holdings in Tamilnadu belong to small and marginal farmers. Of the total geographical area of 130 lakh hectares, around 48.92 lakh hectares is the net cultivated area. The net irrigated area is 28.64 lakh hectares and the balance area of 20.28 lakh hectares is rainfed. Of the 28.64 L.ha. of irrigated area, 7.57 lakh hectares (26.4%) is covered by canal, 5.04 lakh hectares (17.6%) by tank,15.94 lakh hectares

(55.7%) by well and the balance 0.09 lakh hectares(0.3%) by other sources.

By adopting frontier agricultural technologies in a larger extent of various crops cultivated in Tamilnadu, with complete involvement of

118 farmers and extension officers of the Agriculture Department and with due research support, the government has planned to take up several measures to achieve Second Green Revolution which will be a mission of the people.

The major strategies to spur Second Green Revolution may crop- specific strategies and marketing, adoption of precision farming and micro- irrigation for efficient uitilization of irrigation water, shift in the cropping pattern towards high value crops, augmenting timely supply of quality inputs to targeted farmers, adopting extension with renewed vigour and capacity building on adoption of technologies.

In Tamilnadu, farmers have more involvement in adopting SRI method of paddy cultivation. Many NGOs also started picking up SRI as part of their work. This method began in Tamil nadu through the

Department of Agriculture. It was promoted in 2004 under the ‘Integrated

Central Development Programme-Rice’. In Tamil there are large number of agricultural cultivators are following this method. The table 4.1 provides details about area under SRI method in Tamilnadu.

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TABLE 4.1

AREA COVERAGE UNDER SRI METHOD IN TAMILNADU

Area covered Total Paddy Year under SRI method (in coverage (in lakh ha.) lakh ha.) 2007-08 17.89 4.209

2008-09 18.68 5.489

2009-10 19.32 7.750

2010-11 18.45 8.499

Source: Agricultural plan of Thanjavur District, 2008-2012.

From the table 4.1 it is clear that SRI method is extended year by year. Many universities and Agricultural departments aimed to increase the productivity and cropping intensity. They encourage farmers to adopt

SRI method of paddy cultivation. Promoting integrated pest management approach and use of machines will increase productivity in paddy cultivation.

In this chapter evolution and growth of sustainable agriculture at global and national level is shown. Also steps involved in sustainable agriculture and basic elements of the same is also presented.

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CHAPTER V COST AND RETURN STRUCTURE AND DETERMINANTS OF YIELD

An attempt has been made to analyse the difference in cost return structures, income distribution and determinants of yield in conventional method and SRI method of paddy cultivation. For this purpose, the study takes into account the comparison between conventional method and SRI method.

5.1 COST AND RETURN STRUCTURE

It is widely accepted that the adoption of new agricultural technology not only promises a greater output but also entails a higher cost of cultivation. This section provides some insight into the differences in the input and output of CM and SRI paddy cultivating farms. Besides, the comparative analysis of the cost of cultivation, yield and net return earned by CM and SRI paddy cultivating farm is made.

5.1a Input Output Structure

Input and output structure per acre of Conventional and SRI paddy cultivating farmers is presented in table below. The measure for output is the harvested rice quantity during the study period 2010-2011.

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The inputs include are seeds, human labour, bullock labour, chemical

fertilizer and pesticide.

TABLE - 5.1

INPUT OUTPUT STRUCTURE PER ACRE OF

CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHODS OF PADDY

CULTIVATION (Using Paired t-test)

Particulars CM SRI t-value

Seeds (Rs.) 26.03 6.12 1.6452*

HumanLabour (mandays) 29.19 11.75 6.994*

Bullock (pair) / Tractor 5.84 3.15 2.304*

Chemical Fertiliser (kg.) 277.33 282.66 0.022

Pesticide (kg.) 140.50 135.20 0.05

Yield (Kg.) 1790.86 2782.06 3.353*

Sample size 150 150 -

Source: Primary data and * significant difference

It is revealed from the table 5.1 that the yield per acre of paddy was

1720.2 kgs in conventional method and 2722.4kgs in SRI method. This

shows that there is a significant difference in the yield of two methods. The

difference in yield works out to 1002.2kgs. Apart from yield, the

differences in the utilization of other input variables like, seeds, human

labour, and bullock or tractor were also found to be significant in

conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation in the study area. With

122 regard to the use of pesticide the difference was not found to be significant.

Thus it may be concluded from the above analysis that in the case of SRI method of paddy cultivation the farmers were efficient in the use of seeds, human labour and fertilizer. And they have produced more yields per acre than conventional method.

5.1b Compared Mean and Standard Deviation

The table 5.2 shows the compared mean and standard deviation of Conventional Method and SRI method of paddy cultivation.

This includes the five major inputs such as seeds, human labour, bullock labour / tractor, chemical fertilizer and pesticides.

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TABLE - 5.2

COMPARED MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATION VALUES OF CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHOD OF PADDY CULTIVATION

Compared Compared standard Inputs mean deviation Seeds 27.65 2.270

Human Labour 17.44 1.161

Bullock / Tractor 2.69 1.099

Chemical fertilizer 5.33 32.350

Pesticides 5.30 39.320

Source: Primary data

From the table 5.2 the compared mean and standard deviation of the conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation can be known.

Compared mean is high for seeds (27.65) and standard deviation is high for pesticides.

5.1c Cost Components

The measure for output is the harvested rice quantity during last year. The profitability aspect of both the methods of paddy cultivation in the study area has been analyzed by computing per acre cost and returns.

Cost components are classified into two viz. Cost A and Cost C. Cost A include all variable cost and Cost C include fixed costs. To find the difference between cost and returns, yield per acre is converted in terms of money. The average cost and returns structure of CM and SRI of paddy is presented in table 5.3

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TABLE – 5.3

THE AVERAGE COST AND RETURN STRUCTURE OF CONVENTIONAL AND SRI MEHTOD OF PADDY CULTIVATION

Conventional Cost Components SRI Methods Method

Human labour 3342.71 1213.10

Bullock labour / tractor 895.38 1246.16

Chemical fertilizer 1276.78 1597.34

Pesticide 874.26 1118.13

Seed cost 487.48 109.12

Farm manure 325.18 712.73

Cost of irrigation 436.52 325.24

Interest on working capital 692.36 618.37

Cost A (total) 8330.67 6940.19

Rent 632.34 626.46

Interest on fixed capital excluding land revenue, cess and taxes, depreciation of implements and 934.18 788.82 machinery

Cost C (total) 9897.19 8355.47

Yield per acre (in Kg.) 1720.2 2722.4

Gross income per acre (in Rs.) 34404 54448

Net income per acre (in Rs.) 24506.81 46092.53

Source: primary data

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The cost and return structure of conventional method and

SRI method of paddy cultivation from the table 5.3 reveals that conventional method yielded 1720.2kgs. per acre bringing in revenue of Rs.34404. The net income per acre is Rs.24506.81. The

SRI yielded 2722.4kgs. per acre in physical terms and Rs.54448 in money terms producing a net income of Rs.46092.53. The net income figures of conventional and SRI proved superiority of SRI method over conventional method.

In the study area, most of the cultivating land comes under river irrigation. The difference in cost of irrigation occurs only at the time of cultivation of the two varieties. The duration of cultivation for conventional and SRI method is 120 days and 90 days respectively in the study area.

The cost and return analysis reveals that cost-wise and return-wise SRI is more effective than the conventional method.

The cost C for the conventional method works out to be Rs.8330.67 per acre and for SRI it is Rs.6940.19. The total cost (cost C) is arrived at by adding the cost on variable inputs (Cost A) with the cost on fixed inputs rent interest and depreciation. The difference in the yield of two methods (Conventional method and SRI method) is presented in the figures 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3.

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Figure - 5.1 Average Cost of cultivation in Conventional Method of paddy cultivation

Interest on fixed capital losses and taxes, Rent depreciation of 6% implements and machinery 10%

Human labour 34% Interest on working capital 7% Cost of irrigation 4%

Farm manure 3%

Seed cost 5%

Bullock labour 9% Pesticide 9%

Chemical fertilizer 13%

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Figure 5.2 Average cost of cultivation in SRI method of paddy cultivation

Interest on fixed capital losses and taxes, Human labour depreciation of 15% Rent implements and 8% machinery 9%

Interest on working capital Bullock labour 7% 15%

Cost of irrigation 4%

Farm manure 9%

Chemical fertilizer 19%

Seed cost 1% Pesticide 13%

128

Figure 5.3 Cost, Yield and Net income of conventional and SRI methods of paddy cultivation

60000

54448

46092.53 50000 A m o

u 40000 34404 n

t (

i 30000 24506.81 n TV

20000 8330.67

R 9897.19 SRI 6940.19 s 8355.47

)

10000

2722.4 1720.2

0 Cost A Cost C Yield per acre in Kg. Gross income (in Rs.) Net income

Cost, Yield and Net income

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5.1d The Percentage to Various Cost Components to Total Cost

The profitability aspect of both the method of paddy cultivation in the study area has been analyzed by computing per acre cost and returns.

The percentage of various cost components to total cost is presented in the table 5.4

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TABLE – 5.4

THE PERCENTAGE OF VARIOUS COST COMPONENTS TO TOTAL COST Conventional Cost components SRI method method Human labour 33.77 14.52

Bullock labour 9.05 14.91

Chemical fertilizer 12.9 19.12

Pesticide 8.83 13.38

Seed cost 4.93 1.31

Farm manure 3.29 8.53

Cost of irrigation 4.41 3.89

Interest on working capital 6.99 7.40

Variable cost 84.17 83.06

Rent 6.39 7.49

Interest on fixed capital and 9.44 9.44 depreciation

Total 100 100

Source: Primary data

Table 5.4 shows the percentage of cost of variable inputs that is

Cost ‘A’ to total cost is 84.17 percent for conventional and 83.06 percent for SRI methods. Under Cost A, cost on human labour is found to be the

131 highest ie 33.77 percent for conventional method, but in SRI method it is just 14.52. It may be due to usage of modern equipment like, tractor, harvesting machine, conoweeders etc. In SRI method respondents spent more for chemical fertilizer 19.12 % whereas it is just 12.9 % in traditional method.

Comparing the cost of figure of SRI and conventional methods it could be observed that the cost on variable inputs or cost ‘A’ figures is higher for the conventional method and SRI method even though the difference is marginal. Under the variable inputs there is a significant variation between the two varieties in the cost on human labour and chemical fertilizer. SRI of paddy requires application of chemical fertilizer for good yield. Seed cost is slightly higher for conventional method than

SRI method. It is due to in conventional method respondents used more quantity of seeds than the SRI method. The variation on pesticides, farm manure and interest on working capital is only marginal.

The cost and return reveals that SRI is more economical than conventional method and yields higher return in money and physical terms. This finding has disproved the widely accepted phenomenon that the adoption of new agricultural technology entails a higher cost of cultivation in the study area.

Cost variation is generally found on the cost incurred on human labour, chemical fertilizer and irrigation. While SRI entails higher cost on fertilizer and fixed inputs conventional method incurs higher cost on

132 human labour. Irrigation seed cost is slightly higher for SRI than conventional method.

5.2 INCOME DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS

SRI method of paddy production has led to an increase in the income of farmers through the adoption of new modern techniques. This section is devoted to the analysis of the impact of new technology on income distribution between conventional and SRI method of paddy producing farms. In spite of the gains of new technology there exist very wide income disparities among different farms. Hence, in this section an attempt is made to examine the nature and extent of inequality in the distribution of net income per acre of the sample farmers of two methods.

The nature of inequality is assessed by comparing the values of mean, median and mode, decile distribution and line diagram

5.2a Nature of Inequality

In order to study the nature of inequality in the distribution of income between Conventional and SRI methods of cultivating farms, net income per acre of the farm has been considered. The table 5.5 reveals some important facts regarding the nature of distribution of net income per acre for conventional and SRI methods in the study area.

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TABLE - 5.5

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NET INCOME PER ACRE FOR CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHOD Number of Number of Total Level of Net income farms in farms in SRI number of (in Rs.) Conventional Method farms Method Below 10000 03 (02) 00 03 (01)

10001-20000 12 (08) 11 (07) 23 (08)

20001-30000 74 (49) 34 (23) 108 (36)

30001-40000 52 (35) 77 (51) 129 (43)

40001-50000 09 (06) 21 (14) 30 (10)

50001 and above 00 07 (05) 07 (02)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data

It has been observed from the table 5.5 that the

concentration of conventional method cultivating farm is found under the

lower net income category, whereas for SRI method the concentration is

found in the middle and higher income category. Therefore for

conventional method the given distribution would have greater variation

towards the lower values in the study. Diagrammatical representation of

income distribution of conventional and SRI respondents is given in figure

5.4.

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Figure 5.4 INCOME DISTRIBUTION OF CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHODS OF PADDY CULTIVATION 140 77 N U 120 M 34 B 100 E R 80 74 O SRI F 60 CM 52 F 40 A R 21 M 20 11 S 12 9 7 30 0 0 Below 10000 10001-20000 20001-30000 30001-40000 40001-50000 50001 and above INCOME LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS

135

5.2b Computed Values for Average and Skewness

The nature of inequality in the distribution of income for both conventional and SRI can be assessed by comparing the values of mean, median and mode. The table 5.6 shows the computed values of average and skewness.

TABLE - 5.6

COMPUTED VALUES FOR AVERAGE AND SKEWNESS Conventional SRI Measures Method Method

Arithmetic mean ( in Rs.) 28926.66 33640

Median 27000 35000

Mode 26000 36000

Standard Deviation 7319.06 8906.05

Co-efficient of skewness -0.225 -0.002

Minimum value 8500 13500

Maximum value 45000 55500

Source: primary data

Comparison of Conventional and SRI methods reveal from the table 5.6 that, in paddy cultivation net income per acre distribution, it is negatively skewed both methods. It implies that the given net income per acre distribution has a greater variation towards the lower values in the case of Conventional and for SRI it has a greater variation towards higher value.

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5.2c Extent of Inequality

Table 5.7 gives the Decile distribution of net income for CM

and SRI farms to find the extent of inequality in the sample farms.

TABLE - 5.7 DECILE DISTRIBUTION OF NET INCOME FOR CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHOD

Decile % share % share Average Cumulative Average Cumulative groups in Total in total net % in net net % in net of farms net net income income income income bottom income income 0-10 20800 6.79 6.79 22000 6.15 6.15

10-20 24000 7.84 14.63 25000 6.99 13.14

20-30 25000 8.16 22.79 31000 8.67 21.81

30-40 26000 8.49 31.28 33000 9.22 31.03

40-50 27000 8.81 40.09 35000 9.78 40.81

50-60 32500 10.61 50.7 36000 10.06 51.62

60-70 34000 11.1 61.8 37000 10.34 61.69

70-80 35000 11.43 73.23 39200 10.96 72.92

80-90 37000 12.08 85.31 44050 12.31 85.23

90-100 45000 14.69 100 55500 15.51 100

Total 24506.81 100 46092.53 100

Source: Primary data

The table 5.7 reveals that there is a steady increase in the

percentage share in total net income under TV farms and the variation

between the first decile and 10th decile is (6.92) under SRI; also we find a

137 steady increase in the percentage share in total income from (8.06) percent to (12.12) percent. The variation is only 4.27 percent. Therefore the disparity in the distribution of income is higher under the TV and comparatively lower under the SRI. The averages net income increases steadily for both the TV and SRI. But the increase is more pronounced in the 9th and 10th decile.

5.3 DETERMINANTS OF YIELD

In this section an attempt has been made to identify and compare the factors which influence the yield of Conventional and SRI method of cultivating farms. It also examines the structural difference in cultivation between these two methods.

The determinants of yield under the conventional and SRI of paddy are identified with the help of the multiple linear regression model the cob- douglas type. The yield is taken to the dependent variable and seven factor inputs are included as independent variable. The linear regression takes the form given below.

LogY= α0 + β1logx1 + β2logx2 +β3logx3 + β4logx4 + β5logx5 +

β6logx6 + β7logx7 + U …(5.1)

Where,

Y - yield in Kg Per acre

X1 - Human Labour in Mondays

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X2 - Bullock labour in pairs

X3 - Fertilizer in kg

X4 - Pesticide cost in Rs.

X5 - Irrigation cost in Rs.

X6 - Land in acres.

X7 - Capital flow in Rs. and

U - Disturbance term

α0, β1 .. β7 are the parameters to be estimated. The above model

(5.1) was estimated by the method of least squares.

The structural difference between the two samples that is method wise is tested by using chow’s test.

∑ ∑ ∑ F = ..(5.2) ∑ ∑

Where,

2 - ∑e Unexplained or residual sum of squares of the pooled sample of both the variables and both the sizes.

2 ∑e1 - The unexplained or residual sum of squares of the sample corresponding to TV

2 ∑e2 - The unexplained or residual sum of squares of the sample corresponding to SRI

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K - The number of parameters included in the regression equation.

n1 - Number of observation of TV

n2 - Number of observation of SRI

The F test is carried out and if the computed value of F is less than table at appropriate level of significance at (k1n1+n2-2k) degree of freedom, the null hypothesis that there is no structural difference between the two sample variety farms may be accepted. In case there is structured difference between the two varieties, the test whether the difference occurs at the intercept or at the scope level should be applied using dummy variables at the intercept and slope level.

The structural difference between the two samples is tested using the regression model of the following form,

logY = α0 + α1D + ∑ ∑ …..(5.3)

Where j = 1,2. . . . 7

In the above model D is the dummy variable, the dummy variable for conventional is Zero and for SRI is one. The regression equations (5.1) and (5.3) are estimated by using the principle of least squares.

140

In order to identify the determinants of yield of the conventional and

SRI method of paddy cultivation, the multiple linear regression model (5.1) was estimated by the method of least squares. The regression equation is estimated with yield as dependent variable and labour, bullock labour, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation land and capital as independent variables.

The estimate of regression results for conventional and SRI method is furnished in Table 5.8.

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TABLE - 5.8 DETERMINANTS OF YIELD OF CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHOD OF PADDY CULTIVATION Variables Conventional Method SRI Method

Intercept (α0) 3.1247 5.7231

Log x1 (β1) 0.3248* 0.2712*

Log x2 (β2) 0.1021 0.0971 (4.0213) (3.6127)

Log x3 (β3) 0.1841* 0.1972* (0.4201) (0.1412)

Log x4 (β4) 0.0079 0.0104 (2.6731) (2.4836)

Logx5 (β5) 0.2172 0.2948* (0.1012) (0.0471)

Log x6 (β6) 0.1432* 0.2341* (4.1236) (3.1213)

Log x7 (β7) 0.0947 0.1201* (4.2141) (3.1213) R2 0.5921 0.5742 (1.0412) (2.2914) F 39.74 27.42 ∑e2 0.063 0.066 Number of 150 150 observation Source: primary data

(Figures in brackets represent t-values, * indicates the co-efficients are statistically siginificant at 5% level)

From the table 5.8 it could be observed that about 90% of the variation in yield of the conventional and SRI of paddy cultivation is

142 attributed to the seven explanatory variables. All the variables have a positive impact on the yield of paddy. Human labour, fertilizer, irrigation facility and land are significantly related to yield for conventional and SRI methods. Apart from these variables capital is found to have significant impact on yield for SRI of paddy. Human labour followed by irrigation and land are found to be the most of influential factors for conventional method of paddy 10 % increase in Human labour leads, an increase in yield of

(0.3248)% for SRI. The land followed by fertilizer and human labour are the most influential factors. One percent increase in land under SRI leads to an increase in yield of (0.3248) percent. The regression model was statistically significant at 10% level.

To test whether the structural difference exists between the conventional method and SRI method of paddy, the chow’s test (5.2) is used and the results of the analysis shows that the computed value of F

(18.41) is much higher than the table value of F (2.51) at one per cent for

F (8,134) degrees of freedom. This shows that there exists a structural difference between the two variables. The results of the chow test is furnished in table 5.9

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TABLE – 5.9

EQUALITY TEST BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND SRI

METHOD OF PADDY CULTIVATION

Variables Values

∑e2 0.298

∑e12 0.063

∑e22 0.066

N1+n1-2k 134

F* 21.10

F 8,134 at 1% level 2.51

Source: Primary data

The multiple linear regression model (5.3) is used to identify the variables causing structural difference between conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation. Dummy variable is included to represent variable differences, the estimates of the shifts in yield are provided by the co-efficient of the dummy variable. The method of least squares is used to estimate the yield function. The result of the above table implies that there is a structural difference exists in conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation. The F test value is 21.10 significant at 1% level.

The results of the Chow tests of stability slope and intercept between conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation are furnished in table 5.10

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TABLE – 5.10 TESTS OF STABILITY OF SLOPE AND INTERCEPT BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHOD Variables Parameter estimates t-value

Intercept (α0) 3.7248 1.4214

Intercept dummy (α1) 0.0421 5.2143

Log x1 (β1) 0.3214* 0.0103

Log x2 (β2) 0.0409 3.1216

Logx3 (β3) 0.2847* 0.0471

Logx4 (β4) 0.1012 3.1672

Logx5 (β5) 0.2142* 2.9843

Logx6 (β6) 0.1841* 3.1012

Logx7 (β7) 0.0949* 4.231

Dlogx1 (r1) -0.1071* 1.0473

Dlogx2 (r2) 0.0421 0.0814

Dlogx3 (r3) 0.0213 1.1041

Dlogx4 (r4) 0.1041 2.7910

Dlogx5 (r5) -0.0079* 0.4712

Dlogx6 (r6) 0.0104 1.3142

Dlogx7 (r7) 0.0912 0.5849

R2 0.5727

F-value 38.74 36.12

Source: Primary data (*Indicates the co-efficient are significant at 5% level)

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The results show that the co-efficient corresponding to intercept dummy is not statistically significant between two methods. For both the conventional and SRI all the explanatory variables have positive impact on yield per acre. The co-efficient corresponding to the intercept dummy is insignificant implying that there is natural technological change in two methods.

The co-efficients corresponding to slope dummy shows that variation in yield is caused due to the variables human labour and irrigation cost. This implies that the strucutural difference between the two arises due to use of human labour and irrigation cost.

In short conventional and SRI method of paddy existed only at the slope level as the co-efficient of the dummy variables corresponding to human labour and irrigation are significant variation yield is caused due to these variables.

5.4 STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCE AND FACTOR SHARES

Conventional Vs. SRI method, difference between structural conventional and SRI of paddy cultivation is tested in this part on cost and return and determinants of yield. The computed values of F furnished in table 5.8 reveals the fact that there is structural difference between

146 conventional and SRI of paddy. Table 5.10 shows that even through there is structural difference between the two varieties there is no difference with regard to neutral efficiency. The irrigation cost and capital are found to cause structural difference. The technical bias is measured by change in output elasticities. The production function is found to be biased and inconsistent.

Therefore the profit function helps to overcome the problem of simultaneous equation bias in the estimation of production elasticities of production function. The estimated parameters of profit functions may be used to derive elasticities of production function indirectly. The indirect estimates of production elasticities derived from the cobb-douglas production function is furnished in table 5.11

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TABLE – 5.11

INDIRECT ESTIMATES OF PRODUCTION ELASTICITIES FROM THE COBB-DOUGLAS PRODUCTION FUNCTION Estimates of production Elasticities Inputs Parameters Conventional SRI Method Method

Human labour a1 0.2166 0.2115

Bullock labour a2 0.0274 0.0237

Fertilizer a3 0.0665 0.0655

Pesticide a4 0.0426 0.0036

Land a5 0.4975 0.5601

Capital a6 0.1353 0.1337

Source: Primary data

From table 5.11 it can be observed that the partial elasticities of

production function from a1 to a6 with constant returns to scale are the

factor share in output. The share of land is found to be the maximum for

both the varieties. There is not much difference between two varieties

regarding share of land in output. The labour share in output is found to be

higher for conventional and SRI method. Therefore the share of labour

decreased substantially as one moved from conventional to SRI method. It

can be indicated that it was due to efficiency gain in paddy cultivation that

the amount of output could be produced with less amount of labourers

under the SRI method. In case of the capital, SRI method required only

148 less capital inputs than conventional method. Therefore the share of capital in SRI is less compared to conventional method.

The factor bias in the SRI method is measured by a number of methods. The Hicksian concept states that if the marginal products of labour and capital are constant, the technological change is Hicks neutral.

The factor bias is that technological changes may be labour using or capital using accordingly as the marginal rate of substitution of capital for labour increases or decreases.

Binswanger in a slightly modified version defines factor bias in term of factor shares in total cost. The technological changes is labour saving, labour neutral or labour using if the labour share in total cost decreases, remains constant, or increases respectively. Binswanger definition is more advantageous than Hicks as it leads to single measures of bias instead of

(n-1) measures of bias for each factor as in the Hick’s concept. The technical bias in the present study is measured using Binswanger’s concept which is based on changes in the output elasticities to measures technical bias.

The biases of factors of production in the present study are measured using the following empirical model.

( ) βi = ( ) ------(5.4) ( )

Where,

Ai - output elasticity of ith factor

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N - New seed technology

T - Traditional seed technology

As per Hick’s definition the technological change that is ith input saving neutral or input using if the value βi < 0, βi = 0, βi >0, accordingly.

The nature of technological biases in paddy production is measured with the help of the production elasticities presented in table

5.11 and the result is furnished in table 5.12.

TABLE – 5.12

NATURE OF TECHNICAL BIAS Production rate Nature of technical Factor of change in bias output elasticity

Human labour 0.0235 Land saving

Bullock labour -0.1350 Bull lab saving

Fertilizer 0 Netural

Land 0.1258 Land using

Capital 0.0120 Capital using

Source: Primary data

Table 5.12 reveals that SRI is biased in favour of land and capital and against human labour, bullocks labour fertilizer and pesticide. This shows the need for intensive use of land and capital rather than labour and other variables as inputs in the new technology. Moreover the

150 adoption of SRI of paddy cultivation in agriculture leads to considerable saving in labour. In India where labour is in abundant supply, the adoption of SRI technology, would lead to unemployment problem in the agriculture sector.

5.5 ABSOLUTE FACTOR SHARES IN TOTAL INCOME

The factor shares rather than relative factor shares provide a better perspective on function distribution problem. According to Hick’s the relative income shares of the factors between technological of SRI and TV do not change under the Hick’s neutral technical change. The change in absolute factor shares in total income could be measured by multiplying total incomes by production elasticities. The calculated value of percentage change in absolute factor share is provided in table 5.13.

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TABLE – 5.13

PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN ABSOLUTE FACTOR SHARES

Absolute factor share per acre % change in Factor of (in rupees) absolute factor production Conventional SRI Method shares Method Human labour 2559.25 2732.81 6.78

Bullock labour 323.75 306.23 5.41

Fertilizer 785.74 846.33 7.71

Pesticide 503.34 46.52 -90.76

Land 5878.25 7237.11 23.17

Capital 1579.74 1748.22 10.67

Source: Primary data

The percentage change in absolute factor share of conventional

and SRI method in table 5.13 reveals that land, capital and fertilizer stand

to gain in absolute terms due to the adoption of SRI technology. The

absolute share of all other factors such as human labour, bullock labours

and pesticides have decreased by the adoption of SRI technology in

paddy cultivation. The percentage gain is maximum for capital under new

technology. The introduction of modern variety of seeds in paddy

cultivation has increased the land productivity with no extra cost for the

land owners.

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The result of the above analysis is summarized as, the yield determinants are found to be human labour, irrigation and land. For conventional and for SRI, land, fertilizer and human labour are influential factors. The multiple linear regression model used to identify variable causing structural difference reveals that there is structural difference between the two varieties of paddy cultivation. Hence, it is found that there is a natural technological change in agriculture by the adoption of improved seeds in agriculture. The structural difference between the two varieties arises due to human labour and cost of irrigation.

The share of land is found to be maximum for SRI and conventional of paddy in the study area. The share of human labour is 0.12 indicating efficiency gain in production with respect to labour under the SRI technology. The modern variety required more capital for a given output as compared to the traditional variety. The SRI is biased in favour of land and capital and the absolute share of land and capital has increased with the adoption of new technology. The farmers and land owners who have invested on capital stand to gain. The absolute share is maximum for capital under SRI technology. The other factor inputs such as labour land fertilizer and pesticides have gained less under SRI leading to inequitable distribution of income among factors.

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CHAPTER VI TECHNOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHODS

The technology used in agriculture is labour intensive in India. The production is largely conditioned by the amount of labour. The cultivator is in a position, and is prepared to put in. A modern agricultural technique has also been developing in recent years but for a very limited area. The cost of production and yield depend upon the other supporting measures such as soil conservation and land development, consolidation of holding, agricultural credit, agricultural marketing, research and education and price incentives also directly or indirectly influenced agricultural growth.

Hence the change in technology may cause change in the cost of cultivation and quantity of production.

This chapter concentrates on technological differences between the

Conventional method and SRI method of paddy cultivation. The conventional method differ from the SRI method in the case of transplantation of plant, space between plants, weed management, irrigational facilities requirement and fertilizer management.

154

6.1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF SRI METHOD

The following are the basic concepts of SRI method a) Transplantation

This method requires transplanting of younger seedlings of less than 12-15 days. This preserves plant potential for tillering and root growth that is reduced by transplanting later. b) Space between plants

Transplant seedlings at wider spacing between plants helps for improving soil fertility in a good manner. c) Water management

Keeping the soil moist during growth phase of the plant have access both oxygen and water. This reduces the requirement of water and increase the production of paddy. d) Conoweeder

Frequent weeding is preferable in SRI method. For weeding rotating hoe or conoweeder is used. This helps for root growth and to absorb more nutrients from soil. e) Organic manures

Under this method farmers apply organic manures. It improves the growth of plant and reduces cost of production. Using of organic manures helps to maintain yield at high level.

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6.2 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHODS

This part of the study analyse difference in quantity of seeds used for production and sources, usage of leaf colour chart, conoweeder, fertilizers, pesticides and weedicide. This chapter also analyze the training programmes attended by the farmers, impact of training programmes, subsidies and loan received by the farmers from the governmental and non-governmental organizations and the impact of subsidies on yield, future prospects of respondents to undertake agricultural works and reasons for lack of interest in agriculture and level of satisfaction of respondents in availability of various factors.

6.2a Sources of Paddy Seeds to the Respondents

Seed is the essential input for agriculture. Different sources are available to the respondents for receiving paddy seeds, which are required for their cultivation. In this study the respondents specified four sources to receive seeds such as; own source, Agriculture Extension Centre, Primary

Co-operative Societies and individuals. This is shown in table 6.1.

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TABLE - 6.1

SOURCES OF PADDY SEEDS

Number of Respondents Sources of Paddy Total Seeds Conventional SRI Method Method

Own source 61 (41) 35 (23) 96 (32)

Agriculture extension 28 (19) 56 (37) 84 (28) centre

Primary 38 (25) 39 (26) 77 (26) co-operative societies

Individuals 23 (15) 20 (13) 43 (14)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

From the above table 6.1 it is understood that, totally 96 (32%)

farmers have used their own seed for cultivation. They store some

quantity of produce from the previous production and it is used as seed for

next season cultivation. Most of the conventional farmers 61 (41%) use

own seeds than the SRI farmers (23%). SRI farmers get seeds from the

Agricultural Extension Centers and Primary Co-operative Societies. Totally

95 farmers depend upon these sources for their seeds requirement. SRI

farmers mainly received seeds from the Agriculture Extension Centres and

Primary Co-opertative Societies. They use seeds from individual sources

to a lesser level 20 (13%).

157

The major reason for receiving seeds from Government institutions and quasi-Government institution is less cost and avoid diseases in the crops. This result in high returns and less cost of cultivation.

6.2b Quantity of seeds used per acre

Seed is the basic and most critical input for agriculture. The response of all other inputs depends on quality and quantity of seeds to a large extent. Therefore it is necessary to study the quantity of seeds used by the respondents in the study area.

TABLE - 6.2 QUANTITY OF SEEDS USED BY THE RESPONDENTS (in per acre)

Quantity of Number of respondents seeds (in kg Total / acre) Conventional SRI Method Method

Below 15 - 150 (100) 150 (50)

16-30 145 (97) - 145 (48)

Above 31 05 (03) - 05 (02)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

158

Quantity of seed used by the respondents for cultivation is given in the table 6.2. Lessthan 15 kg of seeds is used by 150 (50%) farmers. All the respondents who used less quantity of seeds are the respondents who are following SRI method of paddy cultivation. They have used 3kg or 4kg of seeds only. Out of 150 respondents 145 (48%) respondents of conventional method used 16-30 kg of seeds. More than 31 kg of paddy seed is used by 5 (2%) respondents in the total. All respondents following conventional method used large quantity of seeds for cultivation. From this it is found that, in conventional method more quantity of seeds are required than the SRI method. This is also a reason for rise in cost of production in conventional method.

6.2c Transplanting days required by the respondents

Transplanting refers growing of plants in nursery. Both in conventional and SRI methods of rice production this procedure is followed. But in both the methods transplanting days are different. This process requires large number of labourers. It is labour intensive process and generally requires 25 % of mandays in total mandays of the crop. The table 6.3 shows the number of days and mandays required for transplanting in the study area. From the table it is clear that, in conventional method all the respondents require more number of days and labours for transplantation and in the SRI all the respondents need only less than 15 days and less than 15 man hours for transplantation.

159

TABLE 6.3

NUMBER OF DAYS AND LABOUR HOURS REQUIRED FOR TRANSPLANTING

Mandays and woman Transplanting days No. of No. of days days for transplanting Total mandays & Total required Conventional SRI Conventional SRI womandays Method Method Method Method Less than 15 - 150 150 Less than 15 - 150 150

More than 16 150 - 150 More than 16 150 - 150

Total 150 150 300 Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

160

6.2d Leaf Colour Chart

The Leaf Colour Chart (LCC) is an innovative cost effective tool for

real-time or crop-need-based Nitrogen management in rice production. It

is a simple alternative to chlorophyll meter and soil plant analysis

development. It measures leaf colour intensity that is related to leaf

nitrogen status. This is one of the techniques followed in sustainable

agriculture by the farmers to find the quality of paddy crop.

TABLE - 6.4

LEAF COLOUR CHART USED BY THE RESPONDENTS

Number of Respondents Total Particulars Respondents Conventional Method SRI Method

LCC users 41 (27) 143 (95) 184 (61)

Not users 109 (73) 07 (05) 116 (39)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

Leaf Colour Chart used by the respondents is shown in table 6.4.

There were 184 (61%) respondents who used LCC to verify the quality of

crop at every stage. Of which 143 belong to SRI method and 41 are

conventional method cultivators. Remaining 116 (39%) of the respondents

161 do not use Leaf Colour Chart. They may not be aware of usage and importance of using LCC. In the case of conventional farmers they were not aware about LCC, and only 27% of the respondents used LCC to verify the nature of paddy crop. Remaining 73% in conventional method and 05% in the SRI method are not aware of the usage of LCC in the study area. The impact of LCC on paddy production is analyzed through the chi-square test. The result shows that there is significant difference in paddy production by using LCC in the paddy cultivation. Calculated value

36.76 is greater than the table value 3.84. So, H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted. Hence, a significant difference can be found by using leaf colour chart.

6.2e Fertilizer, Pesticide and Weed management

The issue of nutrient management is a key concern with crop producers. The utilization of an economically efficient combination of commercial fertilizers, pesticides and weedicides needs to balance with environmental considerations. An effective balance contributes to reductions in the risks of nutrient pollution of ground and surface water while potentially enhancing farm productivity and profitability. In conventional agriculture method on an average a farmer is using 277.33

Kg of chemical fertilizer and 140.50 Kg of pesticides. In the case of SRI method they are using 282.66 Kg of Chemical fertilizer and 135.20 Kg of

Pesticides. So in this study an attempt is made to identify the number of respondents correctly followed fertilizer, pesticide and weed management.

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TABLE – 6.5

FERTILIZER, PESTICIDE AND WEED MANAGEMENT FOLLOWED BY THE RESPONDENTS

Fertilizer Pesticide Weed

Management Management Management Total Particulars Total Total Total SRI SRI SRI % CM CM CM Method Method Method

Followed 89 (59) 107 (71) 196 (65) 78 (52) 111 (74) 189 (63) 84 (56) 136 (91) 220 (73) 67

Not followed 61 (41) 43 (29) 104 (35) 72 (48) 39 (26) 111 (37) 66 (44) 14 (09) 80 (27) 33

Total 150 (50) 150 (50) 300 150 (50) 150 (50) 300 150 (50) 150 100 100

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

163

The above table 6.5 shows fertilizer, pesticide and weed management followed by the respondents. Fertilizer management is done by 196 (65%) respondents that is, they are using adequate quantity of fertilizer for the crop. There were 189 (63%) respondents who undertook

Pesticide management and weed management was undertaken by 220

(73%) respondents. Compared to conventional farmers SRI method farmers are following the fertilizer, pesticide and weed management in a proper manner. They found good changes in production or yield by following this process. The proper way of following this process leads to increase in production and less cost of cultivation.

In the study area 67 percent of respondents followed properly and

33 percent did not follow properly. The major reason for not following the fertilizer, pesticide and weed management is lack of awareness and training. They need more training on this case.

164

6.2f Utilization of Conoweeder by the Respondents

Conoweeder equipment is used to weed the field. This agriculture

equipment is also known by various names like wet land weeder, SRI

weeder, Finger weeder, Rotary weeder, Hand operated weeder and CIAE

weeder. This hand operated manual machine helps to make weeding an

easy process. Under SRI method of cultivation it plays a very important

role. It is used in the place of weedicide. On an average it is used for 5

times during the production of paddy at one season. Hence the

researcher collected data about conoweeder users and it is shown in table

6.6.

TABLE – 6.6

NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS UTILIZING CONOWEEDER

Number of Respondents Particulars Conventional Total SRI Method Method Cono-weeder users 30 (20) 140 (93) 170 (57)

Respondents do not 120 (80) 10 (07) 130 (43) use

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The above table 6.6 shows the number of respondents utilized

conoweeders. There were 170 respondents used conoweeders and they

165 are mostly the farmers who are following SRI method of paddy cultivation.

The remaining respondents used weedicide in their field for cultivation. In conventional method there is no gap between the plants. But 30 respondents in traditional method also adopted conoweeders instead of weedicide with the help of agricultural research centres.

In SRI method majority (140 out of 150) of respondents used cono weeder for weed management. Only 10 respondents were not used cono weeder the reason for this they are lack in knowledge of using this technology.

Researcher made a hypothesis that, there is no association between using of conoweeder and level of production. The calculated value is greater than the table value (11.475 > 3.84). So, the hypothesis is rejected and hence, there is a association between using of conoweeder and the production of paddy.

6.2g Training programme attended by the Respondents

Training is valuable for any kind of work since it increases knowledge, skills and attitude of people and also helps to get beyond the usual work. Strengthening of training and extension programme to the farmers for increasing agriculture production by organizing training

166 provides them better livelihood. Agricultural training programme are aimed at building the capacity of people for sustainable social and economic development.

For agricultural farmers training is provided through different level by different organizations. The training classes may be conducted on specific topics like use of agricultural inputs, cropping pattern and cultivation methods. The farmers gain much information through these training sessions which leads to an increase in income and productivity of farmers. Therefore in this study the researcher focused the information relating to training programme attended by the respondents. The table 6.7 shows the number of respondents attended training programme.

TABLE – 6.7

NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS ATTENDED TRAINING PROGRAMMES

Frequency

Particulars Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Attended 88 (59) 114 (76) 202 (67)

Not attended 62 (41) 36 (24) 98 (33)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

167

From above table it is understood that, 202 (67%) respondents who were included in the study had undergone training. They are mainly

(114/202, 76%) following SRI method of paddy cultivation. They need training in various processes like forming nursery, transplanting, manure the crop, using of conoweeder, using of fertilizer and pesticide etc. Under this method certain respondents did not attend any training programme, instead received guidance from the experienced farmers.

In the case of Conventional method, only 88 (59%) respondents were undergone training. Their main objectives to attend such training programme are to increase yield and to know the new techniques in production of paddy cultivation. This shows that, both category of the respondents have awareness about the training programme and its importance in improvement of production.

6.2h Impact of Training Programme

Agricultural Training programme were organized by the governmental and non-governmental organizations regarding cropping methods and use of latest agricultural technology in order to increase crop productivity and income of the farming community. This kind of programme may create some positive impact on the trainees. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the effectiveness of the training programme to

168

the farmers in the study area. The following are the opinions of the

respondents regarding training programme.

TABLE – 6.8

IMPACT OF TRAINING PROGRAMME ON RESPONDENTS

Number of respondents

Impact Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Highly useful 64 (72) 86 (75) 150 (74)

Partly useful 20 (23) 28 (25) 48 (24)

Not useful 04 (05) 00 04 (02)

Total 88 (44) 114 (56) 202

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

Impact of training programme is given in table 6.8. Majority of the

farmers (150/202) opined that training program was highly useful and 24%

of the respondents felt that training programme provided only partial

benefit to them. And few respondents mentioned that, they do not gain

anything from the training programme. From this it is understood that the

respondents who attended training programe gained knowledge and they

implemented in their production activities. It make changes in their

169

cropping pattern and use of agricultural inputs like, seeds, agricultural

equipments and irrigation techniques.

6.2i Training Institutions

Agricultural training programme are organized by various

institutions like, Agricultural University, Co-operative societies, Agricultural

Research institutes and many Non-Governmental organizations. Table 6.9

shows the sources of training programmes attended by the respondents in

the study area.

TABLE – 6.9

SOURCES OF TRAINING

Number of Respondents

Particulars Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Agricultural University 20 (23) 31(27) 51 (25)

Primary Co-operative societies 43 (49) 54 (47) 97 (48)

Agricultural Research Institutes 19 (21) 25 (22) 44 (22)

Non-Governmental Organizations 06 (07) 04 (04) 10 (05)

Total 88 (44) 114 (56) 202

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

170

In this study respondents received training from the various institutions, like, agricultural University, Co-operative society, agricultural research institution and non-Governmental organizations. Out of 202 respondents who atteneded training programme 97 respondents attended training programme in Co-operative societies. Next to this many respondents had attended in agricultural university and agricultural research institutions (51 (25%) and 44 (22%) respectively). Non- governmental organizations like Dr. M.S.Swaminathan Agricultural

Research Foundation, Annai Sathya Voluntary Service Society etc. are also conducting training programmes to the farmers. In this study 10 respondents had attended the training programe organized by such institutions. Through this analysis it is understood that, both the

Governmental and Non-governmental organizations are conducting training programme for the welfare of the farmers in the study area which has considerably improved the socio-economic conditions of the respondents.

6.2j Subsidy from Governmental and Non-Governmental organizations

Subsidies are a kind of incentive which plays an important role in economic development of developing countries since it brings out desired change in cost of production and income of the farmers. An agricultural subsidy is a governmental subsidy paid to farmers and agri businesses to

171

supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities,

and influence the cost and supply of such commodities. So, researcher

collected information regarding subsidy received by respondents in the

study area.

TABLE – 6.10 SUBSIDY RECEIVED BY THE RESPONDENTS

Number of Respondents

Subsidy Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Received 118 (79) 141 (94) 259 (86)

Not received 32 (21) 09 (06) 41 (14)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

From the table6.10 it is understood that, out of 300 respondents

259 (86%) received subsidy from both the governmental and non-

governmental organizations. There were 41 (14%) respondents who did

not receive subsidy. Majority of the respondents (238 (92%) out of 259)

received in the form of equipments like conoweeder, baskets, etc. and the

remaining 21 (8%) respondents received in the form of seeds, fertilizers

and pesticides.

172

6.2k Impact of Subsidy on cost of production

The following table indicates the impact of subsidy on cost of

production of paddy in the study area.

TABLE – 6.11

IMPACT OF SUBSIDY ON COST OF CULTIVATION

Number of Respondents

Impact of subsidy Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Reduction in cost of 54 (46) 115 (82) 169 (65) Production

No change in cost of 64 (54) 26 (18) 90 (35) production

Total 118 (46) 141 (54) 259

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

From the table 6.11 it is implied that there is a close association

between the subsidy and cost of production. Because, most of the

respondents (169 65%) agreed that receiving of subsidy reduces their

financial burden and overall cost of production. Therefore subsidies

provided by the governmental and non-governmental organizations

reduce the cost of cultivation substantially.

173

6.2l Credit Received by the Respondents

Agricultural loans are available for multitude of farming purposes.

Farmers may apply for loans to buy inputs for the cultivation. There are

also special loans to finance the purchase of agricultural machinery such

as tractors, harvesters and trucks. Construction of irrigation systems as

well as the purchase of agricultural land may also be financed through

special types of agricultural finance. The table 6.12 indicates the number

of respondents received loan from the financial institutions for different

purposes.

TABLE – 6.12

RESPONDENTS AVAILED CREDIT FACILITY

Number of Respondents Credit facility Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Availed 51(34) 72 (48) 123 (41)

Not availed 99 (66) 78 (52) 177 (59)

Total 150 150 300 Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

Table 6.12 shows the number of respondents received loan from

Co-operative societies, Commercial banks and non-government

organizations. There are 123 respondents (41%) who received loan for the

174

purpose of improvement of land, purchase of machinery like trucks,

tractors and other agricultural inputs. In this study SRI method

respondents (72 (48%)) availed credit facility in more number than the

conventional method respondents. The remaining 177 (59%) did not avail

loan facilities during the study period and used their own money and few

received loan from their friends, relatives and money lenders for their

urgent requirement.

6.2m Amount of credit availed by the respondents

Credit amount availed by a farmer is determined based on the

value of land area of per acre. In the study there were 123 respondents

who received loan for agricultural requirements. The table 6.13 presents

amount of credit availed by the respondents during the study.

TABLE – 6.13

AMOUNT OF CREDIT RECEIVED BY THE RESPONDENTS Number of Respondents Credit Amount Conventional Total (in Rs.) SRI Method Method

Not Received 99 (66) 78 (52) 177 (59)

Less than 25000 23 (15) 11 (07) 34 (11)

25001-50000 21 (14) 47 (32) 68 (23)

More than 50001 07 (05) 14 (09) 21 (07)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

175

In this study, the credit amount received by the respondents is classified into three categories like, less than Rs. 25000, Rs. 25001-50000 and more than Rs. 50001, based on the data provided by the respondents in the study area. There are more number of SRI method of respondents

72 (41%) out of 47 who availed credit. They used the amount to buy the modern agricultural techniques. There are 14 respondents of the same category of the respondents who borrowed more than Rs.50001 to adopt the new technology. In the conventional method only 51 respondents had availed credit and mostly fall in the first two categories. Only 7 respondents borrowed more than Rs.50001.

6.2n Credit Institutions

The respondents received loan from the various institutions like,

Co-operative societies, Commercial bank and non-governmental organizations. They provide loan facilities for agricultural development for the members and the person maintaining account. These institutions fix the credit amount based on the value of security received from the people.

The details relating to loan provided by the various institutions are given below.

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TABLE – 6.14 SOURCES OF LOAN IN THE STUDY AREA

Number of Respondents Particulars Total Conventional SRI Method Method

Co-operative societies 25 (49) 39 (54) 64 (52)

Commercial Bank 19 (37) 27 (38) 46 (37)

Non-Governmental 07 (14) 06 (08) 13 (11) organizations

Total 51 72 123

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The source from where the respondents availed credit is given in

the table 6.14. Co-operative societies play an important role in providing

agriculture loan. Totally 64 (52%) respondents out of 123 availed loan

from co-operative societies. From the Commercial banks, 46 respondents

availed loan facilities and from the Non-Governmental organization 13

respondents availed loan. Both the conventional and SRI method

respondents highly used co-operative societies for their credit

requirements.

This implies that, financial institutions significantly contribute their

role for the development of agriculture in the study area. It is understood

177

from the study that certain respondents face some difficulties in availing

credit from these institutions. Majority of the respondents (82%) face delay

in sanction of loan amount.

6.2o Future prospect of respondents to do agriculture

This study also analyzed the preference of respondents to undergo

agricultural activities in future. Researcher has collected data relating

willingness and unwillingness of the respondents which is presented in

table 6.15.

TABLE – 6.15

INTEREST OF RESPONDENTS TO DO AGRICULTURE IN FUTURE

Number of respondents Nature of Total interest Conventional SRI Method Method

Willing 41 (27) 67 (45) 108 (36)

Not willing 109 (73) 83 (55) 192 (64)

Total 150 150 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The above table shows the interest of the respondents to engage in

agriculture in future. In total only 36 percent of respondents express their

positive opinion to involve their family members in agriculture; and they

178 are mostly 67 (45%) adopting SRI method of paddy cultivation. Remaining respondents 192 (64%) were not willing to force their heirs and other members to join in the agriculture. The reason for lack of willingness is given in the table 6.16.

6.2p Reasons for unwillingness in agricultural activities

Most of the farmers are unwilling to undertake agricultural activities for reasons such as, not remunerative, no interest, don’t want to continue, labour problem and no respect in agriculture. The major problems faced by the respondents in the study area are presented in the table 6.16.

179

TABLE – 6.16

REASONS FOR LACK OF INTEREST IN AGRICULTURE

Number of Respondents Reason for lack of Total interest Conventional SRI Method Method

Low Remuneration 38 (35) 26 (31) 64 (33)

Not Interested 14 (13) 10 (12) 24 (13)

Don’t want to 20 (18) 11 (13) 31 (16) continue in future

Labour Problem 22 (20) 17 (21) 39 (20)

No Respect 15 (14) 19 (23) 34 (18)

Total 109 (57) 83 (43) 192

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The above table 6.16 indicates various reasons for lack of

willingness to engage in agricultural activities by the respondents. From

table it is understood that, low remuneration is the major problem in

agriculture. This reason was mentioned by 38 (35%) of conventional

respondents 26 (31%) of SRI method respondents. In the conventional the

respondents also suffered by labour problem because, most of the

agricultural labour has turned out for other occupations like 100 days

employment programme. In the case of SRI method of cultivation next to

remuneration they face problem in the sense of lack of respect to

180 agriculturist. Due to this most of the respondents do not engage their family members in agriculture and prefer to do white collar jobs. In conventional method the respondents are facing many difficulties than the

SRI method.

6.3 LEVEL OF SATISFACTION OF RESPONDENTS

The level of satisfaction of respondents in various aspects like availability of labour, availability of credit, availability of subsidy, availability of technology and income of the respondents are presented in this chapter. Their satisfaction level is classified into three categories such as, low, medium and high.

181

TABLE- 6.17

LEVEL OF SATISFACTION OF RESPONDENTS IN VARIOUS FACTORS

Level of satisfaction

Factors High Medium Low Total

Conventional Conventional Conventional SRI Method Total SRI Method Total SRI Method Total Method Method Method

Availability of Inputs 61 (27) 96 (20) 157 (22) 63 (18) 39 (15) 102 (17) 26 (09) 15 (09) 41 (08) 300

Availability of labour 40 (18) 67 (14) 107(15) 64 (18) 41 (16) 105 (17) 46 (14) 42 (25) 88 (18) 300

Income Generation 12 (05) 86 (18) 98 (14) 32 (09) 43 (17) 75 (12) 106 (33) 21 (12) 127 (26) 300

Availability of Technology 24 (11) 93 (19) 117 (17) 81 (23) 30 (12) 111 (18) 45 (14) 27 (16) 72 (15) 300

Availability of subsidy 54 (24) 90 (19) 144 (21) 44 (12) 38 (15) 82 (14) 52 (16) 22 (13) 74 (15) 300

Availability of credit 33 (15) 45 (10) 78 (11) 72 (20) 62 (25) 134 (22) 45 (14) 43 (25) 88 (18) 300

Total 224 (32) 477 (68) 701 356 (58) 253 (42) 609 320 (65) 170 (35) 490 1800

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

182

Level of satisfaction in conventional method and SRI method was compared with reference to various factors like availability of inputs, labour, technology, subsidy, income and credit. In this study the level of satisfaction is classified into high, medium and low level.

In the case of SRI method the large number of respondents was highly satisfied in availability of inputs, labour, technology, subsidy and income. They hold low level of satisfaction in availability of labour (14%) and availability of credit (10%). In conventional method, the respondents have only low level of satisfaction (32%); only 5% of respondents have high level of satisfaction in income aspect. In the remaining factors also their number is less, compared to the SRI method. In lower level of satisfaction the under conventional method is more than the SRI method.

The result of the above analysis is, in SRI method the respondents have high level of satisfaction (68%) and in conventional method the level of satisfaction of respondents is lower level (65%).

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6.3a Level of satisfaction of respondents in conventional method

The level of satisfaction of respondents in conventional method is

measured with the help of Likert scale and presented in the table 6.18.

TABLE – 6.18

LEVEL OF SATISFACTION OF RESPONDENTS USING LIKERT SCALE – CONVENTIONAL METHOD

Level of satisfaction Likert Rank Factors Total High Medium Low Value

Inputs availability 61 (183) 63 (126) 26 (26) 335 1 1

Labour 40 (120) 64 (128) 46 (46) 294 0.88 3

Income 12 (36) 32 (64) 106 (106) 206 0.61 6

Technology 24 (72) 81 (162) 45 (45) 279 0.83 5

Subsidy 54 (162) 44 (88) 52 (52) 302 0.90 2

Credit availability 33 (99) 72 (144) 45 (45) 288 0.86 4

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent likert scale value)

Level of satisfaction of respondents in conventional method is

analyzed with the help of likert scale. From this analysis we could

understood that the respondents have highest level of satisfaction in

availability of inputs. The likert scale shows 1st rank for availability of

inputs. Next to this they have satisfaction in availability of subsidy, labour,

184

credit and technology. The respondents have least satisfaction in income

earnings, because their income is very low.

6.3b Level of satisfaction of respondents in SRI Method

Level of satisfaction of respondents in SRI method is measured

with the help of Likert scale and it is given in the table 6.19.

TABLE – 6.19

LEVEL OF SATISFACTION OF RESPONDENTS USING LIKERT SCALE – SRI METHOD Level of satisfaction Total Value Rank Factors High Medium Low

Inputs availability 96 (288) 39 (78) 15 (15) 381 1 1

Labour 67 (201) 41 (82) 42 (42) 325 0.85 5

Income 86 (258) 43 (86) 21 (21) 365 0.95 4

Technology 93 (279) 30 (60) 27 (27) 366 0.96 3

Subsidy 90 (270) 38 (76) 22 (22) 368 0.97 2

Credit availability 45 (135) 62 (124) 43 (43) 302 0.79 6

Source: Primary data, (Figures in parenthesis represent likert scale value)

From the above table 6.19 it is understood that in the SRI method

the respondents have greater satisfaction in availability of inputs like

185 seeds, fertilizers and pesticides followed by availability of subsidy, technology, income earning and availability of labour. They were least satisfied in availability of credit from the commercial banks and co- operative societies.

6.3c Level of satisfaction with age, income and experience

The level of satisfaction of respondents can be compared with their age, income and experience. Because satisfaction and opinion of the people may vary for different age group people, income level of the people and experience in the work they undertake. In this study the researcher formed hypotheses to test the relationship between age, income and experience with level of satisfaction.

6.3c1 Age and level of satisfaction

The table 6.20 presents the age-wise level of satisfaction of respondents under conventional method and SRI method of paddy cultivation.

H0: There is no difference in level of satisfaction between different age groups.

186

TABLE – 6.20

SATISFACTION LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS – AGE WISE

Age of Level of satisfaction Total respondents High Medium Low

Below 25 3 (05) 8 (07) 5 (04) 16 (05)

25-40 14 (23) 28 (23) 17 (15) 59 (20)

40-55 23 (37) 42 (35) 32 (27) 97 (32)

55-70 18 (29) 36 (30) 53 (45) 107 (36)

Above 70 4 (06) 6 (05) 11 (09) 21 (07)

Total 62 (21) 120 (40) 118 (39) 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The chi-square result of the age-wise level of satisfaction of

respondents is presented in the table 6.21.

TABLE – 6.21

AGE-WISE SATISFACTION OF RESPONDENTS (Chi-square Result)

Calculated Degree of Factor Table value Remarks value freedom

Age 11.430 15.5 8 5 % significant

187

From the chi-square test one can understand that calculated value is less than the table value (11.430 < 15.5). Hence, the null hypothesis Ho is accepted and it can be concluded that the level of satisfaction does not vary between different age groups.

6.3c2 Income and level of satisfaction

The respondent’s satisfaction level may vary based on the income earned by them. Thus, in this study level of satisfaction is compared with the income earned by the respondents and it is furnished in the table 6.22

H0: There is no association between the income of the respondents and level of satisfaction

188

TABLE – 6.22

SATISFACTION LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS – INCOME-WISE

Income of Level of satisfaction Respondents Total (in Rs.) High Medium Low

Below 10000 - - 3 (02) 3 (01)

10001-20000 4 (09) 9 (10) 10 (06) 23 (08)

20001-30000 7 (16) 26 (29) 75 (45) 108 (36)

30001-40000 12 (27) 39 (43) 78 (47) 129 (43)

40001-50000 15 (34) 15 (17) - 30 (10)

Above 50001 6 (14) 1 (01) - 7 (02)

Total 44 (15) 90 (30) 166 (55) 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The result of the chi-square test is presented in the table 6.23.

TABLE – 6.23

INCOME-WISE SATISFACTION OF RESPONDENTS (Chi-square Result)

Calculated X2 Degree of Factor Table value Remarks value freedom

Income of 91.670 18.3 10 5 % significant Respondents

189

Chi-square results show that calculated value is more than the table value (91.670>18.3). Therefore the hypothesis is rejected and there is a significant difference in level of satisfaction of respondents with different income level.

6.3c3 Experience and level of satisfaction

Changes in Level of satisfaction may occur due to the experience of the respondents which is given in the table 6.24.

H0: There is no relationship between experience and level of satisfaction of the respondents.

190

TABLE – 6.24

EXPERIENCE AND LEVEL OF SATISFACTION OF

RESPONDENTS

Experience in Level of satisfaction Total agriculture High Medium Low

Less than 5 02 (03) 03 (02) 02 (02) 07 (03)

6-10 5 (08) 14 (12) 11 (10) 30 (10)

11-15 12 (18) 22 (18) 15 (13) 49 (16)

More than 16 46 (71) 82 (68) 86 (75) 214 (71)

Total 65 (22) 121 (40) 114 (38) 300

Source: Primary data (Figures in parenthesis represent percentage)

The chi-square result between level of satisfaction and experience

in agriculture is given in the table number 6.25.

TABLE – 6.25

EXPERIENCE AND LEVEL OF SATISFACTION (chi-square test Result)

Calculated x2 Degree of Factor Table value Remarks value freedom

Experience 15.913 12.6 6 5 % significant

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The chi squared value is less than the table value and hence the hypothesis is not true (15.913<12.6). That is there is association between the experience and level of satisfaction of the respondents.

From the above analysis it could be understood that the conventional method and the SRI method of paddy cultivation differ technically. In the SRI method the farmers used only less quantity of seeds (3 to 4kg) and followed the new technologies like using of leaf colour chart, conoweeder etc.; and fertilizer, pesticide and weed management also followed by them in large number (79%).

Through this study it is also understood that, 202 respondents attended training programme organized by the governmental and non- governmental organizations. And majority of the respondents attended such trainings in primary co-operative societies. Only 41% of respondents received credit and they mostly received from the co-operative societies.

Among the respondents 108 only willing to continue the agricultural activities with the involvement of their family member and the remaining are unwilling due to lower remuneration and labour problems.

In this study level of satisfaction of respondents were also analysed with the help of chi-squared test and likert scale. From this analysis it could be proved that there is association between the age and level of satisfaction, experience and level of satisfaction but the level of satisfaction of respondents vary based on the income earned by them.

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6.4 Discriminant analysis of Conventional and SRI method

Discriminant analysis is a statistical technique used to determine which variables discriminate between two or more naturally occurring groups. Discriminant analysis begins with the desire to statically differentiate between two or more group and predict the group a new case would fall. It is a method used to classify an observation into one or several of a priori groupings dependent upon the individual characteristics.

The discriminant function approach is an effective tool for classifying cases into the value of a categorical dependent, mostly a dichotomy. It is used to investigate differences between groups and to discard variables, which are little related to group distinction. If the means for a variable are significantly different in different groups, then this variable discriminates between the two groups.

Computation of discriminant analysis depends on the number of groups. In the case of two groups, discriminant analysis generates a linear discriminant function. Discriminant analysis attempts to do this by forming one or more linear combination of the discriminating variables. For instance, consider a set of variables x1, x2 ……xn by which is desired to discriminate between two groups as follows,

Z = a + W1X1 + W2X2 + …….. WnXn ……………. (5.5)

Where:

Z = Total score on the discriminant function,

193 a = constant

Ws = Weights or discriminant function coefficients

Xi …..Xn = discriminating variables scores.

Utilizing the weights of the discriminant function, the importance and relative importance values of each characteristic can be obtained.

Such importance values make it possible to evaluate each characteristic in terms of its contribution to the difference between the two groups. The importance value of the characteristic (li) is obtained as follows:

Li = Wi (xia-xib) …………. (5.6)

Where wi is the discriminant function coefficient of the ith characteristics and (xia- xib) shows the differences in the group means for the two groups. A relative importance value can be computed to show the importance value of a particular characteristic relative to the sum of the importance value of all characteristics. That is, the relative importance value of the ith characteristics (R1) is given by:

( ) R1 = i= 1……….n …………..(5.7) ∑ ( )

The following are the results of discriminant analysis between conventional and SRI method of cultivation in Thanjavur district.

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TABLE - 6.26 GROUP STATISTICS OF CONVENTIONAL AND SRI METHOD

Std. Valid N (listwise) SRI and Conventional Mean Deviation Unweighted Weighted Conventional Age 3.15 1.006 150 150.000 Education 3.17 1.483 150 150.000 Gender 1.13 .334 150 150.000 Religion 1.97 .882 150 150.000 Matrial status 1.11 .318 150 150.000

Size of farm 2.45 1.065 150 150.000 Nature of land 1.77 .899 150 150.000 Ownership of land 2.47 .791 150 150.000 Experience in agri 3.37 .840 150 150.000 Nature of crop 1.88 1.003 150 150.000 Knowledge about TP 1.41 .494 150 150.000 Knowledge about tr 1.11 .310 150 150.000 institutions Knowledge about 1.11 .318 150 150.000 agricultural methods Knowledge about 1.32 .468 150 150.000 technologies SRI Age 3.24 1.001 150 150.000 Education 3.31 1.639 150 150.000 Gender 1.22 .416 150 150.000 Religion 1.74 .798 150 150.000 Marital status 1.19 .391 150 150.000 Size of farm 2.12 .989 150 150.000 Nature of land 1.71 .797 150 150.000 Ownership of land 2.64 .678 150 150.000 Experience in agriculture 3.00 .905 150 150.000 Nature of crop 1.71 1.089 150 150.000 Knowledge about Training 1.24 .429 150 150.000 Programme Knowledge about training 1.00 .000 150 150.000 institutions

195

Knowledge about 1.04 .197 150 150.000 agricultural methods Knowledge about 1.01 .115 150 150.000 technologies Total Age 3.19 1.003 300 300.000 Education 3.24 1.562 300 300.000 Gender 1.17 .379 300 300.000 Religion 1.86 .848 300 300.000

Matrial status 1.15 .358 300 300.000 Size of farm 2.28 1.039 300 300.000 Nature of land 1.74 .848 300 300.000 Ownership of land 2.55 .741 300 300.000 Experience in agri 3.19 .891 300 300.000 Nature of crop 1.80 1.048 300 300.000 Knowledge about TP 1.33 .470 300 300.000 Knowledge about tr 1.05 .225 300 300.000 institutions

Knowledge about 1.08 .267 300 300.000 agricultural methods Knowledge about 1.17 .373 300 300.000 technologies Source: Primary data

In table 6.26 with the help of discriminant analysis group

membership was predicted. This enables to examine whether there are

any significant difference between groups on each of the independent

variables using group means and ANOVA results data. Age and

experience are the good discriminators. This was obtained by inspecting

the group means and standard deviations.

196

TABLE – 6.27 TESTS OF EQUALITY OF GROUP MEANS

Variables Wilks' Lambda F df1 df2 Sig. Age .998 .649 1 298 .421 Gender .985 4.599 1 298 .033 Education .998 .602 1 298 .438 Religion .981 5.774 1 298 .017 Matrial status .989 3.176 1 298 .076 Size of farm .975 7.573 1 298 .006 Nature of land .999 .374 1 298 .541 Ownership of land .986 4.148 1 298 .043 Experience in agriculture .956 13.717 1 298 .000 Nature of crop .994 1.901 1 298 .169 Knowledge about Training Programme .966 10.536 1 298 .001 Knowledge about training institutions .944 17.791 1 298 .000 Knowledge about agricultural methods .981 5.769 1 298 .017 Knowledge about technology .831 60.725 1 298 .000 Source: Primary data

Table 6.27 provides strong statistical evidence of significant

differences between means of SRI and conventional for all variables with

knowledge about technology, knowledge about training institutes,

experience in agriculture and knowledge about training programme

producing high value F’s.

197

TABLE – 6.28 POOLED WITHIN-GROUPS MATRICES

Conv. / SRI X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14

Corre X1 1.000 .920 .553 .835 .533 .865 .808 .797 .853 .757 .696 .392 .469 .554

lation X2 .920 1.000 .617 .901 .580 .929 .878 .771 .881 .828 .771 .345 .432 .548

X3 .553 .617 1.000 .647 .917 .663 .679 .266 .458 .797 .697 .568 .658 .378

X4 .835 .901 .647 1.000 .590 .879 .935 .638 .807 .878 .863 .299 .377 .606

X5 .533 .580 .917 .590 1.000 .632 .631 .245 .417 .765 .636 .610 .711 .364

X6 .865 .929 .663 .879 .632 1.000 .870 .710 .856 .880 .805 .370 .465 .578

X7 .808 .878 .679 .935 .631 .870 1.000 .538 .718 .916 .883 .354 .427 .701

X8 .797 .771 .266 .638 .245 .710 .538 1.000 .839 .474 .453 .177 .193 .352

X9 .853 .881 .458 .807 .417 .856 .718 .839 1.000 .697 .622 .176 .242 .362

X10 .757 .828 .797 .878 .765 .880 .916 .474 .697 1.000 .886 .409 .518 .633

X11 .696 .771 .697 .863 .636 .805 .883 .453 .622 .886 1.000 .311 .399 .632

X12 .392 .345 .568 .299 .610 .370 .354 .177 .176 .409 .311 1.000 .822 .489

X13 .469 .432 .658 .377 .711 .465 .427 .193 .242 .518 .399 .822 1.000 .502

X14 .554 .548 .378 .606 .364 .578 .701 .352 .362 .633 .632 .489 .502 1.000 Source: Primary data *X1- Age, X2- Education, X3- Gender, X4- Religion, X5-Marital status, X6- Size of land, X7- Nature of land, X8-Ownership of land, X9- Experience in agriculture, X10-Nature of crop, X11Knowledge about training programme, X12-Knowledge about training institutions, X13- Knowledge about agricultural methods, X14- Knowledge about technology

Table 6.28 Provides pooled within groups matrices. This helps to

understand the inter-correlations between independent variables. This

study analysed that inter-correlations are high between the variables.

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TABLE 6.29 LOG DETERMINANTS

SRI & Conventional Rank Log Determinant Conventional 12 29.894 SRI 12 27.038 Pooled within-groups 12 27.377

TABLE 6.30 BOX’S M TEST RESULT TABLE Test Results Box’s M 66.474

F Approx. 9.615 Df1 36 Df2 300825.3 Sig. .000

In ANOVA, an assumption is that the variances were equivalent for each group but in DA the basic assumption is that the variance and covariance matrices are equivalent. Box’s M tests the null hypothesis that the covariance matrices do not differ between groups formed by the dependent. The researcher wants this test not to be significant so that the null hypothesis that the groups do not differ can be retained. In this study the log determinants appear similar and Box’s M is 66.474 with F= 9.615 which is significant at p< .000.

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TABLE 6.31 EIGEN VALUES

Funct ion Eigen value % of Variance Cumulative % Canonical Correlation

1 1.744a 100.0 100.0 .797 a. First 1 canonical discriminant functions were used in the analysis.

TABLE 6.32 WILKS' LAMBDA

Test of Function(s) Wilks' Lambda Chi-square Df Sig. 1 .364 294.728 12 .000

Eigen value provides information on each of the discriminate

functions produced. The maximum number of discriminant functions

produced is the number of groups minus 1. In this study two groups

namely SRI and Conventional, so only one function is displayed. The

canonical correlation is the multiple correlations between the predictors

and the discriminant function. With only one function it provides an index

of overall model fit which is interpreted as being the proportion of variance

explained (R2).

In this study, a canonical correlation of .797 suggests the model

explains 63.6% of the variation in the grouping variables. And table 5.20

indicates a highly significant function (p<.000) and provides the proportion

of total variability not explained, i.e. it is the converse of the squared

canonical correlation. Hence, 36.4% of variables are unexplained.

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TABLE 6.33 STANDARDIZED CANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION COEFFICIENTS

Function Variables 1 Age -.426 Education .888 Gender -.366 Religion .685 Size of farm .706 Nature of land -.324 Ownership of land -.467 Experience in agriculture -.872 Nature of crop -.707 Knowledge about Training Programme .607 Knowledge about training institutions .400 Knowledge about technology .794

Source: Primary data

The interpretation of the discriminant coefficients is like that in multiple regressions. Table 6.33 provides an index of the importance of each predictor like the standardized regression coefficient (beta’s) did in multiple regression. The sign indicates the direction of the relationship.

Education score was the strongest predictor and experience in agriculture was next in importance as a predictor. These two variables with large coefficients stand out as those that strongly predict allocation to the SRI or

Conventional group. The remaining variables were less successful as predictors.

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TABLE 6.34 STRUCTURE MATRIX

Function Variables 1 Knowledge about technology .342 Knowledge about training institutions .185 Experience in agriculture .162 Knowledge about Training Programme .142 Size of farm .121 Religion .105 Knowledge about agricultural methods .098 Gender -.094 Ownership of land -.089 Marital status -.087 Nature of crop .060 Age -.035 Education -.034 Nature of land .027 Source: Primary data

Table 6.34 provides another way of indicating the relative importance of the predicators is possible through the structure matrix. The structure matrix correlations are more accurate than the Standardized

Canonical Discriminant Function Coefficient. The above table shows the correlations of each variable with each discriminate function. These

Pearson coefficients are structure coefficient or discriminant loadings.

They serve like factor loadings in factor analysis. By identifying the largest loadings for each discriminate function the researcher gains insight into how to name each function. In this study knowledge about agricultural

202 technology suggest a label of personal confidence and effectiveness as the function that discriminates between conventional and SRI methods.

TABLE 6.35 CANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION COEFFICIENTS

Function Variables 1 Age -.424 Education -.568 Gender -.970 Religion .814 Size of farm .687 Nature of land -.385 Ownership of land -.537 Experience in agriculture .944 Nature of crop -.676 Knowledge about Training .312 Programme Knowledge about training .824 institutions Knowledge about technology .831 (Constant) -4.406 Source: Primary data

These unstandardized coefficients (b) are used to create the discriminant function. It operates just like a regression equation. In this study D= (-.424 x age) + (-.568 x education) +……. (.831 x knowledge about technology) -4.406. The discriminant function coefficients b or standardized form beta both indicate the partial contribution of each variable to the discriminate function controlling for all other variables in the equation. They can be used to assess each variable’s unique contribution

203 to the discriminate function and therefore provide information on the relative importance of each variable.

TABLE 6.36 FUNCTIONS AT GROUP CENTROIDS

Function SRI not SRI 1 Conventional 1.125 SRI -1.316 Source: Primary data

A further way of interpreting discriminant analysis results is to describe each group in terms of its profile, using the group means of the predictor variables. These group means are called centroids. These are displayed in the group centroids table 6.36. In this study Conventional group have a mean of 1.125 and SRI group produce a mean of -1.316.

From this analysis it can be concluded that experience in agriculture, knowledge about training institutes, knowledge about training programme, education and age are the major predictors under these two methods.

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CHAPTER VII FINDINGS, SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION

In this chapter an attempt is made to summarise the findings of the study results and offer suggestions to the government, farmers and researchers.

Since the early 1980’s the area under high yielding varieties of paddy has gained momentum. There has been a remarkable increase in the coverage area by high yielding varieties since the programme was initiated back in 1966-67. The production of paddy cultivation showed steep growth due to advance in science and technology. Though nearly

52% of the working population of the country has contributed for agriculture and its allied activities, there was depression in national economy. During the post-green revolution period, rising output per hectare replace expansion of cropland as the predominant source of agricultural growth in India. The transition from agricultural extensification to intensification was probably most noticeable in Asia, where population density is relatively high and land scarcity is most acute. Sustaining productivity growth in agriculture continues to be critical for achieving food security, poverty eradication and broad-based economic growth.

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In this research work researcher made an attempt to compare the conventional rice production with System of Rice Intensification (SRI). SRI was developed in Madagaskar over a period of 20 years and it was introduced in 2005 in Tamilnadu. When compared with conventional method, average rice yield can be doubled and the cost of production can be reduced under SRI method.

In Tamilnadu, Thanjavur district is one of the most important districts where much progress has been made in agriculture because of the prevailing climatic conditions. The new agricultural strategies responsible for increasing productivity, and adoption of SRI method met with ready response. The total paddy cultivation under SRI method had been showing a progressive increase from year to year in the five principle food crops namely, paddy, wheat, maize, jowar and bajra.

The study had also examined the factors that had influenced agricultural production prospects of the farmers in Thanjavur district which were representative of the Technological paddy cultivation in Thanjavur district chosen for the purpose of the study. Twenty villages in the

Kumbakonam block were chosen. The study was based on both the primary and the secondary data. The survey was conducted between July

2010 and December 2011.

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The proportionate multi-stage random sampling technique had been adopted to select respondents. The sample size of 300 paddy cultivators was selected from twenty villages in Kumbakonam block. The selected samples were stratified into two categories, namely farmers using conventional method for paddy cultivation and farmers using SRI method for cultivating paddy with each strata representing 150 respondents.

In the foregoing chapters, a comprehensive study of the impact of conventional method and SRI method on various variables such as cost and return structure, nature and net income per acre determinants of yield, return to scale, nature of technical biases and factor shares in total income were discussed. The major findings and conclusions are presented in the ensuing chapter.

7.1 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY

Paddy is the principal crop grown in all the seasons in Thanjavur district which is located in riverbed of Kaveri in Tamilnadu. The paddy production has decreased, from 323,251 tonnes in 2005-06 to 162,938 tonnes during 2009-2010.

Kumbakonam Block is comprised of 84 villages and they rely on agriculture for major source of income. Paddy production is constant and

207 there is no major change in area production in the study area. The total area of paddy cultivation was 15299 hectare in 2007-2008, 15049 ha. in

2009-10 and this has slightly increased to 15505 ha. during the year 2010-

11.

Out of 300 respondents 248 (83%) were male and 52 (17%) were female. Among 52 female cultivators 33 (63%) adopted SRI method of paddy cultivation. In this study the respondents engaged in agricultural activities fall under the category of 56-70 years. Only 16 (5%) respondents in the age category of less than 25 years carry out agriculture related activities.

About 32% of the respondents hold 5-8 acres of land, and 52% of the total respondents have wet land. On the strength of the above fact, it may be inferred that, younger generation do not show interest towards agriculture. Increase in experience of the respondents has resulted in high yield of crops. Respondents with less than 5 years of experience had produced crops like pulses, cereals and millets and food crops were produced by 87% of respondents.

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Paired t-test revealed that, the difference in yield works out to

1002.2kgs; apart from yield, the differences in the utilization of other input variables like, seeds, human labour, and bullock or tractor were also found to be significant in conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation in the study area. The difference was not significant in the case of use of pesticide.

The cost and return analysis revealed that SRI method is comparatively more effective than the Conventional Method. The cost C for the conventional method works out to be Rs.8330.67 per acre and for

SRI it is Rs.6940.19 per acre. The conventional method yielded

1720.2kgs. per acre generating a revenue of Rs.34404. The net income per acre is Rs.24506.81 per acre. The SRI yield is 2722.4kgs. per acre; revenue of Rs.54448 producing a net income of Rs.46092.53.

Frequency distribution analysis revealed that, conventional method of farm cultivation is concentrated under the lower net income category, whereas SRI method of farming is concentrated in the middle and higher income category. Hence, therefore it is inferred that, for conventional method the given distribution would have greater variation towards the lower values.

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Multi-linear regression model infer that the land, fertilizer and human labour are the most influential factors in yield. One percent increase in land under SRI leads to an increase in yield of (0.3248) percent. The regression model was statistically significant at 10% level.

The conventional and SRI method of paddy existed only at the slope level as the co-efficient of the dummy variables corresponding to human labour and irrigation showed significant variation in the yield.

In Cobb-Douglas Production Function the share of labour decreased substantially as the respondents move from conventional to

SRI method due to efficiency-gain in paddy cultivation that the same amount of output as in the conventional method could be produced with less number of labourers under the SRI method. In case of the capital,

SRI method required only less capital inputs than conventional method.

Therefore the share of capital in SRI is considerably lesser compared to conventional method.

Chow’s test shows the structural difference between the conventional and SRI methods. The result of the analysis implied that there is a structural difference exists in conventional and SRI method of paddy cultivation. The F test value is 21.10 significant at 1% level.

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The result of chi-square test infers that 68% of respondents applying SRI method have high level of satisfaction than the conventional method. It is due to less cost of production and high yield of paddy cultivation. The level of satisfaction does not vary between different age groups of respondents and experience in agricultural activities the calculated value (11.430) is less than the table value (15.5) for age; calculated value (2.16) is less than table value (12.6) for experience.

Whereas, this test indicate that there is a relationship between income earned by the respondents and level of satisfaction of respondents.

From the study it is found that usage of advanced technologies like using tractor, leaf colour chart, conoweeder etc. improve the yield in SRI method.

Likert scale was used to measure the level of satisfaction of the respondents and it was ranked on the basis of total value. From this analysis it is found that, 96 respondents in SRI method and 61 respondents in conventional method have high level of satisfaction for availability of inputs. In both the methods they have shown their high level of satisfaction for availability of agricultural inputs.

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Sixty three per centage of the respondents following SRI method receive seeds from Agriculture Extension Centres and Primary Co- operative Societies. In conventional method 41% of the respondents depend on their own source. Poor quality of seeds and diseases in crop during the previous year may continue may affect production in the current year in conventional method. Compared to the SRI method, the respondents applying conventional method of cultivation use better quantity of seeds (16 kgs. to 30 kgs.) whereas, in the SRI method below

15kgs. of seeds were used.

Except negligible size of the respondents others apply SRI method by strictly adopting new technologies like using tractor, nursery formation, leaf colour chart, fertilizer, pesticide and weed management in their production activity. The reason for non-application of above mentioned new technologies is lack of awareness and training.

In the SRI method 76% of respondents had attended training programme organized by the governmental and non-governmental organizations. This indicates that, non-governmental organizations also participate in the agricultural activities in the study area.

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Both the categories (conventional and SRI) of respondents receive subsidies from the government which encourage them to involve in the production. Under SRI method 94% of respondents had received subsidies. In this method 48% of respondents had also availed credit facility (Rs.25001-50000).

From this study it is proved that, respondents of both the methods had borrowed loan mostly from co-operative societies (52%). Among respondents, 64% do not have intention to continue agricultural activities in future which include 58% of the respondents were following conventional method of paddy cultivation. Lower remuneration (33%) and labour problem (20%) are the two major reasons for not continuing the agricultural activities in future.

This study proved that experience in agriculture, knowledge about training institutes, knowledge about training programme, education and age are the major predictors under these two methods using discriminant analysis.

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7.2 SUGGESTIONS

In India agriculture is viewed as a way of life and not considered a productive proposition by the socially, economically and technologically backward population. The inter-sectoral mobility of personal resources and technology was very limited and it had created a vicious circle of poverty of technological isolation in the agricultural sector. In the agricultural sector itself, there existed the technological dualism exists in agricultural sector.

It is suggested that steps may be initiated to enhance the application of modern technology by lower-end farmers.Natural and socio- economic factors retard production of paddy in agricultural sector, is natural and social economic factor. The uncertainty of monsoon acts as a retarding phenomenon for investment in agriculture. In order to encourage the farmers to carry out agricultural operations on a progressive, sustained and continuous basis a comprehensive crop insurance policy covering all crops and all areas may be introduced and implemented.

It is observed that the farmers are not quite aware of the various incentive schemes provided by the central and the state governments and also by voluntary agenecies for promoting agriculture. Hence, it is suggested that, the government may ensure that various schemes for agricultural development may reach the farmers through village

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Administrative officers. Thus the farmers may be motivated to derive the full benefits of such schemes and services.

It is suggested that Agricultural Extension Centres may be set up by the state Government at the village level for the supply of quality seeds, fertilizers, pesticides and avail subsidies.

For the agricultural development it is suggested that the

Government may fix fair prices for the production of the farmers and provide adequate marketing facilities to enable them to sell their farm productions at fair and reasonable prices.

7.3 CONCLUSION

The present study has attempted to measure the technological changes in the paddy cultivation in Thanjavur district. The findings and suggestions of the study, it is hoped would enable the Government to formulate suitable and useful schemes and programmes to augment capital in agriculture in general and in Thanjavur district in particular.

There is thinking at the highest administrative level and in the political parties of India that a case of imperative urgency is there to update the agricultural techniques in our country. The present

Government at the centre is keen about giving a fillip to the development of agriculture. It is hoped with the present study might have provided some

215 clear picture about the problems faced by farmers of Thanjavur district.

The writer would feel rewarded if the attention of the authorities is drawn towards this dire.

7.4 SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The following topics would be considered for the future

research.

 A study on productivity of Conventional variety and hybrid

variety paddy cultivation.

 Comparative study between high yielding, drought tolerant

and salt tolerant varieties of paddy.

 Comparative analysis between organic method and

inorganic method of paddy cultivation.

 A study on role of Governmental and Non-Governmental

organizations in paddy cultivation.

 A study on effective management of water, fertilizers and

pesticides in paddy cultivation.

 An analysis of impact of training programme and

Government schemes in paddy production.

 A study on human resource development of the persons

engaged in agricultural activities.

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