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Home , Abusir Papyri, Egyptian pyramids, Farouk Hosny, Lisht, Pyramid of Djoser, Pyramid of Menkaure

ZAHI HAWASS EDITED BY Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities and Director of the Excavations

PROJECT EDITORS Laura Accomazzo Valeria Manferto De Fabianis

GRAPHIC DESICN Paola Piacco

WHITE STAR PUBLISHERS THE TREASURES OF THE PYRAMIDS Contents

INTRODUCTION Page 5 CHAPTER 8 by H.E. Mrs. Suzanne Mubarak THE ROYAL MORTUARY ENCLOSURES OF ABYDOS AND HIERAKONPOLIS by Matthew Adams and David O'Connor Page 78 THE PYRAMIDS Page 12 by Zahi Hawass CHAPTER 9 THE STEP PYRAMIDS CHRONOLOGY Page is by Ali Radwan Page 86 CHAPTER I CHAPTER 10 WHY A ? PYRAMID RELIGION THE PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY by James P. Allen Page 22 by Rainer Stadelmann Page 112

CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER \ \ THE QUEENS' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY AT GIZA THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 138 by Vassil Dobrev Page 28 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 3 THE SATELLITE PYRAMID OF BUILDING AN OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 150 by Page 32 CHAPTER 13

CHAPTER A THE MYSTERY OF HETEPHERES

THE ARCHITECTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGYPTIAN ROYAL by Zahi Hawass Page 152 by Zahi Hawass Page 46 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 5 THE SECRET DOORS INSIDE THE GREAT PYRAMID by Zahi Hawass Page 156 THE ARCHITECTURAL COMPONENTS OF THE PYRAMID COMPLEX by Zahi Hawass Page 50 CHAPTER 15 THE CHAPTER e by Zahi Hawass Page 160 THE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD CHAPTER \6 by Renee Friedman Page 54 THE ROYAL BOATS AT GIZA by Zahi Hawass Page 164 CHAPTER I

THE OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DYNASTIES CHAPTER a AT ABYDOS AND SAQOARA THE by Giinter Dreyer Page 62 by Mark Lehner Page 172

10 CHAPTER IS The Publisher would like to thank: H.E. Farouk Hosny - The Egyptian Minister of Culture, THE TOMBS OF THE HIGH OFFICIALS AT GIZA Nabil Osman - President of the Egyptian Information Center by Peter Der Manuelian Page 190 Attiya Shakran - General Director of the Press Center, CHAPTER 19 M. El-Damaty - Director of the , Cairo, Mena House Oberoi Hotel, Cairo, THE 'UNFINISHED' PYRAMIDS OF THE FOURTH DYNASTY Gamal Sbafik of the Cairo Press Center, by Michel Valloggia Pag. 224 The curators and assistants of the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, CHAPTER 20 Rajiv Kaul, Guido Paradisi and Fabio Calamante - photographers' iiss/staiifs. THE PYRAMIDS OF THE FIFTH DYNASTY by Pag. 236 CHAPTER 21 The Editor would like to thank Mark Linz and Neil Hewison of the American University in Cairo Press. He also wants to thank Essam Shehab of the Giza Inspectorate, and THE SURPRISING BLOCKS. Mohamed Ismail, Mobamed Megahed, Brook Myers, and Sahar Mabroukfrom the by Zahi Hawass and Miroslav Verner Pag. 260 Technical Office of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. CHAPTER 22 THE PYRAMIDS OF THE SIXTH DYNASTY by Audran Labrousse Pag. 264 CHAPTER 23 THE DECORATIVE PROGRAM OF THE OLD KINCDOM PYRAMID COMPLEXES 10-11 Scene showing the ' geese,' by Zahi Hawass Page 282 Egyptian Museum Cairo, Old CHAPTER 24 Kingdom. THE TOMBS OF THE FIFTH AND SIXTH DYNASTIES AT by Karol Mys'liwiec Page 286 CHAPTER 25 THE PYRAMIDS OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM © 2003 White Star S.r.l. by Dieter Arnold Page 326 Via C Sassone, 22/24 13100 Vercelli, Italy CHAPTER 26 www.whitestar.it All rights reserved. No pan ol this publication may be THE TOMBS OF THE NOBLES IN THE MIDDLE KINGDOM reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by David P. Silverman Page 348 photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher.

CHAPTER 21 ISBN 88-8095-233-1 ROYAL AND PRIVATE STATUES OF THE OLD AND MIDDLE KINGDOMS Reprints: by Hourig Sourouzian Page 366 12 3 4 5 6 07 06 05 04 03

Printed in Italy by Officine Grafiche De Agostini INDEX AND BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 392 Color separation by Fotomcc, Turin

I I Chapter 2

Administration of the Pyramid

by Vassil Dobrev

I»n ancient , after the death of the king, his temple (where the body of the king was mummified). cult. The duties of this type of priests were recorded successor had one idea in mind: to build a tomb that The valley temple was accessible by a large harbor on numerous papyri. Some fragments of these papyri, will help him, after his own death, to resurrect and built on a big canal connected to the . All these dating from the Fifth Dynasty, are known as the Abusir gain entry to the world of Eternity. For more than structures, with the pyramid as the major structure, archives. This archive is our main source of 1000 years (from the Third to the Thirteenth comprise the royal funerary complex. information about the organization of administration Dynasty, during the historical periods that we call the The first thing that a new king had to do was to during the Pyramid Age. We would like to have similar Old and Middle Kingdoms), the built stone choose an appropriate place for his funerary complex. archives from a funerary complex under construction, pyramids under which to bury their . This is He was helped by a number of persons (priests, but until now, nothing of the kind has been found. the so-called Pyramid Age' of Egypt when more than architects, scribes, and others) that belonged to his However, the quarrymen, the stone haulers, and the a hundred pyramids were built. In the beginning, the administration. Most of these persons had already builders of the pyramids left numerous inscriptions on Egyptians constructed step pyramids, then, from the been working for years on the funerary complex of the the stones, generally painted in red, black, and ochre Fourth Dynasty on, they built true pyramids, the king who had just died. Sometimes, it was even the (very rarely were they carved). These inscriptions are biggest of which is the Great Pyramid at Giza. case that his pyramid was not yet finished at his death, another important source of information about the Building a pyramid was the major event during so his successor (generally one of the royal sons) had administration of pyramids. the reign of any king. But the pyramid was not the to complete the work and bury the dead ruler. At the The Egyptian administration existed long before only monument that had to be erected for the royal same time, the new king had to start the work on his the Pyramid Age. It can even be said that the creation funerary cult,- it was surrounded by a protective wall own pyramid. It is clear that most of the persons that of a well-organized administration was vital for the and was supplemented by several other structures: a were administrating the funerary complex of the dead country. The question is: why did it come into being spacious (where the priests king had to come to serve the new king and organize in the first place? performed rituals), a small cult pyramid (also called a the work of the new funerary complex. Nevertheless, a It started a long time ago (10,000-5,000 BC), cenotaph: a kind of secondary tomb but without the certain number of priests had to stay at the funerary when nomadic tribes began to settle on the banks of king's ), a long causeway (through which the complex of the deceased king, who was already the Nile. Immediately, they had to face an important mummy of the king was transported), and a valley considered a god, in order to perpetuate his mortuary natural phenomenon: the strong periodic flood of the

Chapter 2 I 28 river, which reached its zenith at the end of July. If the There is a word in the pharaonic language, the phyles, and, together with the other priests, were flood was not controlled, the country would have been pronounced za, that might have been used to serving the . The priests were living in a city facing a general disaster due to destroyed agriculture designate the most important groups of people in the next to the pyramid complex of the ruling king, called and a starving population. So the Egyptians had no administration. The earliest evidence of the hieroglyph the 'pyramid town,' but some of them had their living choice,- they had to organize themselves and dig canals «tM= za, which represents a looped cord serving as place inside the royal temples, where they were and basins in order to control and stock the waters of hobble for cattle, comes from First Dynasty working. These temples were the storage places for the flood. It is not by chance that one of the first inscriptions on royal stone jars (3100 BC). One of the the enormous quantities of offerings coming from all known representations of an Egyptian king shows him latest is on a bilingual decree of King Ptolemy III (237 around Egypt to celebrate the royal mortuary cult. In digging canals. A quite elaborate administration BC), where za was translated as the Greek word 'phyle fact, these offerings were also used, after the emerged to organize and direct the work in the which means 'a tribe.' The fact that phyles were ceremonies, to provide the income of the priests. It is country. The result was a fertile land that was irrigated mentioned regularly throughout the three millennia of obvious that when a new king came into power, the permanently. Egypt became prosperous and was even ancient Egyptian history, shows clearly that they were priests would not let someone else plan and direct the considered as the granary of the ancient world. the skeleton of the Egyptian administration. The building of his pyramid and its adjacent structures, i.e. What we actually know about pharaonic phyles were composed mainly of priests. An Egyptian their main working place. From the first stone of the administration is probably quite far from the ancient priest could have many other functions at the same future pyramid until the completion of the royal Egyptian reality. Nevertheless,.the actual sources of time: a scribe, a controller of works, an architect, a funerary complex, the priests' phyles were there to information that we have in our possession depict a judge, a , a king's son, and so on. Therefore, organize and control the work, then provide the certain image of this administration and how it was some of the members of the phyles were already high- necessary service for the mortuary cult of the king, organized during the Pyramid Age. ranking officials. They were the directing persons in even after his death.

ROYAL FUNERARY COMPLEX

OF KING

A VALLEY TEMPLE

B CAUSEWAY

C MORTUARY TEMPLE 29 top right D MAIN PYRAMID This photograph, taken from the E SMALL CULT PYRAMID

F PROTECTIVE WALL southwestern comer of the pyramid, shows the pyramid of King Pepy I at This drawing, based on the model . oj the royal funerary complex of King Sahure (Fifth Dynasty) 29 bottom right conserved in the Egyptian Museum In this inscription, painted in black on in Cairo, shows the structures one of the inner stones from the pyramid characteristic to a pyramidal of Pepy I, the name of Inti, the pyramid's complex. architect can be read. J\.dm in is tra tio^z^^ll^ of tfo e J^yrci m id

The system of phyles was not exactly the same activities, so that it was not surprising to find nautical another aper-ttam from the time of has been throughout the Pyramid Age. During the Old terms used as names for priests' phyles. In fact, the completely misunderstood for almost a century,- the Kingdom, according to the Abusir papyri mentioned analysis of all phyle names shows that they did not translation The Drunkards of Menkaure' is not logical above, there were five phyles designated by adjectival originate from nautical terms but from several and could be replaced by The Laborers of Menkaure/ names, such as 'great,' 'green,' and 'small.' Each phyle characteristic signs. These signs, or emblems, could which sounds much more appropriate for a group of was divided into two divisions, bearing names like 'the have designated certain groups of people that might people constructing a pyramid. The numerous persons living/ 'the strong,' 'the noble,' 'the favored,' 'the one in have existed long before the first military or that were organized in aper-teams had to be guided and front,' 'the first,' or 'the rising one.' The members of a commercial ships ever sailed on the Nile. In this case, controlled by other persons, permanently employed division were engaged in a ten-month cycle of rotating the organization of ship crews could have been by the pharaoh: most probably the members of a service, i.e. they were working one month in a temple, influenced by the organization of priests' phyles rather phyle. Because the name of the aper-ttam has been the next month in another temple, then after ten than vice versa. written before the name of a phyle, as is seen on some months they were serving again in the first temple. There is a generally accepted idea that the stones from the mortuary temple of Menkaure, it did This rotation did not concern the persons that were administration of a pyramid was led by big crews or not mean that this team was leading the work, with employed permanently (lector and purification priests, teams, incorporating the five phyles and their divisions the members of the priests' phyle under its control. scribes, guards, artisans, potters, handymen, and others (we have evidence of two divisions per phyle from the The names of these «J>er-teams included an important in similar positions). Abusir papyri, but four from the mortuary temple of word—the royal —which had to be written During the Middle Kingdom, the system of phyles Menkaure and even more from the pyramid of Pepy I). at the beginning of the inscription, like the god's name was somewhat different: according to the papyri found This idea should be reviewed, because large teams of Re (the Sun), illustrated by a circle in the cartouche of at the pyramid town of Kahun (al-Lahun in the Fayum), several hundred persons, designated by the hieroglyph Menkaure, which was the most important element of there were four phyles named 'first/ 'second/ 'third/ 0 aper, were recruited when needed, especially when the name. Even though pronounced last (Men-kau- and 'fourth' (later was added a 'fifth' phyle). Each phyle the pyramid was begun. Furthermore, it seems that Re), it was written at the beginning of the cartouche provided a one-month service, rotating with the other they were not permanently in existence as the phyles (this is the well-known Egyptian rule of the so-called phyles in numerical order. This system was apparently were. The names of the aper-ttams, known from the honorific anteposition). in use for many centuries, until the Ptolemaic Period. inscriptions of pyramid builders, included very often Therefore, it is now preferable to think that it was It was noticed long ago that some variant names of one of the pharaohs' names. From the inside of the the phyles, composed of several divisions, who were the phyles during the Old Kingdom are similar to four Great Pyramid at Giza, we have evidence of some aper- administrating the work of the big teams, like the aper- nautical terms that correspond to the right and the left team names like The Two-Lands (Egypt) Purifiers of teams, but also the ^es-teams and maybe others. These sides of a ship (starboard and larboard), as well as to Medjedu (Khufu)' (team name A), The Purifiers teams with numerous members were doing the heavy its front and rear parts (bow and stern). The of Horus Medjedu' (team name B), The Friends of and demanding tasks like quarrying, hauling, and conclusion was drawn too quickly: in a country like Khufu' (team name C) and The Followers of the lifting stones, while smaller groups of persons, the , where the river Nile was the political Powerful White Crown of Khufu' (team name D). divisions of the phyles, were doing the very precise and the economic axis, it was natural that the fluvial Some elements of these names, like 'friends/ for and specialized tasks. The professionalism of these activities had been organized early on and that this example, could perpetuate through different reigns, as smaller groups made possible the miracle of the nautical organization was later adapted to the other illustrated by The Friends of Menkaure.' The name of Pyramid Age of ancient Egypt.

Old Kingdom phyle names Nautical Characteristic from the variant names terms signs Abusir Papyri from other documents

pronounced pronounced jmy-wr.l - starboard wr "ut" jmy-ier jmy-wr.t "imi-uret" wr = great, big

pronounced pronounced t i -wr = larboard ti "to" lì-tor "to-ur" f J = shrouded, hidden

30 left pronounced pronounced widj. = bow wilt The of at Sadflara "uadj" "uadiet" tv3Ì = green, fresh seen from its southeastern corner. pronounced pronounced «¿5.1 = stern "nedjes" "nedjeset" 30 and 31 bottom iiih = small, little Builders' inscriptions painted on some of the stones from the pyramid of Khufu and pronounced pronounced from the mortuary temple of Menkaure jmy-nff. i "imi-neferet" njr.t "neferet" »/r = perfect, beautiful (Fourth Dynasty, Giza).

Chapter 2

I 30 3< top The hieroglyph za (a looped cord serving as hobble for cattle) designates the word "phyle."

One of the papyri from the Abusir archives shows leading this administration, it is clearly a pity not to that a phyle's division consisted of ten priests, whose try to enrich the corpus of these documents. names were clearly written on the papyrus. These Archaeologists have to start thinking about priests, called hemiu-netjer ('Servants of God') and hundred times higher than the number of persons systematically cleaning the lowest parts of some of kbentiu-she (literally translated Those in Front of the serving the cult of a dead king. Consequently, the the pyramids in Saqqara, , Abusir, and Giza. Basin'), were assigned to daily and nightly rituals information available from the Abusir papyri must be Some prime subjects would be the pyramid of inside the mortuary temple or on its roof, as well as quite far from the real scope of the administration of Djedkare (Fifth Dynasty) at South Saqqara, one of the around the pyramid and on its surrounding wall (these a pyramid under construction. best-preserved pyramids in Egypt,- the pyramid of rituals could have taken place even during the In order to come nearer to the Egyptian reality, we (Sixth Dynasty) at Saqqara,- the pyramids of the two construction of the pyramid complex). They were have the inscriptions left by the pyramid builders: a half-brothers Merenre and Pepy II (Sixth Dynasty) at preparing and presenting the ritual meals for the king, direct source on the administration of a pyramid. But South Saqqara,- the (Fourth performing libation and fumigation rituals (with there is a serious problem in using this source since the Dynasty) at Giza,- the two big pyramids of incense, for example), unveiling, cleaning, dressing, great majority of the stones with these inscriptions are (Fourth Dynasty) at Dahshur,- the and and adorning statues, guarding the monuments still under sand and debris,- the lower stone courses of the , which is the best preserved overnight, and so on. The accomplishment of each the four sides of the commonly-known pyramids are pyramid in Egypt, as well as the monument of Sneferu assignment was strictly controlled by noting the generally not cleaned. The reason for this is most at Meidum where the clearing of its northwestern presence or the absence of the priests (a black vertical probably lack of financial means to finish the job of angle (work done in 1984-86), has produced stroke when the priest has fulfilled the task, a red clearing, but reluctance to do this work could also be a hundreds of inscriptions. Even the step pyramid of stroke when he was absent). factor. Otherwise, it is hard to explain that out of more Djoser at Saqqara, one of the most famous and most But, we must always keep in mind that the Abusir than a hundred pyramids, and after more than 150 visited monuments in Egypt, has the lower part of its papyri gave account of the work of approximately years of modern excavations in Egypt, only the western side still under sand. 200-250 persons serving the mortuary cult of a dead pyramids of Khufu and at Giza, the pyramid of The destruction of the during king. During the whole reign of a king, the Pepy I at South Saqqara, and to a certain extent, the the three to five millennia that separate us from the administration had to govern many more people. pyramid of at Saqqara, have been systematically Pyramid Age, leaves little or no chance for even the Herodotus mentions that 100,000 persons had been cleaned and sand removed from their sides down to greatest optimist to imagine that one day treasures involved in the construction of the pyramid of Khufu, the foundation. The enormous potential of the could be found from an intact pyramid tomb, like the but modern Egyptologists' estimates reduce this pyramid builders' inscriptions is far from being treasures from the tomb of , for number to 30,000. The majority of the Egyptian completely explored. Some examples of inscribed example. Instead, what we may find in the future, if pyramids were not as big as the Great Pyramid, so one stones from the pyramid of Pepy I show clearly how we are willing to invest in cleaning some of the could imagine that 10,000-20,000 people would have fertile this source of information could be. pyramids, are more and more inscriptions from their been enough for the construction of these pyramids. When we see the essential information that has builders that will give us genuine information about Such figures show that the number of persons that had already been collected from builders' inscriptions, how the pyramids were constructed and administered. to be organized on the of a living king, information about pyramid construction, the In fact, these inscriptions would be the real 'treasures during the construction of his pyramid, was about a administration of the pyramid, and the persons of the pyramids'!

Phyle uadjet Phvle ur Team names from the pyramid of Khufu division phyle team name division phyle team name name name name name team name D team name C team name B team name A

"The Two-Lands "The Laborers of Menkaure" Purifiers of The Friends of Khufu" Horus Medjedu" translated previously as "The Drunkards of Menkaure"

"The Followers of the "Powerful White Crown "The Purifiers of of Khufu" Horus Medjedu" division phyle team name division phyle team name name name; name name

"The Friends of Menkaure"

Chapter 2 131 BIBLIOGRAPHY

THE PYRAMIDS THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE PYRAMID Bibliography: TOOLS, TECHNIQUES, AND OPERATIONS

Text by Zahi Hawass Text by Vassil Dobrev GENERAL Hinkel, F W, "Hölzernes Fördergerüst an der Arnold, D., Building in Egypt. Pharaonic Stone Masonry, Cheopspyramide?" Das Altertum 2, no. 28 (1982), Zahi Hawass is a world-renowned Egyptian archae­ Vassil Dobrev, a French archaeologist, was born in New York and Oxford, 1991. pp. 113-18. ologists. Now he is the General Secretary of the 1961 in Varna (). In 19,92, he received is Badawy, A., 'The periodic system of building a pyra­ Lane, M., 'The pull-saw in Egypt," Ancient Egypt and Supreme Council of Antiquities and the Director of PhD in from the University of Paris¬ mid," JEA 63 (1977), pp. 52-8 theEast, {June 1935) pp. 55-8. the Excavations at the Giza Pyramids, Saqqara, and Sorbonne for his dissertation "Researches on the Dunham, D., "Building an Egyptian Pyramid," Lucas, A. and J. R. Harris, Ancient Egyptian Materials Bahariya Oasis. He has been excavating around the Kings of the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty." From 1995 Archaeology 9, no. 3 (1956), pp. 159-65 and Industries, London, 1962 pyramids for the last twenty years and has made sev­ until 1998, he was Scientific Member of the French Garde-Hansen, P., On the Building oj the Cheops Pyramid, Moores, R. G., "Evidence for the use of a stone-cut­ eral major discoveries, including the Tombs of the Archaeological Institute in Cairo (IFAO). Since Cascais, 1974. ting drag saw by the Fourth Dynasty Egyptians," Pyramid Builders and the Valley of the Golden 1987, he has worked on the excavations of the pyra­ Hodges, P. and E. B. J. Keable, How the Pyramids Were JARCE 28 (1991), pp. 139-48. in Bahariya Oasis. He is the author of mids and temples of Pepy I and his Queens at South Built, Shaftesbury, Dorset, England, 1989. Petrie, W. M. F, Tools and Weapons, Egyptian Research many books and articles on the Pyramids, such as Saqqara. Since 2000, he has been responsible for the Isler, Martin, Sticks, Stones, and Shadows: Building the Account 22, London, 1917. The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt and other books related IFAO Mapping Project of South Saqqara and Egyptian Pyramids, Norman 2001. Ryan, D. P., "Old rope," KMT 4, no. 2 (1993), pp. 72-9 to Egyptology. He has lectured all over the world. Director of the IFAO Mission at Tabbet a!-Guesh Lauer, J.-P., "Comment furent construites les pyra¬ Teeter, E., 'Techniques and terminology of rope-mak­ Hawass has brought Egypt into the homes and (South Saqqara). The author of several scientific mides," Historia 86 (1954), pp. 57-66. ing in ancient Egypt," JEA 73 (1987), pp. 71-7 hearts of people worldwide through numerous tele­ studies, and he is specialized in the inscriptions of Mencken, A., Designing and Building the Great Pyramid, Zuber, A., 'Techniques du travail des pierres dures vision appearances. Zahi Hawass received the First the pyramid builders and pyramid history. Baltimore, 1963. dans l'Ancienne Egypte," Techniques et Civilizations Class Award for Arts and Sciences from President Petrie, W. M. F, 'The Building of a Pyramid," in 29.5 , no. 5 (1956), pp. 161-78. Mubarak in 1988 for the Sphinx conservation. In Bibliography: AncientEgypt (1930), pp. 33-9. Zuber, A., 'Techniques du travail des pierres dures October 2000, he was one of thirty international fig­ Dobrev, V. "Les marques de la pyramide de Pépy I". Smith, Craig, "Program Management B.C.," Civil dans l'Ancienne Egypte," Techniques et Civilizations ures to receive the Golden Plate Award from the Notes complémentaires," BÏFAO 98 (1998), pp. (June 1999), pp. 34-41. 30. 5, no. 6 (1956), pp. 196-215. American Academy of Achievement in honor of his 151-170. accomplishments in archaeology. In 2001, National Eyre, C. J. "Work and the Organisation of Work in SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT SURVEY AND AUGNMENT Geographic announced him as an Explorer in the Old Kingdom," in M. A. Powell (ed.), Labor in Bietak, M., "Zur Marine des Alten Reiches," in Borchardt, L., 'Ein altägyptisches astronomisches Residence and in 2003 his name was written on a the Ancient Near East, New Haven, 1987^ pp. 5-47 Pyramid Studies and Other Essays Presented to I.E.S. Instrument,' ZÄS 37 (1899) pp. 10-7 CD for the Mars exploration and Rover Mission. (American Oriental Series, vol. 68). Edwards (London, 1988), pp. 35-40. Borchardt, L., Längen und Richtungen der vier Grundkanten Posener-Kriéger, P., Les Archives du temple junéraire de Bradbury, L., "Kpn-boats, Punt trade, and a lost der grossen Pyramide hie Gise (Berlin, 1926) Photo credits: Nejerirkarê-Kakaï (Les papyrus d'Ahousir). Traduction et emporium," JARCE 33 (1996), pp. 37-60. Cole, J. H., The Determination oj the Exact Size and 1 Marcello Bertinetti/Archivio White Star Commentaire, 2 vol. IFAO, Le Caire, 1976 (BdÉ 65). Fischer, H. C, 'Two tantalizing biographical frag­ Orientation oj the Great Pyramid oj Giza (Survey of 2-3 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Reisner, G. A. Mycerinus: The Temples oj the Third ments of historical interest, 1. a speedy return Eygypt Paper No. 39) (Cairo, 1925) 4 Marcello Berti netti/Archivio White Star Pyramid, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1931, pp. from Elephatine," J£A61 (1975), pp. 33-5. Dorner, J., 'Die Absteckung und astronomische 5 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star 273-275, appendix E, pl. XI-XII. Goyon, G., "Les navires de transport de la chausee Orientierung ägyptischer Pyramiden' (Innsbruck, 6-7 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star Roth, A. M., "Egyptian Phyles in the Old Kingdom. monumentale d'Ounas," BlfAO 69 (1971), pp. 11¬ 1981). 8 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star The Evolution of a System of Social Organization," 41. Dorner, J., 'Studien über die Bauvermessung und 9 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star SAOC 48 (Chicago, 1991). Goyon, G., "Les portes des pyramides et le grande astronomische Orientierung,' AfO 32 (1985) pp. 10-11 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star canal de Memphis," 23 (1971), pp. 137-53. 165-66 13 Kenneth Garrett Photo credits: Haidane, C, "A new method of ancient Egyptian Goyon, G., 'Quelques observations effectuée autour 16-17 Kenneth Garrett 28 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star hull construction, preliminary report," Mariner's de la pyramide de Khéops,' BIFAO 47 (1969) pp. 19 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star 29 Vasko Dobrev Mirror74 (1988), pp. 141-52. 71-86 20-21 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star 30 Marcello Bertinetti/Archivio White Star Haidane, C, 'The timbers: a report on their Isler, M., 'An ancient method of finding and extend­ significance," in D. Arnold (ed.), ThePyyramid ing direction,' JARCE 26 ( 1989) pp. 191 -206 Complex ojSenwosret I, New York, 1992, pp. 102-12. Isler, M., The merkhet,' VA 7 (1991) pp. 53-67 WHY A PYRAMID? PYRAMID RELIGION BUILDING AN OLD KINGDOM PYRAMID Landström, B., Ships oj the Pharaohs, Garden City, Isler, M., The gnomen in Egyptian antiquity,'JARCE Text by James Allen Text by Mark Lehner 1970. 28 (1991) pp. 155-86 Schenkel, W, "Kanal," LÄ IM, (1980), pp. 310-12. Lauer, J.-P., 'À propos de l'orientation des grandes James Allen received his degree in Egyptology from Mark Lehner is one of the leading experts on Giza's S0lver, C. V., "Egyptian ships," Mariner's pyramides,' Bulletin de l'Institut d'Egypte ( 1960) the University of Chicago, with a dissertation on the Great Sphinx and Pyramids. He is president of the Mirror 33 (1947), pp. 39-43. pp. 7-15 grammar of the . He has served as nonprofit research organization AERA, Inc., that Lehner, M., 'Some observations on the layout of

epigrapher with the University's expedition in sponsors the Mapping Project. The ORGANIZING THE LANDSCAPE thepyramids of Khufu and Khafre,' JARCE 20 Luxor, Egypt, and as Cairo Director of the American project conducts excavations of Old Kingdom ­ Aigner, T, "Facies and origin of nummulitic (1983) pp. 7-25 Research Center in Egypt. Since 1986 he has held a tlements near the Sphinx and Pyramids with a team buildups: an example from the Giza Pyramids Lehner, M., The Giza Plateau Mapping Project sea­ research appointment at Yale University, and has of archaeologists, geochronologists, paleobotanists, Plateau (Middle Eocene, Egypt)," N. Jb. Geol. son 1984-85/ NARCE 131, no. (Fall 1985) pp. 23¬ taught there as well as at the University of and faunal specialists. Lehner has appeared on tele­ Paläont. Abh. 166 (1983), pp. 347-68. 56 Pennsylvania. He is currently Curator of Egyptian vision in National Geographic's Explorer program, Aigner, T, "Zur Geologie und Geoarchäologie des Lehner, M, The Giza Plateau Mapping Project/ Art at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Vice- and on NOVAs Secrets oj Lost Empires series on ancient Pyramidenplateaus von Giza, Ägypten," Natur und NARCE 135 (Fall 1986) pp. 29-54 President of the International Association of technology including This Old Pyramid ana Obelisk. Museum 112 (1983), pp. 377-88. Lepsius, R., Die all-ägyptische Bk (Berlin, 1865) Egyptologists. Dr. Allen's specialties include ancient He is author of The Complete Pyramids published in Lehner, M., "The Development of the Giza Neugebauer, O., 'On the orientation of pyramids,' , texts, and religion, and he has 1997. In addition to books and articles in print, Necropolis: The Khufu Project," MDA1K 41 Centaurus 24 (1980) pp. 1 -3 written extensively on these subjects as well as the Lehner's book on the Great Sphinx is in preparation (1985). Petrie, W. M. F., Ancient Weights and Measures (London, history of the Middle Kingdom and Amarna Period. with the University of Chicago Press. From 1990 1926) He is the author of Genesis in Egypt: the Philosophy oj until 1995 Lehner was Assistant Professor of QUARRIES Pochan, A., 'Observations relatives au revêtement Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts and, most recently, Egyptian Archaeology at the University of Chicago. Engelbach, R., The OMisJe, Cairo, 1922. des deux grandes pyramides de Giza/ Bulletin de Miââîe Egyptian; an Introduction to the Language and Culture He is now a Research Associate at the Oriental Engelbach, R., The Problem ojthe -. From a Study l'Institut d'Egypte 16 (1934) pp. 214-20 oj Hieroglyphs. Institute of the University of Chicago and at the ojthe Unfinished Obelisk at Aswan, London, 1923. Zâba, Z., ^orientation Astronomique dans l'ancienne Egypte, Harvard Semitic Museum. Lehner was born, raised, Harreil, J. A., "An inventory ofancient Egyptian et la précession de l'axe du monde (Prague, 1933) and began his college education in North Dakota. Bibliography: quarries," NARCE 146, (spring 1989), pp. 1-7. He went to Cairo in 1973 as a Year Abroad Student Allen, J. "Reading a Pyramid," in Hommages à Jean Harrell, J. A. and T. M. Bown, "An Old Kingdom RAMPS, LEVERS, LIFTING THEORIES at the American University in Cairo where he Leclant (Bibliothèque d'Etude 106,- Cairo: Institut basalt quarry at Widan el-Faras and the quarry Arnold, D., "Uberlegungenzum Problem des received his B.A. in Anthropology. He lived in Egypt Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 1994), vol. 1, road to Lake Moeris," JARCE 32 (1995), pp. 71-92. Pyramidenbaues," MDAIK 37 (1981), pp. 15-28. in for thirteen years, working for American, pp. 5-28. Harrell, J. A. and V. M. Brown, Topographical and Cunningham, J., 'Techniques of pyramid building in Egyptian, British, French, and German archaeologi­ Barta, W. "Die Beudeutung der Pyramidentexte für Penological Survey oj Ancient Egyptian Quarries, Toledo, Egypt," Nature 332, no. 3 (1988). cal projects. From 1979 until 1983 he was the Field den verstorbenen König," Münchner Agyptologiscbe 1995. Dunham, D., "Building an Egyptian pyramid," Director and then Director of the Sphinx Project Studien 39 (Munich, 1981). Klemm, D. and R. Klemm, "Herkunftsbestimmung Archaeology 9, no. 3 (1956), pp. 159-65. sponsored by the American Research Center in d'Auria, S. H., et al., Mummies & Magic-, the Funerary Arts altägptischen Steinmaterials," SAK 7 (1979), pp. Fitchen, )., "Building Cheops' pyramid," Journal of the Egypt. In 1984 he began the Giza Plateau Mapping oj Ancient Egypt. Boston, 1988, pp. 27-59. 103-40. Society of Architectural Historians 37 (1978), pp. 3-12. Project (GPMP), sponsored by ARCE and Yale Quirke, S. Ancient Egyptian Religion, London, 1992. Klemm, D. and R. Klemm, Steine der Pharaonen, Isler, M., "Ancient Egyptian methods of raising University where Lehner received his Ph.D in Ritner, R. K. 'The Cult of the Dead," in D. P. Munich, 1981. weights," JARCE 13 (1976), pp. 31 -41. Egyptology in 1990. In 1988 the GPMP began to Silverman (ed.), AncientEgypt, London, 1997, pp. Röder, J., "Steinbruchgeschichte des Rosengranits Isler, M., "On pyramid building," JARCE 22 (1985), excavate in search of the settlement and infrastruc­ 132-147. von Assuan," Archäologischer Anzeiger 3 (1965), pp. pp. 129-42. ture that supported the pyramid work force. The 461-551. Isler, M., "On pyramid building II," JARCE 24 team has discovered a workers' city that includes Photo credits: (1987), pp. 95-112. work shops, storage buildings, bakeries and a large 22 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star THE NOVA PYRAMID Lowdermilk, R., "Re-inventing the royal administrative center from the time of the 22-23 Giulio Veggi/Archivio White Star Lehner, M., The Pyramid," in Secrets oj Lost Empires, Herodotus said built the Great Pyramid," KMT 2, pyramids (ca 2,500 B.C.). 24, 25, 26, 27 Araldo De Luca/Archivio White Star New York, 1996, pp. 46-93. no. 4(1991), pp. 45-53.

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