United States Department of Agricu It ure Western Redcedar Forest Service -- Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station A Literature Review Genera I Tech ni ca I Report PNW-150 Don Minore February 1983

EDITOR'S FILE COPY

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This file was created by scanning the printed publication. Mis-scans identified by the software have been corrected; however, some errors may remain. DON MINORE is plant ecologist, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Corvallis, Oregon. Abstract Contents

Minore, Don. 1 Introduction 27 Diseases 1983. Western redcedar: A Seedling Diseases literature review. USDA For. Serv. 1 Occurrence and Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-150, 70 p. Abundance Foliage Fungi Pac. Northwest For. and Range Root and Butt Rots Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Range Volumes Stem Diseases This report is a comprehensive com- Trunk Rots pilation of information on western 3 Associated Plant Species Product Decay redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn) - its Trees occurrence and abundance; associ- Extractives and Decay ated plant species; morphology and Shrubs Birds and Mammals anatomy; products; medical aspects; Herbs 30 diseases; insect, bird, and mammal. pests; genetics; horticulture; physi- Major Communities 30 Genetics ology; ecology; mensuration; and si lvicu It ure. Management recommen- 12 Morphology, Anatomy, 30 Horticulture dations and an extensive list of and Composition references are included. Form 31 Physiology and Ecology Meteorological Keywords: Western redcedar, Thuja Crown, Branches, and plicata, silviculture, ecology, Foliage Influences physiology, products. Strobili and Seeds Fire Roots Soils Bark Nutrients and Nutrition Wood Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction 18 Products Phenology Uses and Properties Regenerat ion Prices Shade Tolerance Lumber Succession Shakes and Shingles Growth Poles and Piling Productivity Pulp Veneer and Plywood 41 Mensuration Waste Utilization 45 Silvicu I tu re Extractives Seeding 24 Medical Aspects Nursery Practices Stand Culture and 24 Insects Improvement Bark Beetles Harvesting Wood Borers Defoliators 48 Discussion Seed and Cone Insects 48 Recommendations Miscellaneous Insects for Management Extractives and Insects 49 Acknowledgment 50 Common and Scientific Names of Trees 51 Lltera t ure CIted lntroduction Occurrence and Abundance

The western redcedar is the only Range Thuja species native to western North America.J (Northern white- Western redcedar grows along the cedar grows in eastern North Pacific coast from northern Califor- America, and four other Thuja nia to southeastern Alaska (fig. 1). It species occur in the Orient.) These occurs sporadically at its southern members of the subfamily Thu- limit in Humboldt County, California, joideae of the Cupressaceae are where it is common only in the considered more highly evolved than lower Mad River drainage and the Libocedrus, Cupressus, Chamae- wet region south of Ferndale (Griffin cyparis, or Juniperus species (see and Critchfield 1972). Elsewhere Moseley 1943).3 Large western along the northern coast of Califor- redcedars reach ages of 800 to 1,000 nia, western redcedar occurs only in years, and some individuals in isolated stands on boggy habitats. eastern Washington may be 2,000 years old (Sharpe 1974). General at- North of the California-Oregon tributes of the species include a border, the natural range of western conical form with large and fluted redcedar broadens to include por- base in mature trees, drooping tions of the Cascade Range. On the branches, thin fibrous bark, and western slopes of the Cascades, small scalelike leaves arranged in redcedar grows from Crater Lake flat sprays (Sudworth 1908, Sharpe north (Boyd 1959, Little 1971). On the 1974). eastern slopes, it occurs north of approximately 44'30'N latitude Redcedar wood is valuable and used (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). The Figure 1. -The natural range of western extensively. Use of redcedar prod- redcedar populations of the redcedar (from Little 1971, Viereck and ucts is far ahead of the manage- Cascades and the coast meet occa- Little 1975). ment practices for replenishing the sionally in moist portions of the supply of high-quality timber from Willamette Valley, Oregon. Farther which most of those products are north, optimal growth and develop made. More efficient use of western ment are achieved near the latitud- redcedar and better management inal center of western redcedar's are needed; they can best be range - the Olympic Peninsula in achieved by using available Wash ing ton. knowledge as a base for further ad- vances. Considerable knowledge is North of Vancouver Island, western available, but it is scattered in redcedar is restricted to the Coast diverse publications under many Ranges and coastal islands. The subject headings and titles. This northern limits of its coastal range report summarizes most of the infor- are the northern and western shores mation in those publications for the of Sumner Strait on Kupreanof and scientists, administrators, and Kuiu Islands and the Petersburg foresters who participate in western vicinity on Mitkof Island (Harris and redcedar research, use, and Farr 1974) at approximately 56'30'N si Iviculture. latitude (see Andersen 1953). South of Petersburg, western redcedar oc- curs as an overstory dominant on lNomenclature for all northwestern plant former muskeg areas with shallow species is according to Hitchcock and water tables (Stephens et al. 1970). Cronquist 1973. Scientific names for It is common and important only far- trees mentioned by common name throughout the text are listed on ther south, however, near Ketchikan page 50. and Craig, in the intermediate types between bogs and upland forests ?Where information was derived from a (Neiland 1971). publication, but not specifically stated therein, the author's name is prefaced by "see" (e.g., see Little 1971).

1 Near the southern border of British Where sufficient precipitation is for practical Jorestry in Czechoslo- Columbia, a few scattered popula- present, temperature apparently vakia (Holubcik 1968). It has been tions of western redcedar occur be- limits the range of western redcedar. planted in Denmark and France tween the Coast Ranges and Selkirk Schmidt (1958) measured an abrupt since the 1860's (see Sgegaard Mountains, but the coastal range is decrease in length of the frost-free 1956b, Guinier 1951). Western essentially isolated from the interior period just above the upper eleva- redcedar plantations also have been range of the species. The northern tional limits of western redcedar, established in Italy (Minister0 limit of the interior range is on the western hemlock, and Douglas-fir on dell'Agricoltura e delle Foreste, Col- western slope of the Continental Vancouver Island. In southeastern lana Verde, Roma 1965). Redcedar Divide at 54'30'N latitude. The in- Alaska, the northern limits of has been grown in western Norway terior range extends south in British western redcedar are not correlated (Smitt 1950), but the northernmost Columbia through the Selkirk Moun- with rainfall or winter temperatures, stands on record are in Mustila, tains into western Montana and but they are between the 11.1" and Finland, at 60'41 'N latitude (Art- northern Idaho (Boyd 1959). The 11.7"C (52" and 53°F) mean summer sybashev 1939). southern limit of the interior range temperature isotherms (Andersen is in western Montana's Ravalli 1953, 1955a). Average annual tem- Western redcedar has been planted County at 45'50'N latitude (see Little peratures in inland portions of the extensively in New Zealand (see 1971). With the possible exception - redcedar range are lower than those Perham 1938, Hocking and Mayfield of a few trees east of the Continen- along the coast (see Boyd 1959). 1939, Ranger 1945, Streets 1962, and tal Divide near the upper end of St. Weston 1971). It has also been suc- Mary's Lake, the eastern limit is Western redcedar is often grown cessfully grown at higher elevations near Lake McDonald in Glacier Na- outside its natural range. In the in Tasmania, but it grows relatively tional Park (Aller 1960). United States, planted trees grow as slowly in Kenya (Streets 1962). The far north as Juneau, Alaska (Harris species has shown little promise in Western redcedar grows from sea and Farr 1974), and western red- the Union of South Africa (Streets level to 915 m (3,000 ft) in south- cedar is occasionally cultivated as 1962) or in central Honshu, Japan eastern Alaska (Viereck and Little an ornamental tree in the Middle (see Kawada and Yamaji 1949). 1972). In British Columbia, the eleva- and North Atlantic States (Sargent tion range is higher - from sea 1933). Redcedars have been Volumes level to 1200 m (3,900 ft) (Anderson cultivated as ornamentals in the 1961). Interior redcedar is found Ukraine since 1870 (Unasylva 1950, Western redcedar is an important from 320 m (1,050 ft) near Orofino, Perepadya 1971). They are also used commercial species in much of its Idaho (personal communication, as ornamentals and hedge trees in natural range. In North America, an Charles A. Wellner, Forestry southern Australia (Streets 1962). estimated volume of 154 billion Sciences Laboratory, Moscow, Western redcedar hedges are widely board feet (Scribner rule) exists in Idaho), to 2100 m (7,000 ft) (Boyd used in Britain (Hubbard 1950) and live western redcedar trees that are 1959). The greatest range in eleva- in Switzerland (see Keller 1974). at least 25 percent sound (Bolsinger tion occurs in Oregon, however, 1979). More than three-fourths of where western redcedar occurs from For years western redcedar has this volume (120 billion board feet sea level to 2300 m (7,500 ft) at the been used in practical forestry in by Bolsinger's estimate) occurs in rim of Crater Lake (Sudworth 1908, England, Ireland, Scotland, and British Columbia. Within British Co- Bowers 1956). Wales (see Keatinge 1947, Zehet- lumbia, 86 percent of the western mayr 1954, Ovington and Madgwick redcedar volume is found in coastal Coastal populations of western 1957, O'Carroll 1967, Aldhous and areas (British Columbia Forest Ser- redcedar receive from less than 89 Low 1974, Priest 1974, Carey and vice, Inventory Division 1967). The to more than 660 cm (less than 35 to Barry 1975). It is also well estab- rest grows in the interior. When all more than 260 in) of annual rainfall. lished as a useful forestry species trees larger than 25.4 cm (10 in) in Interior populations receive about 71 in West Germany (see Zimmerle and diameter are considered, western cm (28 in) in the north, 81 to 124 cm Linck 1951, Borchers 1952, Degen redcedar accounts for about 11 per- (32 to 49 in) of annual precipitation 1965, Hesmer and Gunther 1968, cent of all the sound wood in farther south (Boyd 1959). Volk 1968), East Germany (see Lembcke 1970), and Austria (see Rannert 1976). Indeed, the species is almost naturalized in West Germany (Volkert 1956). Experimental red- cedar stands were established in Poland in 1890 (see Gecow 1952), and the species was recommended

2 Associated Plant Species

mature, accessible commercial Trees forests in British Columbia. In coastal areas, this proportion rises Pure western redcedar stands cover Rubus parviflorus Nutt. is associ- to 39 percent (Gardner 1963). When some small areas (Eyre 1980), but ated with western redcedar from only the north coast forests of the species usually is associated Alaska to California and from British Columbia are considered, with other tree species. These spe- coastal Washington and Oregon to western redcedar makes up 52 per- cies are listed by locality in table 1. Montana (table 2). Several other cent of the merchantable volume shrub associates occur in both in- (McBride 1959). Although much of Soil moisture conditions seem to be terior and coastal environments British Columbia’s vast cedar important in determining composi- (e.g., Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt., resource is sawtimber, an estimated tion of local stands. Black cotton- Cornus stolonifera Michx., Men- 121 million western redcedar poles wood and bigleaf maple often grow ziesia ferruginea Smith, Oplopanax also were included in 1961 (Ander- with western redcedar in swamps horridum (Smith) Miq., Pachistima son 1961). (Sharpe 1974), as do both Pacific myrsinites (Pursh) Raf., Rosa gym- silver fir and western white pine in nocarpa Nutt., and Symphoricarpos In the United States, most western coastal swamps of the Olympic albus (L.) Blake), but some associ- redcedars (13 billion board feet) Peninsula (Franklin and Dyrness ated shrubs are more limited. Sor- grow in Washington. The greatest 1973). Dry-site associates include bus, Lonicera, and Clematis species concentration is on the Olympic grand fir and lodgepole (shore) pine are found with redcedar only in the Peninsula in Clallam, Grays Harbor, along the east coast of Vancouver interior; Rubus spectabilis Pursh and Jefferson Counties, where an Island (Packee 1976), Pacific and Vaccinium parvifolium Smith additional 10 percent of the present madrone on the British Columbia are associated only near the coast. live volume probably exists as dead mainland (see Krajina 1969), and cedars that are at least 25 percent western hemlock on the Queen Shrub associates change less with sound (Bolsinger 1979). Bolsinger’s Charlotte Islands (Day 1957). latitude than they do with longitude, compilations show that Idaho has but two are noteworthy. Rhododen- 7.8 billion, Alaska 6.3 billion, Oregon Western hemlock and black cotton- dron macrophyllum G. Don is abun- 5 billion, Montana 1.4 billion, and wood are associated with western dant in coastal California, Oregon, California 76 million board feet of redcedar throughout its natural and Washington; it seems to be cedar volume. Three-fifths of it is in range. Douglas-fir is present in all present in only two stands in the National Forests, where most of but the Alaska range. Pacific yew southern British Columbia, however the redcedar in Idaho, Montana, and occurs only in the extreme south (see Packee 1976). In contrast, the Alaska occurs. end of southeastern Alaska (Viereck northern limits of Gaultheria shallon and Little 1972), but it is often found Pursh are nearly the same as the Bolsinger found that 66 percent of as a redcedar associate elsewhere. northern limits of western redcedar all western redcedar volume in the in coastal Alaska (see Viereck and United States is in trees that are Western redcedar is a major species Little 1972, 1975). 59cm (21-in) d.b.h. or larger, 44 per- in two forest cover types recognized cent is in trees larger than 74 cm (29 by the Society of American in). Average size is largest in Wash- Foresters (Eyre 1980) - Western ington and smallest in Idaho. Most Redcedar and Western Redcedar- of the redcedar volume in Idaho oc- Western Hemlock. It occurs as a curred in 28- to 53-cm (1 1.O -to minor associated species in 10 20.9-in) d.b.h. trees in 1962 (see types: Western Hemlock-Sitka Wilson 1962). Spruce, Coastal True Fir-Hemlock, Douglas-Fir-Western Hemlock, Pacific Douglas-Fir, Port-Orford- Cedar, Western Larch, Western White Pine, Engelmann Spruce- Subalpine Fir, Red Alder, and Red- wood.

3 Table 1 - Tree species associated with western redcedar in 7 portions of its natural range

Alaska' Coastal British Columbia2 Interior British Colum- bias Montana4

Abies amabilis Abies amabilis Abies grandis Abies grandis Alnus rubra Abies grandis Abies la s ioca rpa Abies lasiocarpa Chamaecyparis nootkatensis Acer macrophyllum Betula papyrifera Betula papyrifera Picea sitchensis Alnus rubra Larix occiden talis Larix occidentalis Pinus contorta Arbutus menziesii Picea engelmannii Picea engelmannii Populus trichocarpa Betula papyrifera Picea glauca Picea glauca Taxus brevifolia Chamaecyparis nootkatensis Pinus albicaulis Pinus contorta Tsuga heterophylla Cornus nut tallii Pinus contorta Pinus monticola Picea sit c hen s is Pinus monticola Pinus ponderosa Pinus contorta Populus tremuloides Populus trichocarpa Pinus monticola Populus trichocarpa Pseudotsuga menziesii Populus tremuloides Pseudotsuga menziesii Taxus brevifolia Populus trichocarpa Taxus brevifolia Tsuga heterophylla Pseudotsuga menziesii Tsuga heterophylla Quercus garryana Tax us brevi f o lia Tsuga heterophylla Tsuga mertensiana

IFrom Viereck and Little (1972). ZFromOrloci (1961, 1965), Krajina (1969), Packee (1976). 3From McLean and Holland (1958), Bell (1965), Krajina (1969). 4From Pfister et al. (1977). sFrom Daubenmire (1952), Daubenmire and Daubenmire (1968). 6From Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Dyrness et al. (1974). 'From Munz and Keck (1959), Axelrod (1977), Kuchler (1977), Sawyer et al. (1977), Zinke (1977).

4 Table 1 - Continued

Eastern Washington Western Washington and northern Idaho6 and Oregone Calif ornla7

Abies grandis Abies amabilis Abies grandis Abies lasiocarpa Abies grandis Acer macroph yllum Betula papyrifera Abies procera Alnus rubra Larix occidentalis Acer macroph yllum Chamaecyparis la wsoniana Picea engelmannii AInus rubra Cornus nut ta llii Pinus contorta Arbutus menziesii Lithocarpus densiflorus . Pinus monticola Calocedrus decurrens Picea sitc h en sis Pinus ponderosa Castanopsis chrysoph ylla Populus trichocarpa Populus tremuloides Chamaecyparis la wsoniana Pseudotsuga menziesii Populus trichocarpa Chamaecyparis nootkatensis Rhamnus purshiana Pseudotsuga menziesii Cornus nuttallii Sequoia sempervirens Taxus brevifolia Lithocarpus densiflorus Tsuga heterophylla Tsuga heterophylla Pinus contorta Umbellula ria calif ornica Pinus monticola Picea engelmannii Picea sitchensis Populus tremuloides Populus trichocarpa Pseudo t suga m enzies ii Taxus brevifolia Tsuga heteroph ylla Tsuga mertensiana

5 Table 2 - Shrub species associated with western redcedar in 7 portions of its natural range

Alaska' Coastal British Columbia2 interior British Columbiaa Montana4

Amelanchier alnifolia var. semiin tegrif olia Acer circina tum Alnus sinua ta Alnus sinuata A cer glabrum Acer gla brum Clado tha mn us p yroli f lorus A mela nchier aIn if olia Amelanchier alnifolia Alnus incana Cornus s tolonifera Berberis nervosa Arctostaphylos uva-ursi var. occidentalis Gaultheria shallon Clado tha mn us p yroli f lorus Ceanothus sanguineus Am ela n chier aIn if o lia Menziesia f erruginea Cornus stolonifera Cladothamnus pyroliflorus Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Oplopa na x horrid um Gaultheria shallon Cornus stolonifera Berberis aqui folium Ribes bracteosum Holodiscus discolor Gaultheria ova tif olia Berberis repens Ribes laxiflorum Menziesia ferruginea Gaultheria shallon Ceanothus velutinus Rubus parviflorus Myrica gale Juniperus communis Clematis columbiana Rubus spectabilis Oplopanax horridum Lonicera ciliosa Cornus stolonifera Salix barcla yi Physocarpus capitatus Lonicera involucrata Holodiscus discolor Salix scouleriana Prunus emarginata Lonicera utahensis Lonicera utahensis Salix sitchensis Ribes bracteosum Menziesia ferruginea Menziesia ferruginea Sambucus racemosa ssp. Rosa gymnocarpa Oplopanax horridum Menziesia glabella pubens var. arborescens. Rubus parviflorus Pachystima m yrsinites Oplopanax horridum Vaccinium alas kaense Rubus spectabilis Prunus emarginata Pachystima m yrsinites Vaccinium ovalifolium Rubus ursinus Rhododendron albiflorum Ribes lacustre Vaccinium parvifolium Sa lix s couleria na Ribes lacustre Rosa gymnocarpa Va ccin ium uliginos um Sambucus ovatum Ribes viscosissimum Rubus parviflorus Viburnum edule Sambucus racemosa Rosa gymnocarpa Salix sp. ssp. pubens Rubus nivalis Shepherdia canadensis Spiraea douglasii Rubus parviflorus Sorbus sitchensis Symphoricarpos albus Salix s couleriana Sorbus scopulina Symphoricarpos mollis Sambucus racemosa Spiraea betuli f olia Va ccinium ala s ka ense ssp. pubens var. lucida Vaccinium m yrtillus Shepherdia canadensis Symp horicarpos albus Va ccinium ova lif olium Sorbus sitchensis Symp horicarpos occiden ta lis Vaccinium ovatum Spiraea be tulif olia Vaccinium globulare Vaccinium parvifolium var. lucida Vaccinium membranaceum Vaccinium uliginosum Spiraea dougla sii Vaccinium m yrtillus Viburnum opulus Vaccinium membrana ceum Va ccinium scopa rium var. america num Vaccinium m yrtillus Vaccinium ovalifolium Viburnum edule Viburnum opulus var. americanum

'From Viereck and Little (1972); personal communication from Paul Alaback, Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1980. 2From Orloci (1961, 1965), Krajina (1969), Packee (1976). 3From McLean and Holland (1958), Bell (1965), Krajina (1969). 4From Aller (1960), Pfister et al. (1977). 5From Daubenmire (1952), Daubenmire and Daubenmire (1968). eFrom Fonda and Bliss (1969), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Dyrness et al. (1974). 7Fr~mMunz and Keck (1959), Axelrod (1977), Kuchler (1977), Sawyer et al. (1977), Zinke (1977).

6 Table 2 - Continued

Eastern Washlngton and Western Washlngton northern Idaho6 and Oregon6 Calif ornla7

Acer glabrum Acer circina tum Acer circina tum Ainus sinuata A melanchier a In if olia Berberis nervosa Amelanchier alnifolia Berberis nervosa Corylus cornuta Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Corylus cornuta Gaultheria shallon Clematis columbiana Gaultheria shallon Holodiscus discolor Cornus stolonifera Menziesia ferruginea M yrica ea lif ornica Corylus cornuta Oplopanax horridum Rhododendron macroph yllum Lonicera utahensis Pachystima m yrsinites Rhododendron occidentale Menziesia f errugin ea Rhododendron macrophyllum Ribes bracteosum Oplopanax horridum Ribes lacustre Rosa gymnocarpa Pachystima m yrsinites Rosa gymnocarpa Rubus parviflorus Ribes lacustre Rosa nutkana Rubus spectabilis Ribes viscosissimum Rubus nivalis Rubus ursinus Rosa gymnocarpa Rubus parviflorus Vaccinium ovatum Rubus idaeus Rubus ursinus Va ccinium pa rvi f olium Rubus parviflorus Rubus specta bilis Sambucus racemosa Salix hookeriana ssp. pubens Sorbus sitchensis Sorbus scopulina Spiraea douglasii Spiraea betuli f olia Symphoricarpos albus var. lucida Symphoricarpos mollis Sym p horica rpos a lbus Vaccinium alaskaense Vaccinium membranaceum Vaccinium membrana ceum Vaccinium ova lifolium Vacciniurn ova li f olium Vaccinium ovatum Vaccinium parvifolium

7 Herbs western redcedar. The Aralia/ (1958) in the upper Columbia River Gym noca rpium com m u n ity occ u rs Valley also correspond to the Some of the herbs associated with on slopes and alluvial flats where Daubenmires’ ThujalOplopanax and western redcedar are listed in table subsurface water is available. Th ujalPa ch is t im a com m u n it ies. 3. Fourteen associates are common Oplopanax communities are found in both coastal and interior environ- on steep lower slopes with perma- Bailey (1966) described a Thuja ments: Athyrium filix-femina (L.) nent seepage at or near the surface plica talAdiantum peda tum-Athyrium Roth., Chimaphila umbellata (L.) and on alluvial flats with high water filix-femina community in the Bart., Clintonia uniflora (Schult.) tables. The Lysichitum community is southern Oregon Coast Ranges of Kunth., Cornus canadensis L., present where soil is saturated by eastern Coos and western Douglas Dryopteris austriaca (Jacq.) Woynar, slowly moving ground water for Counties. Polystichum munitum and Galium trifidum L., Gymnocarpium much of the growing season. A Oxalis oregana dominated the herb dryopteris (L.) Newm., Linnaea si m iI a r ThujalLysic hitum comm u n ity layer, but Bailey used the high con- borealis L., Polystichum munitum occurs in the coastal environment of stancy, low cover Adiantum and (Kaulf.) Presl, Pteridium aquilinum Vancouver Island’s Nanaimo River Athyrium as indicator species for (L.) Kuhn., Rubus pedatus J. E. Valley (see McMinn 1960). this community. It occurred at low Smith, Streptopus amplexifolius (L.) elevations on steep lower and mid- DC., Tiarella trifoliata L., and Viola Daubenmire and Daubenmire (1968) dle slopes. glabella Nutt. Two other common recognized three western redcedar associates (Carex obnupta Bailey communities in northern Idaho. Franklin and Dyrness (1973) sum- and Oenanthe sarmentosa Presl) are Thuja plica talPachis tima myrsinites marized the community information limited to moist habitats west of the is an upland community where available from Oregon and Washing- Cascades. Aralia nudicaulis L. and Athyrium is absent or short and ton in 1973. They included two San Coptis occidentalis (Nutt.) T. & G. Tsuga is absent. Hanley’s (1976) Juan Island communities described occur with redcedar only in the biomass estimates indicate that this in a 1973 rep0rt.Y Thuja plicata- interior. community is very productive. Thuja Abies grandislPachistima myrsinites plica talOplopa nax h orridum and occurs on moderately moist, north- Major Communities Thuja plicatalA thyrium filix-femina facing slopes and level areas in the occur on bottomlands where interior of Sucia Island. The Krajina (1969) described 23 British Athyrium is usually abundant and moistest sites in the interior valley Columbia “Biogeocoenoses” that tall. Oplopanax is present in the of Sucia Island support Thuja contain western redcedar as a com- former, absent in the latter. plicata-A bies grandislPolystichum ponent. The communities repre- munitum. A report9 is cited by sented are listed in table 4. The Three additional Idaho redcedar Franklin and Dyrness (1973) in refer- communities of Orloci (1961, 1965) communities occur on the North ring to a Thuja plicata-Acer cir- and Brooke (1965) on the southwest- Fork of the Clearwater River: Thuja cinatumlherb community found in ern British Columbia mainland also plicatalAdiantum pedatum is com- moderately moist valleys of Wash- are listed in table 4. ThujalPoly- mon, Thuja plicatalDryopteris spp. is ington’s North Cascades National stichum occurs on moist, concave uncommon, and Thuja plicatal Park. Finally, Franklin and Dyrness lower slopes. ThujalLysichitum also Lysichitum americanum is rare (1973) described and photographed occurs on lower slopes, but only in (Steele 1971). A fourth (Thuja the Thuja plicata- Tsuga hetero- swampy situations and on wet out- plicatalAsarum caudatum) is com- phyllalOplopanax horridumlA thyrium wash terraces where the ground mon in Nezperce County, Idaho filix-femina community. It occurs on water table is near the surface and (Steele et al. 1976). very wet slopes and stream terraces flowing. ThujalCoptis is found in in western Washington and is char- swampy depressions where the Pfister et al. (1977) described two acterized by an extremely lush ground water is stagnant, and Thuja/ western redcedar communities in understory. Oplopanax occurs in swampy Montana that are essentially similar ravines where the ground water to the Daubenmires’ communities in overf Iows i nt erm itt en t ly. Thuja-Abies Idaho - Thuja plicatalOplopanax 3Unpublished report, “Preliminary report a ma bilislOplopa nax occ u rs a Ion g horridum and Thuja plicatalClintonia on the vegetation of the San Juan stream margins at 1067- to 1219-m uniflora. The latter corresponds to Islands, Washington,” by R.W. Fonda (3,500- to 4,000-ft) elevations where the Daubenmires’ Thuja plicatal and J.A. Bernardi. 1973. On file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Corvallis, Oregon. nonstagnant ground water is near Pachistima myrsinites community, the surface. It is of limited occur- but it includes a Menziesia fer- 4Unpublished report, “Phytosociological rence. ruginea phase not present in Idaho. reconnaissance of western redcedar Two unnamed communities de- stands in four valleys of the North Three of Bell’s (1965) major plant scribed by McLean and Holland Cascades Park complex,” by Joseph W. communities for the Selkirk and Miller and Margaret M. Miller. 1970. On Monashee Mountains of southeast- file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Cor- vallis, Oregon. ern British Columbia include

8 Table 3 - Herb species associated with western redcedar in 7 portions of its natural range

Alaska' Coastal British Coiumbla* interior British Columbia' Montana'

Athyrium filix-femina Achlys triphylla Adenocaulon bicolor Actaea rubra Blechnum spicant Adiantum pedatum Adiantum pedatum Adenocaulon bicolor Clintonia uniflora Anemone occidentalis Angelica arguta Aralia nudicaulis Coptis a sp len if o lia A thyrium f ilix- f em ina Aralia nudicaulis Athyrium filix-femina Cornus canadensis Blechnum spicant A thyrium f ilix- f em ina Carex disperma Dryopteris austriaca Cardamine breweri Campanula rotundif olia Chimaphila umbellata Epilobium a lpinum Carex deweyana Carex disperma Circa ea a lpina var. nutans Carex hendersonii Carex laeviculmis Clintonia uniflora Gymnocarpium dryopteris Carex obnupta Carex stipata Coptis occiden talis Hypopitys monotropa Carex pauciflora Chimaphila um bella ta Cornus canadensis Listera cordata Chimaphila menziesii Circaea alpina Disporum hookeri Lysichitum americanum Chimaphila umbellata Clintonia uniflora Disporum trachycarpum Maianthemum dila tatum Circaea alpina Corallorhiza maculata Galium boreale Polypodium glycyrrhiza Clintonia uniflora Corallorhiza mertensiana Galium trifidum Pteridium aquilinum Coptis aspleni f olia Cornus canadensis Goodyera oblongifolia Pyrola uniflora Coptis trifolia Corydalis sempervirens Gymnocarpium dryopteris Rubus pedatus Corallorhiza maculata Dryopteris a ustriaea Linnaea borealis S trep topus amplex if olius Cornus canadensis Equisetum palustre Listera borealis S trep topus rose us Disporum hookeri Equisetum scirpoides Lis tera con vallarioides var. curvipes Drosera rotundifolia Equisetum sylvaticum Lycopodium annotinum Streptopus streptopoides Dryopteris austriaca Fragaria virginiana Lycopodium complana tum Thelypteris p hegop teris Epilobium angus tif olium var. glauca Polystichum munitum Tiarella trifoliata Equisetum telma teia Galium boreale Pteridium aquilinum Erioph orum chamis so n is Galium trifidum Pyrola asari f olia Galium trifidum Geum macrophyllum Pyrola chlorant ha Glycera elata Glycera elata Pyrola secunda

Glycera striata Goodyera oblongif olia Smilacina stellata , Goodyera oblongifolia G ymnocarpium dryopteris Smilacina racemosa Gymnocarpium dryopteris Heuchera c ylindrica Strep topus amplexi f olius Linnaea borealis Linnaea borealis Tiarella trifoliata Listera caurina Listera caurina var. trifoliata Listera cordata Lis tera conva llarioides Tiarella trifoliata Lycopodium clava tum Lycopodium complanatum var. unifoliata Lycopodium complanatum Lysichitum americanum Trillium ovatum Lycopodium selago Melampyrum lineare Va leriana sitch en sis Lysichitum americanum Mitella breweri Veratrum viride Maianthemum dilatatum Mitella pen tandra Viola ea na dens is Mimulus moschatus Polypodium glycyrrhiza Viola glabella Mitella ovalis Polystichum andersonii Viola orbiculata Monotropa uniflora Polystichum lonchitis Xeroph yllum tenax Montia sibirica Pteridium a quilinum Oenanthe sarmentosa Pyrola asari f olia Polysticum munitum Pyrola chlorantha Pteridium aquilinum Pyrola picta Rubus pedatus Pyrola secunda Scirpus m icroca rpus Rubus pedatus Smilacina stellata Scirpus microcarpus Stachys mexicana Smilacina stellata Stellaria crispa Smilacina racemosa Streptop us amplexi f olius S trep topus amplexi f olius Streptopus roseus Streptopus roseus var. curvipes var. curvipes Streptopus streptopoides Streptopus streptopoides Tiare Ila trif o lia t a Thalictrum occiden tale var. laciniata Tiarella trifoliata Tiarella trifoliata var. laciniata var. trifolia ta Tiarella trifoliata Tiarella trifoliata var. trifoliata var. unifoliata Tiarella trifolia ta Tofieldia glutinosa var. unifoliata Trillium ova tum Trisetum cernuum Triset um cernuum Veratrum viride Veratrum viride Viola adunca Viola glabella Viola glabella Viola orbicula ta Viola palustris Woodsia scopulina Table 3 - Continued

Eastern Washlngton and Western Washington northern Idaho6 and Oregone Callfornia7

Actaea rubra Achlys triphylla Carex obnupta Adenocaulon bicolor Adenocaulon bicolor Epilobium angustifolium Adiantum pedatum Adiantum pedatum Erechtites arguta Anemone piperi Anemone deltoidea Erechtites minima Aralia nudicaulis Asarum caudatum Oxalis oregana Asarum caudatum A thyrium filix- f em ina Polys tichum m unitum Athyrium filix-femina Blechnum spicant Pteridium aquilinum Carex la eviculm is Campanula scouleri Viola sempervirens Chimaphila menziesii Carex obnupta Chimaphila umbellata Ch im ap h ila m enzies ii Circaea alpina Chimaphila umbellata Clintonia unif lora Circaea alpina Coptis occidentalis Clinton ia unif lora Corallorhiza maculata Coptis laciniata Corallorhiza mertensiana Corallorhiza mertensiana Corallorhiza trifida Cornus canadensis Cornus canadensis Disporum hookeri Disporum hookeri Disporum smithii Dryopteris a us tria ca Dryopteris aus triaca Dryopteris f ilix-mas Galium oreganum Epilobium angus tif olium Galium trifidum Fragaria vesca Goodyera oblongifolia var. bracteata Gymnocarpium dryopteris Galium trifidum Linnaea borealis Goodyera oblongifolia Listera caurina Gymnocarpium dryopteris Lycopodium clava tum Hypopitys monotropa Lysichitum americanum Linnaea borealis Maianthemum dilatatum Listera caurina Mitella sp. Lis tera con va llarioides Montia sibirica Lysichitum americanum Oenanthe sarmentosa Mertensia paniculata Osmorhiza purpurea Mitella pentandra Oxalis oregana Mit ella s ta urope ta la Polystichum munitum Montia sibirica Pteridium aquilinum Polys tich um m unitum Pyrola asari f olia Pteridium aquilinum Pyrola picta Pterospora andromedea Pyrola secunda Pyrola asa rif olia Rubus lasiococcus Pyrola chlorantha Rubus pedatus Pyrola picta Smilacina stellata Pyrola secunda Stachys mexicana Pyrola uniflora Streptopus amplexifolius Rubus pedatus Streptopus roseus Smilacina racemosa var. curvipes Smilacina stellata Synthyris reniformis Stellaria crispa Tiarella trifoliata Streptopus amplexifolius var. trifoliata Tiarella trifolia ta Tiarella trifoliata var. trifoliata var. unifoliata Tiarella trifoliata Tolmiea menzies ii var. unifoliata Trientalis latifolia Trillium ova tum Trillium ova tum Trisetum cernuum Vanco uveria hexa n dra Veratrum viride Viola glabella Viola glabella Viola s empe rviren s Viola orbiculata Whipplea modesta Xeroph yllum tenax Xeroph yllum tenax

'Personal communication, Paul Alaback, Department of Forest Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1980. 'From Orloci (1961, 1965), Krajina (1969), Packee (1976). 3From McLean and Holland (1958), Bell (1965), Krajina (1969). 'From Aller (1960), Pfister et al. (1977). 5From Daubenmire (1952), Daubenmire and Daubenmire (1968), Steele (1971). 6From Fonda and Bliss (1969), Franklin and Dyrness (1973), Dyrness et al. (1974). 'From Munz and Keck (1959), Axelrod (1977), Kuchler (1977), Sawyer et al. (1977), Zinke (1977).

10 Table 4 - Major western redcedar communltles in 5 portions of its native range'

Eastern Washington Western Washington Coastal British Columbiaz interior British Columbiaa Montana4 and northern Idaho' and Oregon'

Thpl-AbamlOpholGydr-Atfi (1) ThpllLyam (1) ThpllClun (1) ThpllAtfi (1) Th pllAdpe -Atf I Thpl-Abam-PsmelVaov (2) Th p llOpho/Ti u n (2) ThpllOpho (2) ThpllOpho (2) Th p I-A bgrlPamy Thpl-Abam-PsmelVaov- (3) Thpl-Potr-PienlCostlPyas- (3) ThpllPamy (3) Thpl-AbgrlPomu VaallSt ro-Pom u-B Isp Smst (4) ThpllAdpe (4) Thpl-Accilherbs T h pl-A bg r-PsmelS yallTi t r- (4) Thpl-PsmelLoinlArnu-Gydr- (5) ThpllDr (5) Th pl-TshelO p holAt f i Pomu CI un-Ti un (6) ThpllLyam Thpl-Abgr-Psme/Titr -Pomu (5) Thpl-Tshe-Psme-Pimol (7) ThpllAsca Thpl-AbgrlSyallAdpe Pamylqoca Thpl-Chno-Abam-Psmel (6) Psme-Thpl-PimolVaov- Vaov-Bene PamylCoca-Ti u n Thpl-Pisi-AbamlOpho- (7)Tshe-Thpl-PsmelLoutlArnu- R ibr- R u s plPom u Gydr-CocaClun -Tiun Thpl-Pisi-Abam-Psmel (8) Arnu-Gydr Pomu (9) OPhO Thpl-Pisi-AlrulLyam/Caob (10) Lyam T hp I-Pi s i- Pi colS pdo Thpl-PsmelBene Thpl-PsmelPomu-Actr Thpl-Psme-Quga/Syal/ Pomu Psme-Thp IIGash -Sy mo- Bene Tshe-Thpl-Abam-Psmel VaallBlsp ThpllPomu Th p IlVaaIlLyam Th p IlCoas-Cotr- Ly am Th p I/Op holAdpe Th pI -AbamlO pho ThpllLyam

'Only the first two letters of each genus and species are listed (e.g. Thuja plicata = Thpl). 2Numbers 1-16 are from Krajina (1969); 17-20 are from Orloci (1965); 21 is from Brooke (1965); 22 is from McMinn (1960). SNumbers1 -7 are from Krajlna (1969); 8-10 are from Bell (1965). 'From Pfister (1977). ONumbers 1-3 are from Daubenmire and Daubenmire (1968); 4-6 are from Steele (1971); 7 is from Steele et al. (1976). ONumber 1 is from Bailey (1966); 2-5 are from Franklin and Dyrness (1973).

11 Morphology, Anatomy, and Composition

Form Wherever redcedars grow, the boles accounted for about 14 percent of of old trees tend to be swollen or the aboveground weight of the 5- to Western redcedar trees typically at- flared at the base (fig. 2). They are 15-cm (2- to 6-in) d.b.h. redcedars tain heights of 60+ m (1979 ft) and often conspicuously fluted, with fre- measured by Smith and DeBell diameters of 150-300 cm (59-118 in) quent bark seams (Sudworth 1908, (1973), but only 11 percent of the (Franklin and Dyrness 1973), but McBride 1959), but the fluting seems weight of those that were 30 to 41 more massive individuals are not un- to be more common in open-grown cm (12 to 16 in) d.b.h. Individual common. Trees measuring 4.9 to trees than in dense stands (Nystrom trees vary greatly, however; the two 6.1 m (16 to 20 ft) in diameter and up 1980). Two or more leaders are fre- redcedars measured by Grier and to 76 m (250 ft) tall have been found quent (Bowers 1956, Day 1957), and Logan (1977) were 23 and 41 cm (9 (West Coast Lumber Trade Exten- many old trees have hollow bases and 16 in) d.b.h. and had about 18 sion Bureau 1927). The largest (McBride 1959, Daubenmire and percent of their weight in living western redcedar known to be alive Daubenmire 1968). Mature westerr, branches. in 1977 grew on the Olympic Penin- redcedar trees tend to be larger in sula. It was 592 cm (233 in) in diameter but shorter than mature The branches of young western diameter at breast height and 54 m. western hemlock, Sitka spruce, or redcedars curve upward. On older (178 ft) tall (Pardo 1978). The largest Douglas-fir (Day 1957, Smith et at. trees they swing downward near the redcedar east of the Cascades may 1961a). bole, then sweep up again at the be a tree 550 cm (216 in) in diameter ends (Bowers 1956). Except where and 54 m (177 ft) high, measured Mature western redcedars taper densely crowded, most of these recently near Elk River, Idaho (per- more than Douglas-firs and western branches are retained until the trees sonal communication, Charles A. hemlocks. The majority of this taper are 46- to 51-cm (18- to 20-in) d.b.h. Wellner, Forestry Sciences Labora- is in the first 16 feet, and most oc- and 15 to 24 m (50 to 80 ft) tall (Sud- tory, Moscow, Idaho). curs in the first 4 feet above ground worth 1908). Tiny branchlets are (Nystrom 1980). Small western red- formed when the terminal shoot on Large western redcedar trees are cedar trees seem to taper less than each branch produces a lateral apex not uncommon east of the Cas- large trees, which become nearly at every eighth leaf pair (see cades. A preliminary survey of conical in southeastern Alaska Malcolm and Caldwell 1971). These western redcedar in the northern (Andersen 1955a). Alaska redcedars branchlets (really frondlike aggrega- Rocky Mountainsy showed 33 growing in association with western tions of leaves) die and fall off every groves containing redcedars larger hemlocks have much better form 2 to 5 years (see Sudworth 1908, than 152 cm (5 ft) d.b.h. Six con- than those growing in pure stands Bowers 1956). tained trees larger than 335 cm (11 (Andersen 1955b); this may be ft) d.b.h. The groves are quite evenly caused by the greater stand den- The leaves of a mature western distributed among habitat types, but sities associated with hemlock- redcedar are small and scalelike - the Thuja plicatalA thyrium filix- redcedar mixtures. Or it may be the much smaller than the two cotyle- fernina type seems to be most result of mixed stands occurring on dons of a germinating seedling or typical. Although many groves occur better sites than pure stands (see the juvenile leaves produced in on sideslopes, most of the very Gregory 1957). whorls of four soon thereafter (see large western redcedars were found Franklin 1961). They are darker in stream bottoms or upper basins. green on top and lighter underneath than other cedarlike trees of the Most western redcedar trees grow- Pacific Northwest (Bowers 1956), spaper, “Western redcedar groves in the ing on moderately dry sites in with white markings on the lower northern Rocky Mountains,” by Frederic western Oregon have rather open surfaces (Dallimore and Jackson D. Johnson. 1980. Presented at the 53d crowns (see Gratkowski 1956). 1967). annual meeting, Northwest Scientific Crown density seems to vary with Association, in Moscow, Idaho. Abstract on file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, age, however. Young redcedars on Corvallis, Oregon. the Queen Charlotte Islands have dense crowns that become thinner with age until the upper portions die, leaving numerous spike tops (Day 1957). This thinning with age is accompanied by changes in the percentages of stem wood, stem bark, branches, and foliage in western redcedar trees. Branches

12 Western redcedar leaves are numerous, and foliage comprises a higher fraction of the live-crown weight in redcedar than it does in Douglas-fir (Brown 1978). Foliage ac- counts for 10 percent of the above- ground weight of 5- to 15-cm (2- to 6-in) d.b.h. redcedars and 6 percent of the weight of 30- to 41 cm (12- to 16-in) d.b.h. western redcedars (Smith and DeBell 1973). A 0.6- to 0.9-m (2- to 3-ft) diameter redcedar may have 227 to 1361 kg (500 to 3,000 Ib) of green foliage (Cochrane 1951), but Grier and Logan (1977) measured an average of only 15.4 kg (33.9 Ib) of ovendry foliage on 0.2- and 0.4-m (0.8- and 1.3-ft) diameter trees.

Redcedar foliage seems well suited to the support of epiphytes. Four species of mosses, 1 hepatic, and 16 lichen species occur on western redcedar leaves in western British Columbia (Vitt et al. 1973). Dauben- mire (1943) also found lichens on the leaves of western redcedar in north- ern Idaho. He described three unique attributes that may be responsible for the superiority of redcedar foliage as an epiphyte hab- itat: overlapping of the scalelike leaves, the surface roughness cre- ated by peglike papillae projecting from epidermal cells, and a super- ficial film of scurfy material. Vitt et al. (1973) proposed a fourth attribute - lack of certain inhibitory volatile compounds that are found in the foliage of other western conifers. Ep i p h yt e- in hibit ing com pound s may not be present, but western redcedar Figure 2.-Old-growth western redcedars. Note the fluted, flared lower boles. The foliage contains several other striped stick is 1 m long. substances. The volatile foliage oil is chiefly L-thujone and d-isothujone (Von Rudloff 1962), but pinene, western redcedar leaves. Some of d-sabinene, and fenchone are also these compounds inhibit bacterial present (Cochrane 1951, Von Rudloff growth (Michel 1976). Those present 1962, Banthorpe et al. 1973). Oil in the steam volatiles obtained from from young branchlets contains redcedar foliage are highly toxic to larger amounts of pinene and . coho salmon fry (Peters 1974, Peters sabinene than that from older ones et al. 1976). (Von Rudloff 1962). In addition to the above monoterpenes, diterpene hydrocarbons (Aplin and Cambie 1964), biflavonyl pigments (Rahman et al. 1972), and dilignol rham- nosides (Manners and Swan 1971, 1977) have also been found in

13 The dry, powdered western redcedar and secondary branches are more Roots foliage analyzed by Chow (1977a) abundant on the side closest to the had a pH of 5.3 - equal to the pH apex of the main branch. The roots of western redcedar may of red alder foliage, but much higher be recognized by their extremely than the pH values measured for Strobili and Seeds thin brown outer bark, which is Douglas-fir (3.8), western hemlock underlain by a thin pink to purple- (4.0), lodgepole pine (4.3), or white Male and female strobili are borne red zone above the white inner bark. spruce (4.3) foliage. This high pH on different branches of the same Young roots may have a thick, value was accompanied by a high tree (Schopmeyer 1974). Both occur white, pulpy outer layer outside the calcium content. Ovington (1953) at the tips of small lateral branches, pink zone (Gilbertson et al. 1961). analyzed fresh leaves and also and both are formed as a result of The tap roots are poorly defined or found higher pH values in redcedar the transformation of previously nonexistent, but a profuse fine root than in Douglas-fir or western vegetative apices (Owens and Pharis system is developed (Leaphart and hemlock when all three species 1971). Male and female strobili occur. Wicker 1966). These small roots were measured on the same British at different heights, however, and decay rapidly and lose most of their site. He recorded great variation they differ in color. The reddish tensile strength within 3 to 5 years among sites, however, and con- male strobili are borne on lower after the parent tree is felled. Larger cluded that leaf pH was related to branches; the green female strobili redcedar roots may remain acidity of the underlying soil. occur near the treetops (Hedlin 1964, reasonably sound and intact for SQegaard 1969). The male strobili many years (O’Loughlin 1974). When litter fall was analyzed near fall off after shedding the pink the Pacific coast, the calcium con- pollen. Pollen grains are single and Depth of root penetration was centration in western redcedar spheroidal, without bladders, aper- similar for western redcedar, foliage was over 2 percent - twice tures, ridges, or folds. They are 20 to Douglas-fir, and western hemlock that of bigleaf maple foliage and 30 45 pm in diameter and have scat- where Eis (1974) excavated trees on times that of lodgepole pine foliage tered, isodiametric radial projections Vancouver Island, but Smith (1964b) (Tarrant et al. 1951). Calcium content (see McAndrews et al. 1973). West- found redcedar roots to be shal- was also high in freshly fallen ern redcedar pollen does not lower than those of Douglas-fir and western redcedar foliage in the preserve well, and it decays rapidly deeper than western hemlock roots. northern Rocky Mountains (Dauben- in peat bogs (Hansen 1941). Boyce (1929) mentioned the deep mire 1953). Nitrogen and phosphorus root system of western redcedar in concentrations were relatively low As the female strobili ripen, they explaining its windfirmness on the for western redcedar foliage in both change from green to yellow and Olympic Peninsula. Jackson and regions. Potassium concentrations finally to a pale cinnamon-brown Knapp (1914), Flint (1925), Hepting were moderately high along the (Schopmeyer 1974). Erect when (1971), and Shinn (1971) refer to coast, moderately low in the north- young, they become reflexed when western redcedar as a shallow- ern Rocky Mountains. Packee’s they reach their mature length of 13 rooted species, however, and Haig (1975) literature review showed that mm (112 in) (Dallimore and Jackson (1936) and Haig et al. (1941) found crude protein content of western 1967). Although immature female the root penetration poor. Where a redcedar foliage on Vancouver strobili may consist of up to 10 pairs thick duff layer is present, most Island varies seasonally but is lower of cone scales, only 5 or 6 develop redcedar roots occur in the duff than that of Douglas-fir foliage. to form the mature strobilus and, of rather than underlying soil (Ross Western redcedar foliage apparently these, only pairs 3 and 4 are fertile 1932). Ross found no root hairs on contains more fat than Douglas-fir (Hedlin 1964). Two or three seeds these duff-inhabiting roots. Dif- foliage in July and December, less are borne under each fertile scale ferences in local soil conditions in March. (Bowers 1956). probably are responsible for these various conclusions. Redcedar may Redcedar does not form buds con- Western redcedar seeds are chest- form deep root systems on deep, taining preformed shoots (Owens nut brown and about 6 mm (114 in) moderately dry soils. Its root devel- and Pharis 1971), and no clearly visi- long, with lateral wings about as opment is limited and shallow on ble buds or rapidly elongating suc- wide as the body (Schopmeyer 1974). wet sites (see Day 1957, McMinn culent shoots are present (Aldhous Approximately 9.65 g of cleaned 1960). and Low 1974). Instead, the shoot seed are obtained per liter of cones apex is covered by numerous leaf (0.75 Ib of seed per bushel). Schop- All authorities seem to agree that primordia at various stages of meyer’s 1974 data summary shows western redcedar has an extensive development. Owens and Pharis 448,000 to 1,305,000 cleaned seeds root system. Jackson and Knapp found that branches are two ranked, per kilogram (203,000 to 592,000 (1914) believed that bole buttresses occurring every two to four nodes. seeds per pound). indicated the number of principal Only one branch occurs at a node, roots, with masses of slender fibrous roots extending 3 m (10 ft) or

14 more in all directions from the but- bark percentages to be slightly Compounds that have been ex- tresses. The ratio of rootlet length lower than those of western tracted from western redcedar bark to the length of the parent lateral hemlock, much lower than the bark incl u de: root was 0.960 for the redcedars ex- percentages of Douglas-fir. When amined by Leaphart (1958) in north- Brown et al. (1977) compared bark arachidic acid (Fraser and Swan ern Idaho. It was 0.260 for grand fir and stem volumes in Montana and 1978) and only 0.005 for lodgepole pine. Idaho, they found the bark volume/ aspartic acid (Swan 1963b) Leaphart and Grismer (1974) mea- stem volume ratio lower in western campesterol (Fraser and Swan 1978) sured the extent of roots in a mixed- redcedar (0.15) than in ponderosa catechin (Swan 1963b) species stand in northern Idaho and pine (0.24), white pine (0.21), D-fructose (Swan 1963b) found that western redcedar made Douglas-fir (0.19), western larch D-glucose (Swan 1963b) up only 17 percent of the basal area (0.24), or western hemlock (0.18). diethyl octadecanedioate (Swan but accounted for 82 percent of the When they compared bark weight to 1968) root length. stem weight, the redcedar bark pro- docosanoic acid (Fraser and Swan portion (0.173) was smaller than that 1978) Root grafting is more frequent in for all other conifers except eicosanoic acid (Fraser and Swan western redcedar than in Douglas-fir lodgepole pine (0.1 14). 1978) or western hemlock (Eis 1972). In ad- epicatechin (Swan 1963b) dition to numerous small grafts, Eis For similar tree sizes, redcedar bark ethyl 18-h yd roxystearat e (Swan found 27 grafts greater than 1 cm is slightly thinner than western 1968 (0.4 in) in diameter between two hemlock bark at the top of the first ferulic acid (Swan 1968) redcedar trees growing on shallow 4.9-m (16-ft) log in southeastern isopimaric acid (Fraser and Swan soil over bedrock. Alaska. It is slightly thicker than 1978) Sitka spruce or Alaskacedar bark leucocyanidins B and C (Swan Western redcedar mycorrhizae are of measured at that point (see Bones 1963b) the vesicular-arbuscular type (per- 1962). Bark thickness varies among myristic acid (Fraser and Swan 1978) sonal communication, James M. trees, but the inner bark of western 19 -nori sop ima raS( 1 4), 15 -d ien-3-one Trappe, Forestry Sciences Labora- redcedar tends to be thinner than (Fraser and Swan 1973) tory, Corvallis, Oregon). that of Sitka spruce and its outer norditerpene alcohols (Quon and bark tends to be thicker. Redcedar Swan 1969) bark has less airspace, lower oleic acid (Fraser and Swan 1978) moisture content, and a higher palmitic acid (Fraser and Swan 1978) Western redcedar bark is light specific gravity than Sitka spruce phydroxyphenylpyruvic acid cinnamon-red or brown on young bark (see Smith and Kozak 1971). (Swan 1963b) trunks, gray on old trees (Isenberg shikimic acid (Swan 1963b) 1951). It is divided into wide ridges Western redcedar has a brown first stearic acid (Fraser and Swan 1978) by irregular fissures that break up periderm and a reddish purple sucrose (Swan 1963b) the surface into small plates secondary periderm (Mullick 1971). tannins, oils, and waxes (Smith and (Dallimore and Jackson 1967). The purple color is a property of the Kurth 1953) Redcedar bark is stringy (Wethern nonanthocyanic phlobaphene taxifolin glucoside (Hergert and 1959) and, even on old trees, thin. It pigments found there (Mullick Goldschmid (1958) varies from 1.3 to 2.5 cm (1/2 to 1 in) 1969a). One of these phlobaphenes terpinen-4-01 (Fraser and Swan 1978) thick (Sudworth 1908, lsenberg 1951, was analyzed and described by tetracosanoic acid (Fraser and Swan Bowers 1956, Dallimore and Jackson Swan (1963a). Anthocyanidins are 1978) 1967). It is slightly heavier than the also present in the secondary thujone (Fraser and Swan 1978) wood, weighing 0.37 to 0.39 g per periderm (Mullick 1969b). The inner xanot hoperol (Fraser and Swan cm3 (23.1 to 24.3 Ibs per ft3) (see and outer bark are similar, but outer 1978) Smith and DeBell 1973, Brown et al. bark has a higher lignin content 1977). (Cram et al. 1947). The lignin from When Smith and Kurth (1953) an- the outer bark differs from that of alyzed several western redcedar Stem bark accounted for about 19 the inner bark and from most other trees near Oakridge, Oregon, they percent of the aboveground weight softwoods in that it contains fewer found that extractive contents of of 5- to 15-cm (2- to 6-in) d.b.h. trees methoxyl groups and aromatic pro- the bark were higher in treetops measured by Smith and DeBell, 10 tons, more catechol groups, and than in butt logs, rangingfrom 18 to percent of the weight of 30- to 41-cm more aliphatic protons (Swan 1966). 29 percent. In contrast, calcium (12- to 16-in) d.b.h. trees. About 6 content of western redcedar bark percent of the aboveground weight Increases with distance from of 23- and 41-cm (9- and 16-in) d.b.h. the treetop (Webber 1973). redcedars measured by Grier and Logan (1977) consisted of stem bark. Smith et at. (1961a) found redcedar

15 Wood Columbia have denser wood, how- unique in that increasing tensile ever - 71 percent of Douglas-fir strength is associated with a Stem wood made up 57 to 73 per- density (Wethern 1959). A survey of decreasing Young’s modulus (Jayne cent of the aboveground weight of densities of western woods (Maeglin 1960). the western redcedar trees and Wahlgren 1972) showed great measured by Smith and DeBell variation, with average specific Other stress limits and strength (1973) and 70 percent of the two gravities of western redcedar rang- properties of western redcedar wood redcedars measured by Grier and ing from 0.318 in western Washing- are listed by Newlin and Wilson Logan (1977). The wood is coarse ton to 0.357 in Montana. Western (1917), the West Coast Lumber Trade and straight grained with a redcedar wood grown in Germany is Extension Bureau (1927), the Forest characteristic sweet odor and faint denser (0.37 g/cm3) than that grown Products Laboratory (1955, 1963), bitter taste (Brown et al. 1949, in North America (see Volkert 1956). and Bendtsen (1972). Their data lsenberg 1951, Forest Products The German values decreased as an- show that the ends of western Laboratory 1955). The green heart- nual ring widths increased - from redcedar are harder and more dif- wood has an average moisture con- 0.4 gkm3with 2-mm rings to about ficult to crush than the ends of tent in North America of 58 percent 0.28 g/cm3 with 8-mm rings. western white pine and sugar pine, - about the same as the moisture but its sides are softer and easier to content in the heartwoods of Annual growth rings are distinct in crush. Redcedar shear strength is western larch, western white pine, western redcedar. Transition from low. Volumetric shrinkage and ther- Pacific silver fir, Engelmann spruce, springwood to summerwood within mal conductivity are also low, and Port-Orford-cedar (see Forest each annual ring is more or less however; western redcedar has the Products Laboratory 1955). Western abrupt, and the summerwood is nar- lowest volumetric shrinkage listed redcedar heartwood grown in New row and hard (Brown et ai. 1949, by Higgins (1957) and the lowest Zealand is very wet in many trees, lsenberg 1951, Forest Products thermal conductivity of any soft- however, and heartwood moisture Laboratory 1955). Resin canals are wood listed by the Forest Products content up to 298 percent has been absent. Metatracheal parenchyma is Laboratory (1955). Its thermal recorded there (Harris and Kripas present, but very variable in distri- emissivity is approximately 0.91 1959). The average moisture content bution. Rays are uniseriate and 1 to (Owens 1964). The low tangential of green redcedar sapwood in North 12+ cells high, with some gummy shrinkage of redcedar seems to be America is higher than that of any infiltration of the ray cells (Brown et the result of a low summerwood other conifer - 249 percent (see al. 1949, Johnston 1951). Ray percentage in the annual rings, plus Forest Products Laboratory 1955). tracheids are occasionally found on relatively low shrinkage of both the upper and lower margins (Brown springwood and summerwood North American western redcedar et al. 1949, Kobayashi 1956). (Erickson 1955). Its longitudinal wood weighs 0.37 to 0.38 gkm3(23 Tracheids have one to two rows of shrinkage, though low, is greater to 24 Ib/ft3)when air dried, 0.31 to bordered pits on the radial walls than those of western hemlock and 0.34 gkm3(19.5 to 21.0 Ib/ft3)when (Brown et al. 1949). The membranes the true firs (Espenas 1974). ovendried (Desch 1948, lsenberg of these bordered pits do not 1951, Forest Products Laboratory possess a torus, but consist of Western redcedar is a soft, stable, 1955, Higgins 1957, Smith and numerous, closely packed strands weak wood that splits easily and is DeBell 1973). Weight per unit volume (Krahmer and Cote 1963). not very tough. Toughness is in- (density) of western redcedar wood creased by extracting extraneous varies with its position in the tree, Average tracheid diameter of compounds with an alcohol-benzene increasing with height and decreas- western redcedar decreases with in- mixture (Raczkowski 1968, Lawnic- ing from pith to cambium (Wellwood creased latitude, altitude, and tree zak and Raczkowski 1970). and Jurazs 1968, Okkonen et al. age in Idaho (Crooks 1964). Red- 1972). Wood density also varies with cedar tracheids in British Columbia Toughness and strength seem to geographic location and site. are shortest near the stump. They vary with redcedar wood color. Dark Western redcedar in Montana and reach maximum length about brown heartwood is less tough, Idaho is less dense than all other midheight in the tree and decrease softer, and weaker than lighter col- western conifer woods except that slightly thereafter (Wellwood and ored heartwood (Findlay and Pettifor of subalpine fir (see Brown et al. Jurazs 1968). Wellwood and Jurazs 1941). This dark brown heartwood 1977). Densities of commercial found that tracheid length increased usually occurs near the center of the redcedar wood are similar in Oregon from the pith outward in redcedar tree and is surrounded by a nar- and British Columbia - 55 percent wood. When the wood is macerated rower red-stained layer inside an and 56 percent that of Douglas-fir. to make kraft pulp, western redcedar The “scrub” redcedars of British fibers average shorter (2.05 mm) than either western hemlock (2.21 mm) or Douglas-fir (2.62 mm) fibers (Graff and lsenberg 1950). Summer- wood fibers of western redcedar are

16 outer zone of straw-colored heart- A complete list of the many organic Other western redcedar wood consti- wood (van der Kamp 1975). Redcedar compounds in redcedar wood would t uent s inc Iud e p-do Ia b r in (Gardner sapwood is white and narrow, be long. The six most important and Barton 1958a, Gardner 1963), generally 2.5 cm (1 in) or less wide compounds isolated from volatile nezukone (Hirose and Nakatsuka (Lutz 1972). It is wider than western oils and their approximate percent- 1967), cumic acid (Barton and Mac- larch sapwood, narrower than the ages in butt heartwood are listed Donald 1971), unnamed soluble and sapwoods of Engelmann spruce, below (see Anderson and Gripenberg insoluble phenols (Barton and Gard- Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine, or 1948; Erdtman and Gripenberg ner 1954, Krueger 1968), and various ponderosa pine (Lassen and Ok- 1948a; Rennerfelt 1948; Gardner and hemicelluloses (Lewis 1950, Hamil- konen 1969). Krahmer and Cote Barton 1958a, 1958b; Roff and Whit- ton and Partlow 1958). Western (1963) found the air-permeability taker 1959; Wethern 1959; Lyr 1961; redcedar hemicel Iu loses are si milar ratio of early sapwood to late heart- and Gardner 1963): to those of other conifers, except wood to be 6.5 in redcedar - lower that the xylan contains a lower than in Douglas-fir or western a-th ujapl ic in 0.01 percent percentage of L-arabinose (Dutton hemlock. Redcedar heartwood pH p t hujapl ici n 0.30 percent and Funnel1 1973). Western redcedar (3.0 to 3.4) is lower than sapwood y-t hujapl icin 0.20 percent wood has a high lignin content pH (4.1 to 4.7) (van der Kamp 1975). p-thujaplicinol (7-hydroxy (Lewis 1950) - higher than the Although western redcedar has a 4-isopropylt ropolone) 0.07 percent woods of western hemlock, Douglas- lower pH than most species (see thujic acid ’ 0.08 percent fir, and Engelmann spruce (Wilson Farmer 1962), the wood acts as a pH methyl t hujate 0.17 percent et al. 1960). More nonreducing buffer when suspended in water sugars than reducing sugars are (Carroll et al. 1973). Polyphenolic lignans may not be as present in the sapwood (Radwan important, but they make up the ma- 1969). The identification of heartwood and jor portion of the heartwood extrac- sapwood is usually relatively easy tives (see MacLean 1970). Eleven of Thujaplicin and water-soluble phenol for western redcedar. Nevertheless, these lignans have been identified increase in redcedar heartwood with application of perchloric acid, and described (Gardner et al. 1960, distance from the pith, decrease Benedict’s solution, Fehling’s solu- 1966; MacDonald and Swan 1970; with height (MacLean and Gardner tion, or ammonium bichromate may MacDonald and Barton 1973; Kir- 1956a, Tickle 1963). Calcium and be useful in difficult cases (Brown bach and Chow 1976): thujaplicatin, potassium in the wood increase with and Eades 1948, Eades 1958). The dihydroxy t hujapl icat in, t hujapl icat in height (see Webber 1973). usual heartwood-sapwood orienta- methyl ether, hydroxy thujaplicatin tion is absent in some southeastern methyl ether, di hydroxy t hujaplicatin Soluble phenols apparently leach British Columbia redcedars, where a methyl ether, y-thujaplicatene, pli- out of redcedar wood when fresh target-shaped pattern of alternate catic acid, plicatin, plicatinaph- logs are stored in water. Kiser and concentric bands of light- and dark- t halene, plicat inapht hol, and Griel related the periodic absence of colored wood occurs (MacLean and paploplicat itoxin. plankton from millponds to the Gardner 1956b). The dark heartwood presence of freshly cut western bands are rich in natural preserva- Thujaplicatin and the thujaplicatin redcedar logs in those p0nds.Y Their tives. Very dark oil or resin streaks methyl ethers are also present in subsequent laboratory experiments are even richer in preservatives much smaller concentrations within indicated that steam-distilled red- when they occasionally occur in the sapwood. They build up slowly cedar oil from freshly cut old-growth western redcedar heartwood (Gard- there, then increase dramatically at sawdust was more toxic to ner 1963). the sapwood-heartwood boundary copepods and cladocerans than (Hillis 1968, Swan et al. 1969, ‘either formalin or chloral hydrate. Natural preservatives comprise one MacLean 1970). Treatment with en- of the most important and interest- zyme inhibitors may increase the ing characteristics of western amounts of thujaplicatin, thu- Wnpublished report, “The effect of red redcedar. About 10 percent of the japlicatin methyl ethers, and cedar oil on zooplankton organisms,” by total heartwood consists of extrac- p-sitosterol produced in sapwood R.W. Kiser and J.V. Griel. 1956. On file, tives (Gardner 1963), and up to 23 (see Swan 1971). Centralia Junior College, Centralia, percent extractive content has been Washington. found in some portions (MacLean and Gardner 1956a). Indeed, 30 to 50 percent extractive content some- times occurs in the resin streaks (Gardner 1963).

17 Products

The thujaplicins, dolabrin, and thu- Uses and Properties Laboratory 1955, Tickle 1963). Red- japlicinol (“tropolones”) are toxic to cedar wood glues easily, particularly coho salmon fry (Peters 1974, Peters Western redcedar products have with nonresin glues (Forest Products et al. 1976) and guppies (Erdtman been important since prehistoric Laboratory 1955). Although naturally and Gripenberg 1948b). They are times. North American Indians, par- durable, it is difficult to impregnate also largely responsible for the high ticularly tribes living along the with artificial preservatives - even natural durability of western red- coasts of Washington and British by pressure processes (Titniuss cedar wood (Barton 1973b). Variation Columbia, used redcedar in many 1965). in tropolone content therefore leads ways. Large logs were carved into to variation in wood durability. Some totem poles and hollowed out to The ease of splitting redcedar is an cedar roofs last 50 years, for exam- make huge ocean-going canoes. The advantage in the manufacture of ple, but others decay in less than 10 redcedar logs were also split into handsplit shakes, but a disadvan- (Roff et al. 1962). The different wide planks used in building large tage when trees are felled on rough moisture conditions associated with timber frame structures that were hills and yarded with heavy ma- steep and flat roof pitches probably often 15 m (50 ft) or more square chinery. Breakage, splitting, and also contribute to these differences. (Vastokas 1969). Recent excavations shattering are often severe (McBride Under similar conditions, redcedar of buried structures made by Indians 1959). The wood is weak when used wood deteriorates more slowly than have uncovered redcedar planks as a beam or post and low in shock the woods of western hemlock, thought to be 6,000 to 10,000 years resistance (Forest Products Labora- Pacific silver fir, Sitka spruce, or old (Sharpe 1974). Bark from young tory 1955). The low density of red- Douglas-fir (Boyce 1929, Buchanan trees was used by the Indians to cedar was associated with poor fire and Englerth 1940). make baskets, ropes, blankets, resistance in the British standard mats, clothing, and thatch (see fire-propagation test (Hall and Dell Cartwright (1941) and Englerth and Sargent 1933, Bowers 1956, 1970). It is a soft wood that is ex- Scheffer (1954) found the most Dallimore and Jackson 1967, Bol- tremely sensitive to marring (Packee durable western redcedar to be that singer 1979). The flexible young 1976). The density and hardness of nearest the base of the tree in the branches were also used in making western redcedar can be increased outer heartwood. The wood in large baskets. Thin twigs were woven into threefold by using heat and pres- western redcedar logs is often ex- whaling ropes, and thicker ones sure, without the addition of chemi- ceedingly resistant to decay, and it were used for arrows (Edlin 1968). cals, but this is only a laboratory sometimes remains sound after hun- The roots were used for fishhooks procedure of no commercial impor- dreds of years on the ground (see (Dallimore and Jackson 1967). tance (Research News, Ottawa West Coast Lumber Trade Extension 1962a). Bureau 1927). The fire resistance of Modern society also uses western western redcedar is poor (see Hall redcedar in a variety of products. Western redcedar is one of the and Dell 1970), and moist heat The wood is valued for canoe and poorest woods for nail- and screw- reduces its decay resistance (Schef- boat construction, and redcedar is holding capacity. It is also poor for fer and Eslyn 1961). still being used to build timber bolt-holding and is one of the frame structures - as exterior weakest woods for withstanding siding, shingles, sashes, doors, win- connector loads (see Forest Prod- dow frames, and interior finish ucts Laboratory 1955, Hokhold 1965). (Forest Products Laboratory 1955, Special ring-shanked nails improve Wood 1959). In addition, western the nail-holding capacity of redcedar redcedar is used in utility poles, (Lee and Lord 1960), and increasing fenceposts, piling, paper pulp, the screw lengths by 0.6 cm (114 in) clothes closets and chests, caskets, improves its screw-holding proper- crates, boxes, beehives, rain gutters, ties enough to equal those of west- and fish-trap floats (Butler 1949, ern hemlock, Scotch pine, and Nor- Viereck and Little 1972, Sharpe way spruce (British Columbia 1974). A complete list would include Lumber Manufacturers Association, many other products, for the wood n.d.) is suitable for many uses. Dry western redcedar takes and Western redcedar wood is non- holds stains, paints, enamels, and resinous, light, and easy to work clear finishes very well (West Coast (Forest Products Laboratory 1955, Wood 1959). It has exceptional dimensional stability and is a good thermal insulator (Forest Products

18 Lumber Trade Extension Bureau Lumber I 1927, Wood 1959, Jones 1966). It ranks with redwood as the best The many uses and excellent proper- Lumber was the chief western red- paint substrate available in North ties of western redcedar products cedar product in Oregon, Montana, American woods (Gardner 1963). have increased the demand for them and Idaho in 1976 (Bolsinger 1979). Lack of extreme differentiation be- in recent years. This increasing de- Most redcedar logs used for lumber tween springwood and summer- mand has been accompanied by ac- manufacture are acceptable in wood, plus low summerwood swell- celerating price increases. Both con- terms of eccentricity, sweep, taper, ing and the resulting lack of raised sumption rates and prices have in- and shake (see Packee 1976). grain, seem to be responsible (see creased more rapidly for western Redcedar lumber cut from these Brown 1957, MacLean 1970). Blister- redcedar products than for products logs is easy to kiln dry, but boards ing is serious where free water (not of most other west coast woods from the butt log (Desch 1948) and just water vapor) is present behind (Bolsinger 1979). Western redcedar thick planks (Forest Products the paint film in western redcedar, and Alaska-cedar commanded Research Board 1950a) sometimes however; more serious than in average round-log values higher collapse during drving The cell walls Douglas-fir, Alaska-cedar, white than any other Alaska tree species are distorted or obliterated, and pine, red pine, or spruce (Veer and in 1971 (Farr and LaBau 1971). redcedar lumber does not recover King 1963). Extractive globules after collapsing (Tiemann 1941). became concentrated on the paint In western Washington and north- Predicting collapse from the ap- surface in the 100-percent humidity western Oregon, the average price pearance of a log is difficult or im- maintained by Veer and King. Ex- paid for all western redcedar logs in- possible, but collapse is associated tractive bleedthrough can be a prob- creased from $57.30 per thousand with higher than normal extractive lem (Forest Products Laboratory board feet in 1965 to $320.80 per content (Meyer and Barton 1971, 1966, MacLean 1970). thousand board feet in 1977 - an Barton 1975). Most redcedar logs average annual increase of 15.4 per- subject to collapse seem to come One of the best clear finishes for cent compared with average annual from low or swampy ground western redcedar wood is a tung oil price increases of about 12 percent (Guernsey 1951). Guernsey observed modified, phenolformaldehyde-resin- for Douglas-fir and western hemlock that heavy boards were more likely based varnish (Oliver 1957). The best during the same period (Bolsinger to collapse than light ones. He pigmented, penetrating stain seems 1979). The accelerating nature of recommended air drying before kiln to be the Forest Products Labora- these price increases is emphasized drying or, if this is impossible, initial tory natural finish (60 percent by Ruderman's (1978) calculations kiln temperatures that do not ex- linseed oil, 5 percent pentachloro- for 1975-77; average annual in- ceed 49°C (120°F). phenol, 10 percent pigment, 0.3 per- creases in log price were 35.1 per- cent zinc stearate, 1.0 percent wax, cent for western redcedar, 20.0 per- Kiln temperatures above 100 "C and 3.7 percent volatiles); the best cent for Douglas-fir saw logs, and (212°F) with three to six times water-soluble inorganic salt finishes 13.2 percent for western hemlock. shorter drying times have been contain acid copper chromate, As the estimated annual harvest of tested, but they resulted in non- cbromated copper arsenate, or western redcedar in the United uniform moisture content and a copper-pentachlorophenol (Gran- States for 1975 to 1976 was 950 5-percent loss of bending strength in tham et al. 1976). When left unfin- million board feet (Bolsinger 1979), western redcedar (Ladell 1953). Less ished, western redcedar weathers such price increases represent very severe,' moderately accelerated dry- gray wood 1959) and resists decay, large sums spent for redcedar prod- ing schedules can be successfully but erodes appreciably faster than ucts. used with lightweight boards of less redwood, Douglas-fir, Engelmann 'than 45-percent moisture content spruce, or ponderosa pine (Feist and Accelerating price increases and an (Salamon and Hejjas 1971). Kiln dry- Mraz 1978). Both western redcedar increasing demand for redcedar ing does not destroy the heartwood and redwood weathered better than products may stimulate greater use extracts of redcedar, but it makes Monterey pine, alpine-ash, Brisbane of defective western redcedars Iike them more soluble (Sowder 1927). boxwood, or King-Wil Iiam -pi ne in those found in the extensive stands Kiln corrosion should be considered Australia (Woodhead 1969). Red- of decadent cedar and hemlock in when western redcedar is dried, cedar wood is quite resistant to cor- interior British Columbia. Dobie because the thujaplicins are steam- rosion by hydrochloric acid but is (1976) concluded that rehabilitation distillable; they sometimes con- less suitable than baldcypress or of these decadent stands could be dense on metal kiln parts and cor- longleaf pine for use in contact with profitable only at very low discount rode them (Barton 1972). acids (American Wood Preservers rates for short rotations on good Association 1946). and medium sites, but subsequent price increases may provide I economic alternatives.

19 Extractive-caused metal corrosion Redcedar is the most important (The Lumberman 1957). St raight-spli t occurs even without the high western species used for siding in and taper-split shakes are both temperatures associated with kiln the United States and Canada (Pan- handsplit from redcedar blocks, but drying. The zinc and lead used in shin and deZeeuw 1970), and it the blocks are reversed every other roof gutters and valleys are some- shows promise as a homegrown time for taper-split shakes. Hand- times corroded by rainwater extracts lumber species in Great Britain spl it-resawn shakes, which account from western redcedar shingles or (Priest 1974). It is suitable for pat- for most of the shake production, shakes (Forest Products Research tern making in foundries (Hale 1954). have a coarse-textured split surface Board 1950b). Iron, steel, copper, Redcedar makes excellent horticul- on one side and a smooth sawn sur- and brass fasteners (such as nails, tural boxes (Moore and Bryan 1946) face on the reverse side (Munger screws, hinges) often corrode when and is used in greenhouse construc- 1970). in contact with redcedar lumber (see tion (Syrach Larsen 1943). Western Campbell and Packman 1944, redcedar is unsuitable for apple Only old, slow-growing, straight- Farmer 1962, Titmuss 1965). The boxes, however; the apples absorb grained, relatively knot-free western carbide-tipped saws and knives used volatiles from the wood and spoil redcedar trees seem to be suitable in lumber manufacture also are cor- (Ministry of Agriculture, Belfast, n.d.; for shake manufacture. Good shake roded, dulling much sooner when Colhoun et at. 1961; Colhoun and material has 35 to 50 annual rings used on unseasoned western red- Park 1963; Loughnane and Gallagher per inch (14 to 20 rings per cm). At cedar than when used on other 1963). least 245 years are required to pro- woods (Kirbach and Chow 1976). duce a tree of suitable size for such Recommended remedies include Shakes and Shingles material, and the shake industry is substituting another metal for the supported by redcedar trees that are cobalt in tungsten carbide and using Shakes and shingles are the chief 500 to 1,500 years old (Munger 1970). aluminum or stainless steel nails, western redcedar products in Wash- Such trees probably constitute a screws, and fittings (Research ington, and British Columbia ex- nonrenewable resource when con- News, Ottawa 1962b). ported 3,294,000 squares in 1978.1 sidered in the scale of human time Recent increases in shake and (see Munger 1970, Mitson and Where iumber is used under moist shingle production have been Holman 1975). conditions, as in water-cooling greater than the production in- towers, western redcedar seems to creases in other redcedar products Younger trees may be suitable for be less suitable than redwood (see (Bolsinger 1979). Even before those redcedar shingles (Packee 1976). The Western Australia Forests Depart- increases, more than 95 percent of two types of western redcedar ment 1961). Nevertheless, untreated all wooden shingles manufactured shingles are slash grain and edge redcedar lumber had a service life of in the United States were made from grain. Edge-grain shingles do not about 18 years in Canadian cooling western redcedar (Brown and Pan- curl and are more durable (O’Hea towers (Roff 1964). When water- shin 1940). Attractive appearance, 1947). Although untreated redcedar repellent treatments were applied to durability, lightness, and superior in- shingles may last for 25 years in western redcedar, waxes and wax sulation probably are responsible for Pennsylvania (Fergusson 1938) and solutions gave the most durable the popularity of redcedar as a roof- 50 years in Washington (see Grondal results (Gray and Wheeler 1959). ing material. The insulating proper- 1913), they are less durable than red- Western redcedar responded better ties of 2.54 cm (1 in) of western wood shingles in the wetter parts of than eastern redcedar or bald- redcedar wood are equal to 30 cm Honolulu (Skolmen 1968). Leaching cypress to waxing and staining (12 in) of concrete or 19 cm (7.5 in) of the water-soluble heartwood ex- treatments used in the preparation of brick or clay tile (O’Hea 1947). tractives in wet conditions may be of pencil slats (Greaves and Harkom responsible (see Cserjesi 1976), but 1949). Three types of redcedar shakes are the low pitch of modern roofs also manufactured: Straight split, taper reduces durabi I ity. split, and handsplit-resawn. All come in random widths of 10 to 30 Pressure impregnation with copper, cm (4 to 14 in). Lengths range from chromium, and arsenic preservatives 46 to 81 cm (18 to 32 in), but the improves the durability of redcedar 61-cm (24-in) length is most common shingles (Smith 1964b). Impregnation with leach-resistant fire retardants makes the shingles more fire resis- ‘This statistic was obtained from the tant (St. Clair 1969, Holmes 1971, Council of Forest Industries of British Juneja 1972). Amino-resin-forming Columbia, Vancouver. A “square” is the compounds are effective retardants amount of shingles or shakes required to (King and Juneja 1974). cover an area of 9.29 m2 (100 ft’), ex- clusive of overlap.

20 High-temperature kiln-drying sched- The service life of redcedar poles Pulp ules can be used to bring unbundled has been increased through several western redcedar shingles from preservative treatments. Spraying The low density of western redcedar green to shipping weight in less freshly peeled green poles with urea is the most serious handicap to its than 2 hours (see Salamon 1960). minimized the checking that some- increased use in pulping (Wethern Shingle durability is not appreciably times occurs during drying (West 1959). Pulp is produced and sold by affected by these high-temperature Coast Lumberman 1941). The dry weight, but the logging and lumber schedules (MacDonald and MacLean poles were pressure treated with industries work by volume. Because 1965). creosote and creosote-coal tar solu- a given volume of western redcedar tions during the 1940’s (American contains only 77 percent as much Poles and Piling Wood Preservers Association 1943, wood by weight as the same volume 1944). Hot- and cold-bath treatments of western hemlock and only 66 per- Good form, large size, light shipping with creosote and pentachloro- cent as much as the equivalent weight, easy climbing-spur penetra- phenol were then tried (see Colley volume of Douglas-fir, the redcedar tion, and durability make western 1946). Preservative penetration was produces less pulp (Wethern 1959). redcedar an excellent species for often poor in western redcedar Low lignin and ex;. active contents pole production, but it has a ten- poles, however, and it varied with are highly desirable for chemical dency to crush when used as piling position and wood condition within pulping processes - but western (Brown and Panshin 1940). Redcedar a single pole (Jurazs and Wellwood redcedar wood has relatively high poles taper more than southern pine 1965). Fortunately, the portions with contents of both (see Packee 1976). or Douglas-fir poles (Bohannan et al. poorest penetrability seemed to 1974). They are remarkably consis- have the highest extractive content The stringy redcedar bark is difficult tent in strength, however, showing and least need for preservative treat- to remove with standard debarking no significant differences between ment. Nonpressure treatment - equipment. Chemical debarking with geographic locations, elevations, or such as butt-soaking or soaking the sodium arsenate has been tried suc- seasoning treat ments (McGowan entire length of the pole - is com- cessfully (DeMoisy 1952); ingrown and Smith 1965). mon now. Pressure treatments are bark is difficult to remove by any less used - the redcedar poles tend debarking technique, and it may Western redcedar poles constitute a to become oversaturated (Randall create problems in some chemical plentiful renewable resource in and Sutherland 1974). pu Ipi ng processes. Pi lot-plant British Columbia. Anderson (1961) studies indicated that redcedar bark estimated a provincial supply of Redcedar poles are seldom re- could be processed satisfactorily, about 121 million poles. Without treated now, but several formerly however, and even whole-log chip- considering annual growth, he used procedures for retreating in- ping was possible (Thomas and forecast a pole supply of 300 years service poles are of historical Davis 1974). at the 1961 cutting rate of 400,000 interest. One method was machine- poles per year. Approximately shaving the sapwood and subse- The sulfate process is most fre- 200,000 poles were cut each year in quently soaking the shaved pole in quently used to produce pulp from the United States, which consumed creosote (Lyon 1939). A somewhat western redcedar. Yields are lower about 400,000 redcedar poles an- similar procedure was used on red- in sulfate than sulfite pulping, in- nually (Anderson 1961). cedar bridge piling. After removing creasing the disadvantage of red- soil from around the affected por- cedar density mentioned earlier Average-size western redcedar poles tion, decayed wood was scraped off (Wethern 1959). The acidic constit- with sapwood less than 2.54 cm (1 and the piling treated with a gelatin- uents of western redcedar wood in) thick should last about 12 to 17 ous suspension of NaF dinitro- consume extra alkali, further reduc- years without treatment (Forest phenol and potassium dichromate ing profits in a sulfate pulping Products Laboratory 1955). More (Railway Track and Structures 1955). operation (see Thomas and Davis than half the untreated redcedar Aboveground sap rot in redcedar 1974). Redcedar extractives corrode telephone poles on the Island of poles has been treated by spraying the steel ordinarily used in digesters Hawaii were still serviceable after 20 with a 10-percent solution of pen- and recovery equipment, sometimes years, however (Boone 1965). When tachlorophenol (Graham and Wright reducing digester life by 50 percent in contact with the ground, they 1959, Scheffer and Graham 1973). compared with digesters used for have a service life proportional to western hemlock or Douglas-fir their diameter, not their cross- Green or wet western redcedar sectional area (Purslow 1962). power poles - particularly wet poles that have been in saltwater - may have low electrical resistances that are potentially hazardous to line workers (see Katz and Miller 1963, Breeze and Vitins 1965).

21 (Wethern 1959, Thomas and Davis tearing strength (see Bray and Mar- Western redcedar plywood panels 1974). The life of evaporator tubes tin 1947, Holzer and Booth 1950, can be made by slicing the logs and may be reduced by 80 percent (see Wethern 1959, Wilson et al. 1960, cold pressing the resulting veneer Gardner 1963). Thujaplicins, a Murray and Thomas 1961). Western (West Coast Lumberman 1946). phenolic constituent, or both prob- redcedar pulp has a high specific Where hot pressing is used, high ably are responsible (British Colum- surface area (Browning and Baker glue spreads and press tempera- bia Lumberman 1953, MacLean and 1950). Its cellulose characteristics tures of 270°F (132°C) or lower have Gardner 1953a). Redcedar pulp are similar to those of western been recommended to prevent drains poorly, sometimes restricting hemlock and loblolly pine pulps (see blistering (Carstensen 1961). Al- production even further (Thomas and Clark 1950, Heuser et al. 1950). though highly rated for decorative Davis 1974). Its color constitutes a Sulfate pulp made from redcedar plywood (Lutz 1972), redcedar is too final handicap (Troxell 1954); red- bark has lower bursting and tensile weak for construction grade struc- cedar pulp bleaches with difficulty strengths, higher tearing strength tural plywood (Palka and Warreh (Isenberg 1951). than that made from wood (Thomas 1977). and Davis 1974). Some handicaps of redcedar pulping Waste Utilization have been turned into advantages by Although sulfite pulp yields are skillful manipulation of the sulfate higher than sulfate (kraft) yields for Redcedar lumber, shake, and process, and redcedar has some western redcedar (see Packee 1976), shingle manufacture produces tre- favorable pulping characteristics. redcedar requires a longer cooking mendous quantities of waste mater- For example, adding 3 to 5 percent time and more chemicals than ial. Logging residue in some clear- sodium sulfide to the cooking liquor western hemlock in the sulfite pro- cut redcedar stands may average offsets the deleterious effects of cess. The resulting low-brightness 238 mVha (3,400 ftjlacre) (Howard high alkalinity and improves both cedar pulp drains poorly (Wethern 1973). The residues produced an- the yield and strength of redcedar 1959). Redcedar sulfite pulp is dark nually from cedar sawmills in pulp (Christiansen et al. 1957). and difficult to bleach (Isenberg Oregon, Washington, and British Western redcedar requires a shorter 1951), and the use of a bisulfite Columbia were estimated to be 1 to sulfate-process cooking time than cooking liquor with a high magne- 1.5 million ovendry tons (907 to 1361 other British Columbia species sium content seems necessary (see million kilograms) in 1968 (Scroggins (Wilson et al. 1960). It has finer Keller and McGovern 1945). The and Currier 1971). Annual residues fibers than western hemlock, bursting strength of western from shake and shingle mills were Douglas-fir, or southern pine and redcedar sulfite pulp is relatively estimated to be 700,000 ovendry makes a dense sheet with good high in comparison with the‘sulfite tons (635 million kilograms). opacity (Murray and Thomas 1961). pulps of other species. Its tear Indeed, bleaching sulfate pulp made strength is relatively low (see Holzer The average amounts of mill resi- from western redcedar sawdust and Booth 1950). dues produced in western redcedar yields a product with an opacity log processing are listed in table 5. comparable to hardwood pulps Mechanical (groundwood) puI pi ng Shake manufacture produces the (Proctor and Chow 1976). The fine processes are not practical for least amount of waste, shingle fibers tend to be shorter than those western redcedar (Wet hern 1959). manufacture the most. In shingle in Douglas-fir pulp (Heinig and Sim- The resulting product has very good manufacture only a small portion of monds 1948, Graff and Isenberg strength and printing qualities but the original tree is marketed; slash 1950), but western redcedar pulp poor brightness (see Packee 1976). and mill residues account for most does not differ chemically from the Semichemical redcedar pulps may of the original standing volume. sulfate pulps of Douglas-fir, western be useful in making paperboard hemlock, black spruce, or loblolly (McGovern et al. 1951). Much of the mill residue is suitable pine (Lewis et al. 1950). for pulp production (Bray and Martin Veneer and Plywood 1947). It can also be used in fiber- Physically, redcedar pulp has board production if treated properly. several desirable attributes. Unlike Western redcedar is highly suitable Boards made from western redcedar Douglas-fir, western hemlock, or for decorative face veneer, but un- bark alone tend to be unacceptably Pacific silver fir, western redcedar suitable for the inner plies of weak (see Schwartz 1949, Clermont produces very good kraft (sulfate) decorative veneer or for use in con- and Schwartz 1948, Stewart and pulp (see Packee 1976). This pulp tainer material (see Packee 1976). Butler 1968, Maloney 1973), but has high bursting, folding, and ten- Packee rated redcedar veneer logs ozone treatment increases the sile strengths that offset its low as excellent when assessed for freedom from reaction wood, resin or gum, and bark pockets. Redcedar logs were rated “acceptable” when assessed for freedom from decay, knots, and wet wood.

22 bark’s internal bond strength (Chow Table 5 - Average amounts of mlll resldues produced In processing of 1977b) and the addition of 10 per- western redcedar logs‘ cent sulfite pulp or sulfite screen- ings makes bark boards stronger (British Columbia Lumberman 1948). Coarse Fine Total Boards made from wood compo- Product residues residues waste nents of the residue were accept- ably strong (King and Bender 1951, 1952). Those made from sawdust, Percent of log volume shingle tow (a stringy waste product Lumber 18 19 37 resulting from shingle manufacture), Shakes 14 14 28 or both were not (see Forest Prod- Shingles 14 47 61 ucts Laboratory, Canada 1949; King and Bender 1951, 1952). ‘From McBride (1959), Gardner (1963), Scroggins and Currier (1971). Of all west coast conifer sawdusts, that of western redcedar is the only one that can be made into high Extractives foaming (British Columbia Lumber- quality, opaque pulp comparable to man 1951, McBride 1959). Water- the hardwood sulfate pulps used in Shingle tow, sawdust, and coarse soluble redcedar extractives have high-quality papers (Proctor and residues are probably the best raw also been used in the electrolytic Chow 1976). It can be differentiated materials for producing most red- refining of lead (British Columbia from the sawdusts of Douglas-fir, cedar extractives (Wethern 1959). Lumberman 1959). Even the lignin western hemlock, true firs, and the p- t hu j ap I i c in acc u mu I at es in residue of Poria asiatica butt rot in spruces with a color test using digesters, evaporators, and kilns western redcedar has been used - chloroform and ferric chloride (Bar- during redcedar processing, how- as a filler and extender in plywood ton 1973a). Redcedar sawdust ap- ever, where it is readily available in glues (MacLean and Gardner 1953b). parently decomposes more rapidly commercially usable quantities than Douglas-fir or western hemlock (Trust and Coombs 1973). Potential Most of the extractives in western sawdust (see Bollen and Lu 1957). uses of these extractives include in- redcedar heartwood are formed from When not leached, it inhibits seed secticides, fungicides, antibiotics, precursors at the sapwoodlheart- germination and seedling growth chelating agents, catalysts, and per- wood boundary (Swan et al. 1969). (Newton 1953) and damages fumes (Wet hern 1959). For example, nezukone is converted Douglas-fir seedling roots (Krueger to thujaplicin at this boundary by 1968). Redcedar sawdust makes a Cedar leaf oil has been used in per- hydroxylation of the tropone ring satisfactory rooting medium, how fumes, insecticides, medicinal prep- (Swan and Jiang 1970). The forma- ever, when it is leached to remove arations, veterinary soaps, shoe tion of different amounts of each ex- the water-soluble extractives and polishes, and office deodorants tractive in older heartwood may be mixed 3:l with peat (Briggs 1973). (Forestry Abstracts 1965, Barton the result of changes in metabolism Perhaps the most novel use of 1973b). It is a strongly scented, (more hydroxylation, less methyla- redcedar sawdust was as fill viscous liquid containing thujone, tion) with aging (Hillis 1968). material where the trans-Canada pinene, borneol, and borneol esters highway crossed bogs and marshes (Cochrane 1951, Bender 1963). (Southern Lumberman 1961). Cochrane and Bender described the distillation procedure used to obtain Shingle tow has been used since this product. Steam extraction of about 1915 to keep tree seedlings freshly cut western redcedar leaves moist during shipment. Krueger yielded 2.5 percent oil, based on dry (1963, 1968) studied its effects on leaf weight (Cochrane 1951). seedling survival and growth. He found that the thujaplicin extrac- Extractives probably were important tives present in shingle tow were in the successful production of fuel damaging to Douglas -f ir seedlings logs from wet redcedar sawdust but considered that the use of (Gardner 1963). They were used to shingle tow was unlikely to cause make a boiler-water additive that heavy losses. removed boiler scale and controlled

23 Medical Aspects

Although less potent than sodium- Allergic mi I Iworkers, carpenters, Western redcedars suffer little in- penicillin G and tetracycline hydro- cabinet workers, construction sect damage (Boyd 1959). Neverthe- chloride, a-thujaplicin has been workers, and wood carvers develop less, a considerable number of in- shown to inhibit the growth of a asthma or rhinitis after being ex- sects use redcedar as a host. wide variety of bacterial species posed to western redcedar dust (Trust and Coombs 1973). It loses its (Mitchell and Chan-Yeung 1974, Bark Beetles antibacterial potency after irradia- Chan-Yeung and Grzybowski 1976). tion by laboratory lighting (Coombs The allergy seems quite common The western cedar bark beetle and Trust 1973). (Gandevia 1970; lshizaki et al. 1971a, (Phloeosinus punctatus LeConte) is 1971b; Shida et al. 1971; Mue et al. widespread in the native range of Other western redcedar extractives 1975; Chan-Yeung 1977). Symptoms western redcedar (see Boyd 1959, seem to be more stable than are delayed, but persistent - noc- Canada Department of Agriculture a-thujaplicin. Southam (1946) found turnal coughing and asthma for 1959, Canada Department of Fores- that water extract of redcedar heart- days or weeks after exposure (see try 1960). Generally of little impor- wood inhibited the growth of bac- . Milne and Gandevia 1969, Gandevia tance, it has been reported to kill teria and fungi even after the extract and Milne 1970, Mitchell 1970, Chan- trees sometimes (Furniss and was boiled. It was inactivated by Yeung et al. 1971). Plicatic acid Carolin 1977), but it usually occurs blood, serum, and cysteine. Large probably causes these symptoms in felled or weakened trees (Isenberg doses of redcedar extract did not (Chan-Yeung 1973, Chan-Yeung et al. 1951). cause death or illness in mice, and 1973, Barton 1975). no in vivo activity against infection The redwood bark beetle (P. se- was demonstrated (Southam 1946). quoiae Hopkins) is present on red- Both p- and y-thujaplicins exert a cedars in coastal Oregon, Washing- combination of stimulant and ton, British Columbia, and south- depressant actions on the mam- eastern Alaska. In southeastern malian central nervous system, but Alaska it is aggressive, attacking the depressant component appears and killing western redcedar on poor to be more predominant in sites (see Hard 1974, Furniss and a-thujapl icin (Hal I iday 1959). Carolin 1977). P. thujae Perris at- tacks redcedars planted in the Western redcedar allergies are fre- Netherlands (Doom 1964) and Ger- quently mentioned in the literature. many (Kamp 1951). Woods workers who handle red- cedar sometimes develop dermatitis, Wood Borers conjunctivitis, or both (Ishizaki et al. 1971a, 1971b; Mitchell and Chan- The most damaging redcedar wood Yeung 1974). Most of the dermatitis borer seems to be Trachykele seems to result from contact with blondeli Marseul, a flat-headed borer lichens and liverworts on the logs, whose larvae mine the heartwood, however, and contact dermatitis causing degrade and cull in trees from the redcedar itself is rare cut for products that require sound (Mitchell and Chan-Yeung 1974). wood (Keen 1952, Boyd 1959, Fur- Where dermatitis was caused by ex- niss and Carolin 1977). Another flat- posure to redcedar heartwood in a headed borer, T. opulenta Fall, also mi II, y-t hujaplici n and 7-hydroxyiso- may occur in western redcedar (see propyltropolone appeared to be Keen 1952). allergenic (Bleumink et al. 1973). Three round-headed borers mine the sapwood of native western redcedar: Atimia confusa Say (Furniss and Carolin 1977), Semanotus amethys- tinus LeConte (Boyd 1959, Furniss and Carolin 1977), and S. ligneus F. (Furniss and Carolin 1977). Ambrosia

24 beetles (Gnathotrichus sulcatus Defoliators Nine nonlooper lepidopteran species LeConte, Trypodendron cavifrons occur on western redcedar foliage: Mannerheim, and other Trypoden- Seven loopers feed on western red- dron species) also work in western cedar foliage: A rgyres thia cupressella Wa Is in g ha m redcedar sapwood - but they seem (Keen 1952, Pettinger and Dolph to prefer Douglas-fir, western Lam bdina f is cell aria lugubrosa 1967) hemlock, or grand fir wood (see Hulst (Boyd 1959, Canada Depart- Johnson 1958). ment of Fisheries and Forestry 1969, A. thuiella Packard (Van Franken- Canada Department of the Environ- huyzen 1974) The sapwood weevil Hexarthrum ment 1974) thujae Brown attacks overmature Halisidota argentata Packard redcedar in British Columbia Melanolophia imitata Walker (Evans (Sellars-St. Clare 1968, Furniss and (Canada Department of Forestry 1962, Dawson 1970) Carolin 1977) 1960, Brown 1966, Furniss and Carolin 1977). Another sapwood Ectropis crepuscularia Denis & Protoboarmia porcelaria Gn. in- weevil, Rhyncolus brunneus Man- Schiffermuller (Canada Department dicataria Walker (McGuffin 1943) nerheim, breeds in dead redcedar of Fisheries and Forestry 1968, Fur- wood (see Keen 1952, Canada niss and Carolin 1977) Callophrys acumina ta Johnson Department of Forestry 1960, Fur- (Johnson 1976) niss and Carolin 1977.) Insects of a Caripeta diwisata Walker (Furniss third sapwood weevil genus and Carolin 1977) C. barryi Johnson (Johnson 1976) (Cossonus spp.) live in decaying western redcedar, causing little or Neoalcis californiaria Packard (Fur- C. byrnei Johnson (Johnson 1976) no economic damage (Keen 1952). niss and Carolin 1977) C. plicataria Johnson (Johnson 1976) Other native western redcedar Nepytia phantasmaria Strecker (Fur- borers include a horntail, Urocerus niss and Carolin 1977) C. rosneri Johnson (Johnson 1976) albicornis F. (Furniss and Carolin 1977) and Syntexis libocedrii Nepytia umbrosaria nigrovenaria A rgyres thia cupressella, the cypress Rohwer, a wood-boring sawfly (West- Packard (Furniss and Carolin 1977) tip moth, caused moderate redcedar cott 1971, Middlekauff 1974). Euro- defoliation on the Olympic Penin- pean wood borers also attack Lambdina fiscellaria lugubrosa, the sula in 1966 (Pettinger and Dolph western redcedar. Xyloborus dispar western hemlock looper, is period- 1967). A. thuiella damaged western F. (an ambrosia beetle) is found on ically destructive in coastal forests redcedar hedges in Holland during western redcedars growing in Ger- (Furniss and Carolin 1977). Its the winter of 1971-72 (Van Franken- many (von Hennig 1954), and preferred host is western hemlock, huyzen 1974). An outbreak of silver- Hylotrupes bajulus L. (the oldhouse but western redcedar is damaged spotted tiger moth (Halisidota argen- borer) can develop in redcedar wood when the loopers attack associated tata) occurred on southern Van- grown in Poland (Dominik 1966). trees. Melanolophia imitata, the couver Island in 1954-55 (Furniss Redcedar siding on several British green striped forest looper, prefers and Carolin 1977). The other species schools was riddled with the pre- humid areas (Furniss and Carolin listed are not economically impor- pupal burrow: of Ametastegia 1977), where infestations sometimes tant. glabrata Fallen (a sawfly) after the cause serious defoliation of western wet summer of 1958 (Benson 1959). redcedar and western hemlock (Dawson 1970). The saddleback looper, Ectropis crepuscularia, damaged redcedar trees in Alaska and British Columbia during 1951, 1953, 1960, 1961, and 1969. The other loopers listed above do not damage western redcedar signifi- cantly (see Furniss and Carolin 1977).

25 Seed and Cone Insects tests of 21 commercial woods with redwood, and red oak to those of R. virginicus Banks and Copto- western redcedar - in almost Keen (1958) and Hedlin (1959) identi- termes formosanus Shiraki, how- reverse order to its preference for fied several insects of minor import- ever, western redcedar was among the woods from which these ex- ance in western redcedar cones: the least resistant woods tested tracts were obtained (see Rust and (Mannesmann 1973). lncisitermes Reierson 1977). The term ite - re pe I Ien t Ptinus fur L. minor Hagen, the western drywood oil in redcedar, though effective termite, preferred western redcedar when extracted, probably is present Microgramme arga Reitt. heartwood to that of Douglas-fir, in inadequate quantities to protect redwood, bald cypress, and Port- redcedar wood from attack by most Eurytoma sp. Orford-cedar (see Rust and Reierson termite species. 1977). It preferred redcedar sapwood Torymus sp. to that of birch, Douglas-fir, oak, Western redcedar sap probably is pine, redwood, or walnut. Another somewhat repellent to Pissodes Amblymerus sp. d ry w o o d t e rm it e, Cr yp toterm es strobi Peck, the Sitka spruce weevil. brevis Walker, also preferred In laboratory bioassays, weevils Tetrastichus sp. redcedar sapwood to the sapwood preferred to feed on Sitka spruce of Douglas-fir or southern yellow sections soaked in water rather than L es todiplosis tax iconis Foot e pine (Minnick et al. 1973). Redcedar on sections soaked in redcedar ex- heartwood lost much of its resis- udate (Vandersar and Borden 1977). The only major seed-damaging in- tance to attack by Reticulitermes sect on redcedar seems to be a gall lucifugus Rossi after weathering in Volatile extractives of western red- midge - Mayetiola (Phytophaga) Germany (Arndt and Willeitner 1969). cedar wood apparently affect the thujae Hedlin (Hedlin 1959, 1964, choices of scolytid beetles for logs 1974; Furniss and Carolin 1977). Extractives and Insects - they choose other log species Mayetiola is a common pest, some- (see Chapman 1963). Another vola- times infesting 100 percent of the Loss of extractives probably was tile derived from redcedar, the N, N, die- cones (Keen 1958, Hedlin 1964) and responsible for decreased termite thylamid of thujic acid, is a potent seriously damaging western red- resistance after weathering in the mosquito repellant that surpasses the cedar seeds in Oregon, Washington, German study. Although western activity of standard repellants (Hach and British Columbia (Furniss and redcedar wood is not particularly and McDonald 1971). Methyl thujate Carolin 1977). termite resistant, a neutral fraction has some toxicity to carpet beetles and of the volatile oil extracted from it is clothes moths, and its presence in Miscellaneous Insects very effective against termites cedar shavings used as litter probably (MacLean 1970). Arndt (1968) found controls poultry mites (Gardner 1963). Newly planted redcedar seedlings Reticulitermes lucifugus and R. are sometimes damaged by the flavipes to be adversely affected by Wood extracts from western seedling weevi I Steremnius the neutral oil fraction, unaffected redcedar demonstrated juvenile- carinatus Mannerheim) on cutover by a- and y- thujaplicins. lncisi- hormonelike activity on pupae of areas in British Columbia (Koot termes minor preferred the extracts Galleria mellonella L. (Mansingh et 1972), and another weevil (Hylobius of walnut, Douglas-fir, sugar pine, ai. 1970) and Tenebrio sp. (Barton et abietis L.), attacks western red- al. 1972). Similar activity occurred cedars in Poland (Ilmurzyhski 1968). when larvae of the western tent A cicada (Melampsalta cingulata caterpillar (Malacosoma califor- Fabricius) seriously damaged the nicum Packard pluviale Dyar) were western redcedars planted in treated with crude ether extracts of Waimiha State Forest, New Zealand western redcedar (Wellington 1969). (Ranger 1945).

Resistance of western redcedar wood to termites seems to vary with the termite species attacking it. Redcedar heartwood was not favored by Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) in a laboratory feeding test of 11 wood species (Carter and Smythe 1974). In feeding-choice

26 Diseases

Although Shaw (1973) lists 221 fungi The major redcedar seedling disease P. peregrina Ell. & Mart. caused a that occur on western redcedar, the - Didymascella (Keithia) thujina severe dieback of western redcedar species is reputed to be less sus- Durand - is a leaf blight that also in India (Sharma et at. 1973) and ceptible to pathological attacks than occurs on older trees but is only Lophodermium juniperinum (Fr.) most of its associates (Boyd 1959). serious on seedlings. When DeNot. has been found on redcedar Nevert heless, most redcedars harbor Didymascella reaches epidemic pro- in Australia (Stahl 1966). pathogens. Redcedars live longer portions, as much as 97 percent of than their associates, and hollow the redcedar reproduction may be Chloroscypha seaveri (Re h m) Seav. old redcedar trees are common in killed in its first season (Boyd 1959). has been associated with the death the interior (see Daubenmire and Epidemics probably are rare in of weslern redcedar twigs (Ehrlich Daubenmire 1968). Western redcedar North America, however, and 1942), but the twigs probably were is twice as defective as western Didymascella is not as damaging killed by other organisms (Gremmen hemlock and 20 times as defective there as it is in Europe (see Peace 1963). Other fungi inhabiting dead or as Sitka spruce in southeastern 1955, Spegaard 1969). Infection is senescent redcedar foliage include Alaska, where redcedars over 94-cm rarely observed on 1st -year nursery Sphaerella canadensis, Ell. & Ev., (37-in) d.b.h. average more than 50 seedlings in Europe, where major Mycosphaerella thujae Petr., and percent cull (Klein 1951). Smaller damage to nursery stock occurs dur- Microthyrium thujae Dearn. (Hepting trees also are affected. Half the ing the 2d and 3d years (Spegaard 1971). Limacinia alaskensis (Sacc. & coastal redcedar trees in the south- 1966, Forestry Commission, London Scalia emend Barr.) causes a minor central portion of Vancouver Island 1974). British attempts to avoid surface mold in cold regions (Hep- have some decay by age 50; 100 per- seedling damage by growing west- ting 1971). cent have decay by age 450. In the ern redcedar in isolated nurseries interior, 80 percent of the redcedars (Peace 1955, 1958; Pawsey 1962b) Root and Butt Rots are infected by age 150 and 100 per- succeeded at first, but eventually cent have decay by age 290 (Buck- failed when those nurseries also Phellinus (Poria) weirii (M u rr.) land 1946). became infected. Fortunately, Gilbertson is the principal root- and diseased nursery seedlings some- butt-rot fungus infecting western Seedling Diseases times recover after being planted redcedar (Hepting 1971). Redcedars out (see Keatinge 1948, Penistan and Douglas-firs are the most fre- Western redcedar seedlings are 1966). quent hosts of P. weirii (Smith 1978). seldom damaged by damping-off The P. weirii hosted by western fungi (Hepting 1971). They are resis- Effective control of Didymascella redcedar seems to be different from tant to Phytophthora cactorum Leb. has been achieved by applying that hosted by Douglas-fir and other & Cohn (see Vaartaja 1957b) and cycloheximide fungicides in British northwestern conifers, however. P. often undamaged by Thelephora ter- nurseries (Pawsey 1962a, 1965; weirii sporophores are perennial on restris Ehr. growth (Hepting 1971). Phillips 1962, 1964; Burdekin and western redcedar, annual on other Where redcedar seedlings are dense Phillips 1971). Danish workers found conifers (Buckland et al. 1954). Fur- enough to shade the ground, how- that western redcedar cuttings are thermore, nonredcedar isolates are ever, T. terrestris sometimes blight resistant (Spegaard 1954, less able to parasitize western smothers them (Weir 1921). Some 1956a). redcedar than isolates from the redcedar seedlings are killed by the redcedar race (Morrison 1969). Ec- brown-felt snow mold (Herpotrichia Foliage Fungi totrophic mycelia are nearly absent nigra Hartig) in the Rocky Mountains on redcedar roots infected with P. (Hepting 1971). Other fungi that The Didymascella leaf blight that at- weirii (Wallis 1976), and western sometimes damage western red- tacks seedlings is the most impor- redcedar is quite resistant to the cedar seedlings include Diaporthe tant foliage disease of western red- fungus (Wallis 1962, Wallis and lokoyae Funk, Seiridium cardinale cedar. Blights caused by Coryneum Reynolds 1967). In northern Idaho, (Wagener) Sutton & Gibson, thujinum Dearn. (Boyce 1961, Hep- the resulting decay usually is Kabatina thujae Schneider & v. Arx, ting 1971) and Lepteutypa cupressi restricted to the first log (Canfield and Velutarina rufo-olivacea (Alb. & (Nattrass, Booth, & Sutton) Swart 1969). P. weirii is most damaging in Schw. ex Fr.) Korf (Funk 1974). (Canadian Forestry Service 1975) are the interior, attacking living trees much less important. only to a limited extent on the coast (Buckland 1946). Pestalotia funerea Desm. is associ- ated with redcedar dieback in Wash- ington (Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service 1960).

27 The shoestring root and butt rot, Ar- Phytophthora cryptogea Pethyb. & Redcedar seems to be resistant to millaria mellea Vahl., attacks most Laff. and P. citricola Sawada were the cypress canker caused by Mono- conifer species in the Western isolated from roots of diseased chaetia unicornis (Cke. & Ell.) Sacc. United States (Scharpf 1978), but it western redcedars (Young and (Fuller and Newhook 1954) but sus- is less damaging to western Strouts 1976). P. cinnamomi Rands ceptible to the crown gall caused by redcedar than to other species in also infects redcedar roots but does Agrobacterium tumefaciens (E. F. the western white pine type (Hepting little damage (Evans 1978). Western Smith & Town.) Conn. (Hepting 1971). Nevertheless, nearly half the redcedar seems to be resistant to P. 1971). redcedar trees released in an Idaho cinnamomi (Robertson 1969) and P. thinning study were infested with A. lateralis Tuck. & J. A. Milb. (Milbrath Trunk Rots mellea (Intermountain Forest and and Young 1949). Range Experiment Station 1962, Buckland’s (1946) investigations of Koenigs 1969). Canfield (1969) found Stem Diseases decay in British Columbia western A. mellea in 15 percent of the Idaho redcedar constitute the best general redcedars he sampled in old-growth Western redcedar has no major assessment of redcedar trunk rots. stands but judged the resulting stem diseases, but several minor He ranked the major fungi in order decay to be insignificant in mer- fungi occur on weakened or dead of importance, with the most damag- chantable wood. Some A. mellea oc- redcedar stems: ing listed first: curs on western redcedars planted in New Zealand (New Zealand State Aleurodiscus amorphus (pers. ex Fr.) Coastal British Columbia Forest Service 1944). Rab. (Hansbrough 1934, Hepting 1971) Poria asiatica (Pil.) Overh. Less common root- and butt-rot Poria albipellucida Baxt. fungi hosted by western redcedar in- A. amylaceus Rog. & Jacks (Hepting Fomes pini (Thore) Lloyd clude: 1971) Merulius sp. Poria subacida Corticum galactinum (Fr.) Burt A. cerussatus (Bres.) Hoehn. & Litsch. (Hepting 1971) (Hepting 1971) Interior British Columbia

Fomes annosus (Fr.) Cke. (Crops A. lividocoeruleus (Karst.) Lemke Poria asia tica Research Division, Agricu It ural (Hepting 1971) Phellinus weirii Research Service 1960, Hepting Fomes pini 1971, Scharpf 1978) A. tsugae Yas. (Hepting 1971) Polyporus balsameus Pk. Merulius sp. Odontia bicolor (Alb. & Schw.) Bres. A. weirii Burt (Hepting 1971) Poria subacida (Hepting 1971) Chloroscypha seaveri (Hepting 1971) Other fungi that attack the heart- Polyporus schweinitzii Fr. (Buckland wood of living redcedar stems less 1946, Gecow 1952, Crops Coryneum cardinale Wagen. (Grass0 extensively were also identified by Research Division, Agricultural 1952, Sutton and Gibson 1972, Buckland: Research Service 1960, Shaw and Strouts 1973) Harris 1960, Hepting 1971, Coniophora cerebella (Pers.) Pers. Scharpf 1978) Cucurbidothis conjuncta Petr. (Hep- Fomes nigrolimitatus (Rom.) ting 1971) Egeland P. tomentosus Fr. (Hepting 1971) F. pinicola (Swartz ex Fr.) Cke. Diaporthe lokoyae Funk (Funk 1973) Omphalia campanella (Batsch. ex Poria subacida (Pk.) Sacc. (Buckland Fr.) Quhl. 1946, Shaw and Harris 1960, Hep- Hendersonia thyoides Cke. & Ell. ting 1971) (Hepting 1971)

P. vaillantii (DC. ex Fr.) Cke. (Crops Pestalotia funerea Desm. (Hepting Division, Agricu It u ral Research 1971) Service 1960, Hepting 1971). Valsa abietis Fr. (Hepting 1971) Poria subacida seems to be most i mport ant. V. kunzei Fr. (Hepting 1971)

V. weiriana Petr. (Hepting 1971)

28 He found the major fungi decaying Nelson (1976) found western red- Polyporus gutfulafus was most im- redcedar sapwood and slash to be cedar heartwood resistant to coloni- portant in Idaho. Elsewhere, Len- Polyporus cuneafus (Murr.) Zell. and zation by Phellinus weirii. Similar zifes frabea Pers. ex Fr. is important H ym e,noc hae f e fa ba cina ([Sow .] work with Lenzifes frabea Pers. ex (Eslyn 1970). Tests of decay resis- Fr.) Lev. Fr. (Morton and French 1966) and tance showed the lower and middle decay tests with L. frabea, Fomes thirds of redcedar poles to be more Kimmey (1956) found that Poria subroseus (Weir) Overh., Lenfinus resistant than the upper third albipellucida accounted for about 45 lepideus Fr., Merulius lacrymans (Englerth and Scheffer 1954). percent of the western redcedar (Wulf.) Fr., and Coniophora pufeana trunk rot in southeastern Alaska. (Schum. ex Fr.) Karst. (Scheffer 1957, Extractives and Decay Phellinus weirii accounted for about Jacquiot and Lapetite 1960, Lutom- 41 percent, and Poria ferrugineo- ski and Raczkowski 1963) have Heartwood color is associated with fusca Karst. was responsible for 3 shown most redcedar heartwood to extractive content and decay resis- percent. Kimmey found no sporo- be resistant to most decay fungi. tance. Dark-colored heartwood near phores on living redcedar trees in Resistance to Poria incrassafa (B. & the center of a redcedar tree is low Alaska, so he used sucker limbs, C.) Burt and P. monficola Murr. is in both thujapliciris and resistance; trunk scars, dead sections, and rot- variable, however (Scheffer 1957), light-colored heartwood near the ten burls as decay indicators. and dark-colored inner heartwood is periphery is high in both (van der Similar indicators were used by Can- less resistant to decay than light- Kamp 1975). The thujaplicins are field (1969), but Canfield found some colored outer heartwood (see highly toxic to a great variety of fungal sporophores in northern Findlay and Pettifor 1941, van der wood-destroying fungi (Erdtman and Idaho. Phellinus weirii and Poly- Kamp 1975). Gripenberg 1948b, Roff and Atkinson porus sericeomollis Rom. were the 1954, Roff and Whittaker 1959, Rud- most common redcedar decay fungi Dead western redcedar trunks were man 1962, Freydl 1963). Indeed, thu- identified by Canfield. He encoun- slowly decayed by Polyporus japlicins are about as active as tered slightly more decay where the cuneafus (Murr.) Zell. (14.4 percent pentac hlo ro p hen o I (Re nne rf eI t 1948) fern Gymnocarpium dryopferis was of the decay), P. versicolor L. ex Fr. - concentrations of 0.001-0.002 per- present than where it was absent. (2.8 percent), and Fomes applanafus cent inhibit fungus growth (Ren- (Pers. ex S. F. Gray) Gill (0.7 percent) nerfelt and Nacht 1955). They ap- lsenberg (1951) rated Phellinus weirii after being windthrown on the Olym- parently inhi bit oxidative as the most serious western red- pic Peninsula (see Boyce 1929, phosphorylation in the affected cedar decay, with Polyporus anceps Buchanan 1940). The decay probably fungi (Lyr 1961). Many fungi may Pk. and Fomes pini important on old occurred in sapwood. Eslyn and have the ability to chemically trees. P. sulphureus Bull. ex Fr. Highley (1976) found western red- change nearby t hu j ap Iic in ext rac- damages redcedar trees in Washing- cedar sapwood resistant to soft-rot tives to nontoxic material, however, ton (Shaw and Harris 1960), and attack, moderately resistant to thus becoming able to overcome in- Echinodonfium fincforium (E. & E.) white-rot attack, and susceptible to creasingly high concentrations of E. & E. is occasionally found on brown-rot attack. the toxic heartwood extracts western redcedars in British Colum- (Southam and Ehrlich 1943). This bia (Et heridge 1972). Young redcedar Product Decay may explain the great amount of trees seem quite resistant to Fomes heart rot in mature western redcedar annosus (Fr.) Cke. in England and Several fungi were associated with - heart rot that progresses outward Poland (see Kosturkiewicz and Meix- brown sap rot of western redcedar from the center of the tree and is ner 1956, Greig 1974, Forestry Com- poles in northern Idaho (Southham associated with reduced thujaplicin mission, London 1978). and Ehrlich 1950): concentrations in the older, central heartwood. Polyporus guffulafus Peck Coniophora pufeana C. arida (Fr.) Karst. C. olivacea (Fr.) Karst. C. olivascens (B. & C.) Massee Paxillus panuoides Fr. Poria vaillanfii (DC. ex Fr.) Cke. Merulius pinasfri (Fr.) Burt.

29 Birds and Mammals Horticulture

Western redcedar seeds may be Redcedar seed orchards have been Western redcedar is often cultivated sown safely (McKeever 1942), for established in Denmark (SqJegaard as an ornamental tree in Europe ground-feeding birds and small 1956b), where resistance to the leaf (Sargent 1933). It is an excellent mammals prefer Douglas-fir and blight caused by Didyrnascella thu- hedge shrub, standing trimming well western hemlock to redcedar seeds jina has been shown to be homo- and rarely spreading too far (Edlin in western Oregon (see Gashwiler zygously recessive (SqJegaard 1956a, 1968). Redcedar hedges planted 1967). Pregermination rodent 1966, 1969). SqJegaard’s invest iga- along roadsides in Switzerland damage is minor (Helmers 1946, tions indicate that frost resistance deflected and partially filtered Boyd 1959). Redcedar mortality is in western redcedar is inherited in traffic-polluted air, reducing lead’ high between the beginning and end the same way as leaf-blight resis- contamination at offroad locations of germination, however (Gashwiler tance. Both seem to vary with stage (Keller 1974). 1970), so birds and small mammals of physiological development, but may be important during the ger- the redcedar clones most damaged At least three horticultural varieties mination period. by leaf blight are also most dam- of western redcedar are grown in aged by frost (see Larsen 1953). North America (Rehder 1940). Thuja Redcedar seedlings and saplings plicata var. atrovirens Sudw. has are browsed by deer and elk. They Tests of several seed sources in dark green leaves. The fastigiata constitute one of the most import- North America showed wide varia- Schneid. variety has columnar form, ant conifer foods of black-tailed tions in frost hardiness. Trees grown and variety pendula Schneid. has deer in the coastal forest region of from inland sources were hardier slender, pendulous branches. In ad- southern Vancouver Island (Cowan than those from coastal areas (Boyd dition, a haploid variety - gracilis 1945). Redcedar was more severely 1959, Sakai 1972, Sakai and Weiser Beissn. - has been studied in Ger- browsed than Douglas-fir, western 1973). No significant difference in many. Von Pohlheim (1972) found hemlock, or Pacific silver fir on the leaf-oil terpene composition was this haploid variety less tolerant of Olympic Peninsula (Gockerell 1966). found between inland and coastal irradiation and more subject to All small western redcedars in the populations by Von Rudloff and irradiation-induced mutation than lower cedar groves of the Selway- Lapp (1979), however, who observed the normal diploid. He selected a Bitterroot wilderness in Idaho may that western redcedar has one of mutant form with pendent, filiform have been destroyed by wintering the lowest degrees of variability branches (von Pohlheim 1977a) and deer and elk (Habeck 1978). found thus far in northern North studied diploidization in the Redcedar is a major winter food for American conifer species. Copes periclinal chimeric shoot apices of big game in the northern Rocky (1981) detected no isoenzyme variation variety gracilis (von Pohlheim 1971, Mountains. Deer browse redcedars among widely separated western red- 1977b). Simak et al. (1974) examined all year long in British Columbia, cedar populations in Oregon and Wash- male strobilus development and and elk feed on them during the fall, ington, suggesting that management of microsporogenesis in this haploid winter, and spring (see Packee redcedar by cultural procedures may variety. Thuja plicata excelsa Timm. 1975). Introduced Sitka blacktail yield greater returns than genetic is a triploid cultivar with thicker and deer have greatly reduced redcedar improvement programs. Nevertheless, darker leaves than T. plicata (von regeneration in large portions of the plantation trials indicate that Alaska Pohlheim 1970). Queen Charlotte Islands. redcedar provenances are inferior to those from Oregon and Idaho when Black bears remove redcedar bark grown in Poland (Ilmurzyhski et al. and feed on the exposed sapwood in 1968). western Washington (Radwan 1969). Opossums limit western redcedar Western redcedar is well suited for growth in Westland, New Zealand the use of haploidy in tree breeding (Weston 1971). (Winton and Stettler 1974). Von Pohlheim (1970, 1971, 1972, 1977a, Domestic animals also damage 1977b) studied somatic mutations young western redcedars. Cattle and chimeras in haploid and triploid browsed redcedar in preference to cultivars. Douglas-fir in northwestern Oregon (see Howell 1948), and sheep damaged redcedar reproduct ion more than that of other trees in northern Idaho (Tisdale 1961).

30 Physiology and Ecology

Meteorological Influences 1956). Sitka spruce seems more Redcedar is abundant in many resistant than redcedar to winter forested swamps. It is sometimes Temperature. - Western redcedar cold (see Phillips 1965). Neverthe- found on sites that are too dry for occupies a moderate position on the less, western redcedars withstand western hemlock, however - in temperature gradient described by cold winters very well in Europe (see Montana (Habeck 1968, Pfister et al. Zobel et al. (1976) for the central Gecow 1952, Degen 1965, Hesmer 1977), Washington and Oregon western Cascades of Oregon. It has and Gunther 1968). When bright sun- (Franklin and Dyrness 1973), British as few as 75 frost-free days in some ny days follow a period of below- Columbia (Packee 1976), and Idaho portions of interior British Columbia, freezing temperatures, young (Daubenmire and Daubenmire 1968). at least 120 to 150 frost-free days redcedar branches and leaders often Daubenmire (1966) placed western along the coast (see Krajina 1969), die in their native habitats (Miller redcedar between western hemlock where the average frost-free period 1978). Dormant twigs from the in- (cooler and wetter) and western is commonly over 200 days (Packee terior were much hardier than those white pine (warmer and drier) in the 1976). Absolute minimum tempera- from the coast when subjected to species series that he constructed tures experienced by redcedar in subfreezing temperatures in a labo- along environmental gradients in British Columbia are - 10” to ratory (Sakai and Weiser 1973). eastern Washington and northern - 30°C (14” to - 22°F) in coastal Idaho. Redcedar dominates wet populations, - 14” to - 47°C (7” to Western redcedar is susceptible to ravines and poorly drained depres- - 53°F) in the interior (Krajina 1969). heat girdling (Haig 1936). It appears sions in both Glacier National Park, Western redcedar is not very frost to be less tolerant of high soil- Montana, and the Selway Bitterroot resistant, however; early and late surface temperatures than Engel- Wilderness, Idaho (Habeck 1968, frosts cause damage. Bottomland mann spruce, grand fir, or Douglas- 1978), but it is almost absent where frost pockets in northern Idaho.are fir (Larsen 1940). The exposed sur- frequent flooding occurs in Glacier commonly occupied by subalpine fir faces of upper foliage in young Park (Kessell 1979). Adequate soil rather than western redcedar redcedar seedlings often “sunburn” moisture during the growing season (Daubenmire and Daubenmire 1968). severely, but lower, unexposed sur- seems to be essential for redcedar faces remain green (personal com- growth in Italy (Sanesi and Sulli An April frost of - 9°C (16°F) that munication, Edmond C. Packee, 1973). followed a mild winter destroyed MacMi I Ian Bloedel Limited, almost all the young western red- Nana imo, Brit is h Co Iu m bi a). The generally observed superiority cedars in a Scottish plantation in of western redcedar over western 1945 (Hunter Blair 1946). An earlier Moisture. - Water content in 2-year- hemlock on dry sites seems to be April frost in England was less old western redcedar seedlings was the result of better redcedar root damaging to western redcedar than higher than in Douglas-fir or western penetration (Haig 1936). Root to Douglas-fir or Sitka spruce, how- hemlock seedlings when all three penetration probably is not responsi- ever, and Day (1928) concluded that species were grown in a greenhouse ble for western redcedar superiority redcedar was more frost resistant by Jablanczy (1964), but western on wet sites, where it often is the than the other two species. Aldhous redcedar leaves lose water rapidly dominant tree (fig. 3). Native and Low (1974) observed that when severed from the parent tree redcedars are able to tolerate stag- redcedar was also more resistant (Parker 1951). The leaves are not pro- nant water tables in winter that than grand fir or western hemlock to tected from excessive transpiration average less than 15 cm (6 in) below late spring frosts in Britain. by cutin and wax, and they showed the soil surface on the Olympic no drought resistance in the Peninsula (Minore and Smith 1971). Autumn frost damage seems to vary physiological and anatomical in- Day (1957) found redcedars to be the with location and preceding vestigations conducted by Oppen- characteristic dominants on water- weather. An unusual September heimer (1967). retentive or wet soils in the Queen frost in Ireland damaged Douglas-fir, Charlotte Islands. Western redcedar Sitka spruce, and Scotch pine more seedlings tolerated year-round water than western redcedar in 1972 table depths of only 7.5 cm (2.9 in) (Mooney 1973). In contrast, a Novem- and 8 weeks of summer flooding in ber frost in Washington was more controlled experiments (Minore 1968, injurious to redcedar than to 1970). Douglas-f ir (Duff ield 1956, Dauben- mire 1957) or Sitka spruce (Duffield

31 Photoperiod. - Vaartaja (1957a) observed no significant response when he exposed l-month-old seed- lings to a single 10-hour dark period and to two 5-hour dark periods in each 24-hour day. Growth of the redcedars measured by Malcolm and Caldwell (1971), though erratic, in- dicated a critical day length of about 15 hours for the faster rates of growth. Western redcedar responds rapidly to increases in photoperiod, breaking dormancy faster than western hemlock or Doug Ias -f i r (Jab Ian czy 1964). Wind. - Western redcedar is wind- firm on dry sites, where Gratkowski (1956) rated it more windfirm than Douglas-fir, western hemlock, or Pacific silver fir. Boyce (1929) also classed redcedar with Douglas-fir as resistant to windfall. Western redcedar is fairly resistant to storm damage in Germany (Volk 1968) and stands up well to wind in Britain (Streets 1962). It is not windfirm on the wet sites characterized by Adiantum, Lysichitum, and Athyrium in British Columbia (Packee 1976). Air pollution. - Western redcedar is sensitive to atmospheric pollution in Britain (Streets 1962). In Germany’s industrialized Ruhr area, however, it seems more tolerant of industrial fumes than Douglas-fir or western hemlock (Glocker and Krussman 1957). German tests showed little damage to western redcedar leaves after 57 hours exposure to 2.0 parts per million (plm) sulfur dioxide (Enderlein and Vogl 1966). Longer exposures may be more damaging; only grand fir and subalpine fir were more susceptible than redcedar when 12 conifers were tested for damage from sulfur dioxide smelter fumes in British Columbia (Scheffer and Hedgcock 1955).

Western redcedar is less tolerant of Figure 3.-Western redcedars growing on a ocean spray than Sitka spruce along wet site in the Washington Cascades. the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia (Cordes 1973). Redcedar also is intolerant of salt- laden winds in Southland, New Zealand. In Westland, which has more rainfall, the salt damage is less serious (Weston 1971).

32 Clay dust from a brick works in Forest floors under western red- British Columbia produced a colum- cedar and Sitka spruce tend to be nar form in nearby western red- Physical properties. - Western thicker and have higher water- cedars that led Glendenning (1948) redcedar seems able to tolerate a holding capacities than those under to describe a new horticultural vari- wide range of physical properties in Douglas-fir and western hemlock in ety. When this columnar variety was soil in most localities. It is found on western Washington (Flannery 1940). grown in the absence of clay dust, all landforms, soil textures, and however, it reverted to normal parent materials on Vancouver Chemlcal properties. - Total redcedar form (Rhodes 1955). Island (Packee 1976). Coarse sandy amounts of essential plant nutrients soils are not well suited to stored in the forest floor were The aromatic compounds produced establishment and growth of red- greater under western redcedar and by western redcedar can influence cedar in northern Idaho and north- Sitka spruce than they were under other plants. The germination of eastern Washington, however - Douglas-fir and western hemlock in oats, wheat, and corn was retarded they are too droughty and unstable the stands sampled by Flannery or inhibited by air that had been in (Helmers 1946). In contrast, rocky (1940)in western Vl’ashington. The contact with redcedar wood (Wein- slopes with limited soil development data of Tarrant et dl. (1951)and traub and Price 1948). support western redcedar in south- Daubenmire (1953)indicate that eastern Alaska (Gregory 1957). The western redcedar litter is low in Fire wet soils developed from muskegs nitrogen and phosphorus, so Flan- also are dominated by western nery’s figures may have resulted Western redcedar is very susceptible redcedar south of Petersburg, from greater thickness rather than to fire injury (Lutz 1972). The shallow Alaska (Stephens et al. 1970). It higher concentrations. Alban (1969) roots under a duff layer are often grows over loams, clays, sands, and measured more exchangeable cal- scorched when that duff layer burns chalk downland in England (Hubbard cium, higher cation-exchange (Flint 1925), and even surface fires 1950, Streets 1962, Edlin 1968). capacity, and higher base saturation may kill coastal western redcedar Redcedar also grows on Molina- in soils under redcedar than under (McMinn 1960). Most low-site areas Juncus peat there (Zehetmayr 1954). western hemlock, however, and he have fire-killed redcedar trees in found soil pH to be higher under the southeastern Alaska, where western Forristall and Gessel (1955)con - redcedar. Ovington and Madgwick redcedar is very flammable (Gregory cluded that western redcedar roots (1957)found pH higher in soil under 1957). Relative fire resistance of could grow in higher bulk densities redcedar than under European species does not appear to be the of soil than could roots of red alder, beech, European larch, Sitka spruce, same in coastal and inland forests, Douglas-fir, or western hemlock. Un- oaks, Norway spruce, Scotch pine, however (Minore 1979). In the Rocky fortunately, they compared species Japanese larch, Austrian pine, birch, Mountains, redcedar is more resis- growing separately on soils of differ- grand fir, noble fir, Douglas-fir, tant to fire than Engelmann spruce ing textures. Minore et al. (1969) lodgepole pine, western hemlock, and western hemlock, less resistant used a soil of uniform texture in the and tamarack. Western redcedar than Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine greenhouse and found that western seems to benefit the soil. It is one (Haig et al. 1941). Old redcedar trees redcedar roots could not penetrate of the few species that can be commonly are fire scarred in north- the compacted soil columns pene- grown on chalk downland in ern Idaho (Daubenmire and Dauben- trated by Douglas-fir, red alder, southern England (Aldhous and Low mire 1968). lodgepole pine, and Pacific silver fir. 1974). Fire-killed western redcedar timber Krajina (1969)observed that red- shows little deterioration after 5 cedar growth seems to be benefited years (Wallis et al. 1974). Even the by nitrification, and he associated bark usually remains intact on dead the presence of Sambucus race- trees for 5 years (Embrey 1963). Fire mosa L., Tiarella trifoliata L., Tellima killing produces no immediate grandiflorum (Pursh) Dougl., Tolmiea reduction in strength of western red- menziesii (Pursh) T. & G., and Urtica cedar poles (Research News, Ottawa dioica L. with favorable soil condi- 1962~)~and some large redcedar tions. trees remain salvageable for almost 100 years after being killed by fire (see Smith et al. 196lb).

33 Nutrients and Nutrition Phosphorus deficiencies result in Comparisons of western redcedar reddish or purplish stems and older f o Ii ag e- nu t ri e n t concentrations, The nutrient contents of western foliage (Walker et al. 1955). Although growth responses, and site condi- redcedar foliage vary with season phosphorus and nitrogen deficien- tions are sometimes confusing. and site. Nevertheless, relatively cies were blamed for plantation Much of this confusion may result high concentrations of calcium and check in the upland heaths of Brit- from a failure to distinguish be- low concentrations of nitrogen are ain (Forestry Abstracts 1964), and tween responses to low nutrient nearly always present (see Gessel et phosphorus additions benefited root levels and responses to optimal al. 1951, Tarrant et al. 1951, Dauben- growth of western redcedar on sod- nutrient levels. Western redcedar mire 1953, Ovington 1956, Beaton et peat bog in Ireland (Carey and Barry seems able to survive and grow in i al. 1965, Webber 1973). Phosphorus 1975), redcedar is more tolerant of low-nutrient conditions, and it prob- concentrations are usually low, but low phosphorus levels than Douglas- ably occurs in such conditions over Smith et al. (1968) found them to be fir and Sitka spruce (Krajina 1969). much of its natural range. When higher in western redcedar than in supplied with abundant nutrients Douglas-fir or western hemlock. Potassium deficiencies do not seem and moisture, however, redcedar Less sulfur was found in redcedar as critical as deficiencies of may respond more vigorously than foliage than in the foliage of other nitrogen or phosphorus for western other conifer species. For example, British Columbia conifers sampled redcedar growth (see Walker et al. western redcedar seedlings outgrew by Beaton et al. (1965). 1955). Walker et al. measured little seedlings of Douglas-fir, grand fir, decrease in seedling growth under Sitka spruce, western hemlock, and Fo Ii age- n ut ri en t concent rat ions pot assiu m -def icient conditions but ponderosa pine when all were grown should be used with caution when noted limber stems and drooping for 2 years in raised, well-watered comparing species, for relative foliage on the affected seedlings. soil beds fertilized with nitrogen, nutrient concentrations do not phosphorus, and p0tassium.g always reflect relative nutrient re- Seedlings affected by calcium defi- quirements. Optimum nutrition of ciencies show browning and dying Asexual Reproduction western redcedar may require very at the tips of leader and branch high nutrient levels (Krajina 1969). shoots (Walker et al. 1955). Western Three types of asexual reproduction Redcedar seedlings apparently re- redcedar may be less tolerant than of western redcedar occur in nature: quire more nitrogen than seedlings western hemlock, Sitka spruce, or layering (Schmidt 1955; Habeck of Sitka spruce, western hemlock, or Douglas-fir to low levels of calcium, 1968, 1978), rooting of fallen Douglas-fir for best growth (Krajina magnesium, or both (Krajina 1959, branches, and branch development 1959), but redcedar can survive on 1969). on fallen trees. The resulting “veg- poor sites (Gregory 1957). Redcedar lings” were more abundant than may respond to nitrogen additions Only low levels of sulfur seem to be seedlings in mature stands sampled by increasing root growth in com- required by western redcedar. In- by Parker (1979) in northern Idaho. parison with shoot growth (Smith et deed, sulfur fertilization often Much of the redcedar regeneration al. 1968). Although nitrate nitrogen caused reduced height growth of the observed by Dyrness et al. (1974) in seems to be used more efficiently western redcedars treated by Smith the western Cascades of Oregon than ammonium nitrogen in sand et al. (1968). This response may have consisted of individuals developed and solution cultures (see Krajina been the result of pH changes in- from branches of saplings that were 1971, Krajina et ai. 1973), additional duced by the fertilization, however, knocked down and have since work is needed to relate soil nitrate for western redcedar is reputed to rooted. and ammonium to redcedar growth grow best on neutral to slightly acid in nature. Nitrogen deficiencies sites (University of British Columbia result in yellowish foliage, reddish Forest Club 1959). Where sulfur defi- Taper, “Growth of forest tree seedlings seedling stems, and foliage nitrogen ciencies do occur, young redcedar in sewage sludge amended media,” by concentrations less than 1.5 percent foliage becomes yellowish and older R.J. Zasoski and C.S. Bledsoe. 1980. (Walker et al. 1955). Presented at the 53d annual meeting, foliage is paler than normal (Walker Northwest Scientific Association, in et al. 1955). Moscow, Idaho. Abstract on file, Forestry Sciences Laboratory, Corval Iis, Western redcedar seedlings survive Oregon. in the absence of boron, but they develop a variety of deficiency symptoms: Stem elongation is much restricted, and needles are closely bunched (Walker et ai. 1955); branches become straplike or club shaped (Blaser et al. 1967); and stems are weak.

34 Redcedar clones are easily propa- Strobilus formation is induced by western redcedar does not allow an gated by rooting stem cuttings branch-girdling in western redcedar accumulation of pollen, and redcedar (Larsen 1953). Untreated cuttings (Forestry Commission, London 1970; ovules are not all receptive at the same . will root, and SQegaard (1956a) Longman 1976). Treatment with gib- time, so several sources of pollen shed achieved 50 to 80 percent success berellins also induces stiobilus for- over a prolonged period are advanta- by using new shoots cut in July and mation (Coutts and Bowen 1973, geous (Owen and Molder 1980). August. Nevertheless, treatment Longman 1976). Indeed, staminate with growth-regulating substances strobili can be induced in 7- to Western redcedar cones mature improves results. Verleyen (1948) 9-month-old redcedar seedlings by about 5 months after pollination found a-napthalene acetic acid more applying foliar sprays of gibberellin west of the Cascades, about 3 effective than /I-indole-acetic acid in A, under long-day conditions (Pharis months after pollination in northern early rooting trials. Indole-butyric and Morf 1967). Long days were Idaho (Schopmeyer 1974). Seedfall acid (I.B.A.) improves rooting speed, used by Coleman and Thorpe (1978) begins soon thereafter, continuing the number of cuttings rooted, and to induce staminate strobilus forma- throughout the following winter in the total length of roots per cutting tion in western redcedar shoot tips most locations (see Haig et al. 1941, (Matthews 1951). The best I.B.A. con- cultured on nutrient media in the Fowells 1965, Gashwiler 1969). centrations are 3,000 plm for a presence of high gibberellin concen- Heavy seed crops are common (see 1-minute dip and 200 to 400 plm for trations. Simak et al. (1974) also Garman 1955, Schmidt 1955, a 4-hour soak (Kalmhr 1973). When a used long days and gibberellin to in- Gashwiler 1969, Harris and Farr talc carrier is used, 6.25 plm is ef- duce staminate strobili in redcedar 1974). fective (Matthews 1951). cuttings. A short photoperiod, cold treatment, or both must be applied if Western redcedar seeds retain their Coleman and Thorpe (1977) suc- strobili are to develop further, how- initial viability for at least 3 years cessfully grew western redcedar ever (Pharis et al. 1969, Pharis and when stored at - 18°C (-0.4"F) plantlets from both juvenile and Morf 1972). Pharis and his cowork- (Barton 1954, Holmes and Buszewicz mature tissues by applying distinct ers combined the gibberellin treat- 1958). Some germinat ion occurred sequential treatments for the follow- ment with a sequence of long day, after 6 years when Allen (1957) ing developmental stages: meristem- short day, long day to produce both stored redcedar seeds at 0 "C (32 OF), oid induction and adventitious bud staminate 'and ovulate strobili on but - 18°C (-0.4"F) seems to be a determination; bud growth; and young redcedar seedlings. They better storage temperature. Stratifi- rooting of the resulting advent it ious found that cold temperatures during cation may improve the germination shoots and reestablishment in soil. the short-day treatment increased of some dormant seed lots (Schop- Compositions of the nutrient media the number of developing strobili meyer 1974). In others, it may lower used in stem tissue cultures are and that cold alone was effective, the germination capacity (Jablanczy listed by Harvey and Grasham (1969) regardless of photoperiod. 1964). Schopmeyer cites a 0.2-per- and Coleman and Thorpe (1977). cent solution of potassium nitrate in Under natural conditions on Van- the germination medium as an alter- Sexual Reproduction couver Island, staminate strobili are native to cold stratification. initiated during the long days of Sexual reproduction probably is early June, and ovulate strobili are more important than asexual initiated during the long days of reproduction in open clearcut units early July (Owens and Pharis 1971). and other disturbed areas (see Meiosis begins in the fall, but it is Parker 1979). When grown in the arrested at the pachytene stage from open, western redcedar trees begin November until late January (Owens to produce strobili at 10 years of and Molder 1971). Development re- age and usually continue every other sumes in February near Victoria, British year thereafter (Sqegaard 1956a), but Columbia, where pollination occurs in large seed drops occur only every 3 early March and fertilization is ac- to 4 years (Schopmeyer 1974). complished in late May (Owens and Molder 1980). Pollination is delayed until late May or early June in northern Idaho (Schopmeyer 1974). Peak pollen release occurs around noon, when rel- ative humidities are low (Haard 1971). Self-pollination is common (Splegaard 1956a). The pollination mechanism in

35 Phenology Area and Event Month

A J AS0 D Phenological observations vary with Coast: - - - year and locality. Therefore, the observations summarized in figure 4 Beginning of shoot growth m probably were influenced by the Major shoot growth years and locations in which they were recorded. End of shoot growth I Phenological comparisons among Beginning of radial growth species may be less influenced by seasonal and spatial variations. End of radial growth Western redcedar had the longest Anthesis I height-growth season of any conifer measured by Williams (1968) in the Beginning of seedfall upper slope forests of Oregon. Walters and Soos (1963) found that Major seedfall leader growth commenced earlier End of seedfall and accelerated faster in redcedar than in Douglas-fir, western hem- lock, or western white pine, but then continued at a lower rate - for a I nt er ior: longer period - than in the other species. Beginning of shoot growth

End of shoot growth Radial growth phenology is not as easy to compare. It seems to vary Anthesis among species from year to year (Reukema 1965). Redcedar radial Beginning of seedfall growth periods are strongly influ- Major seedfall enced by altitude in the interior (see Dau benmire 1946).

Figure 4.-Phenology of native redcedar, by Regeneration area (from Haig et al. 1941, British Colum- bia Forest Service 1950, Garman 1955, Western redcedar regeneration prob- Buckland 1956, Pacific Northwest Forest ably is seldom limited by lack of and Range Experiment Station 1957, Hedlin seed. A fair seed crop on four trees 1964, Hetherington 1965, Williams 1968, produced over a million seeds in Owens and Pharis 1971, Schopmeyer 1974, British Columbia (Garman 1951), and Schmidt and Lotan 1980). nine trees in a mature stand pro- duced an average seedfall of over 2 million seeds during 3 crop years (Garman 1955). The average annual crop in the coastal forests of British Columbia usually ranges from 247,000 to 2,470,000 seeds per hec- tare (100,000 to 1,000,000 seeds/ acre) in stands with up to 25 percent redcedar (Schmidt 1955), but pure stands may yield over 148 million seeds per hectare (60 million seedslacre) (Sharpe 1974). In the interior, average seed crops range from 54,000 to 274,000 seeds per hectare per year (22,000 to 111,000 seedslacre per year) (see Fowells 1965, Clark 1970).

36 Western redcedar seeds tend to be north, in the interior wet belt of those of other species on the moss sound as well as numerous. In a British Columbia, 150,000 redcedar (Godman 1953). Average field sur- scrub stand in Alaska, 68 to 92 per- seeds were required to produce vival of germinated western red- cent of the 38 million seeds per hec- 1,000 2- to 5-year-old seedlings in a cedar seeds was slightly higher on tare (15 million seedslacre) produced 1215hectare (300-acre) clearcut rotten Sitka spruce wood than on in 1956 were sound (James 1959). unit, but natural regeneration was rotten Douglas-fir wood, rotten hem- Although he recorded great varia- adequate on disturbed sites within lock wood, or duff on light and tions in size of redcedar seed crop, 100.6 m (330 ft) of a seed source moderately shaded seedbeds in Gashwiler (1969) found a higher per- (Clark 1970). coastal Oregon (Minore 1972). Heav- centage of filled seeds for western ily shaded seedbeds were associ- redcedar than for Douglas-fir or The failure of redcedar regeneration ated with the best redcedar germina- western hemlock in west-central on some sites and the high seeds- tion in coastal British Columbia Oregon. Redcedar seeds fall faster to-established-seedl ing rat io on (Garman 1955), where germination and do not fly as far as the seeds of other sites are puzzling. Failures occurs throughout fall and winter western hemlock, Sitka spruce, or probably are not because of seed when temperatures are favorable Douglas-fir (see Siggins 1933). losses. Gashwiler (1967) found that (personal communication, Edmond a large proportion of his redcedar C. Packee, MacMillan Bloedel As western redcedar seeds are seeds survived until germination, Limited, Nanaimo, British Columbia). usually abundant and sound, an which began later and finished abundance of young redcedar trees sooner than the germination of Although Soos and Walters (1963) would be expected on most red- western hemlock seeds (Soos and found that unburned mineral soil cedar sites. Surprisingly, they are Walters 1963). Almost no germina- favors redcedar survival more than not present in many environments. tion occurs after the 1st year (Isaac burned mineral soil, burning after Immature stands are uncommon in 1940), but enough redcedar seeds logging may favor the natural coastal British Columbia (see should germinate to insure success regeneration of western redcedar Packee 1976). Seedlings are either on most sites. Mortality is high dur- (British Columbia Forest Service rare (Neiland 1971) or they have dif- ing the germination period, however 1948b). It probably creates more ficulty surviving (Gregory 1957) in (see Gashwiler 1970), and seedbed mineral soil surfaces in cutover southeastern Alaska. They are also quality may be critical. areas. Growth of redcedar seedlings rare on both well-drained undis- was better on burned and denuded turbed sites and cutover areas on Germination was greater and more surfaces than on organic material in Graham Island, British Columbia uniform under sand than under grit nort hern Idaho (Larsen 1940). Seed- (Day 1957). when redcedar seeds were covered ling survival is usually best on in British experiments (Forestry mineral soil and poorest on rotten Moist redcedar sites on Graham Commission, London, 1978). Sand wood (Boyd 1959), but growth of the Island regenerate if u ndist u r bed was a poorer seedbed than western survivors may be best on wood; 80 (Day 1957), and regeneration from white pine duff in Fisher’s (1935) percent of the dominant redcedars seed is often successful on open greenhouse experiments. The artifi- examined by Nystrom (1980) grew on areas disturbed by logging, wind- cial conditions inherent in many rotten logs, but only 36 percent of throw, or fire in the coastal forests greenhouse experiments sometimes the suppressed trees were on rotten of British Columbia (Schmidt 1955). produce misleading results, how wood. Moist redcedar sites also regenerate ever, and those results should be in Montana’s Glacier National Park, applied to field situations with geat Throughout the range of western but the regeneration is vegetative care, if at all. In field experiments, redced ar, disturbance of seed beds (Habeck 1968). Western redcedar is Haig et al. (1941) found western seems to be beneficial. Partial not reproducing at all in low redcedar germination to be 5 to 10 shade is also beneficial. Drought elevation redcedar communities times better on mineral soil than on and high soil surface temperatures within the Selway-Bitterroot duff. Mineral soil also is a better damage seedlings in full sunlight, wilderness of Idaho (Habeck 1978). seedbed than moss in southeastern and poor root penetration causes Habeck attributed this to high Alaska, but western redcedar seed- drought damage in full shade populations of wildlife and a lings seem to survive better than (Sharpe 1974). Fungi probably cause deterioration of the moist Pacific the greatest early mortality (Boyd maritime influence in Idaho. Farther 1959).

37 Shade Tolerance Western hemlock may eventually (Schmidt 1955). Ability to survive replace western redcedar in some such long periods of suppression Baker (1949) listed western redcedar decadent stands of southeastern may result from the ability of as very tolerant. Although Schmidt Alaska (see Gregory 1957). Redcedar western redcedar to produce new (1955) observed that redcedar did will be part of the climax forest on root growth in full shade (see Haig not have all the characteristics wet sites in the Tsuga heterophylla 1936). It may also be a result of fre- usually associated with a shade- zone of Oregon and Washington, but quent root grafting. Eis (1972) found tolerant tree, most authors seem to it probably does not have climax that dominant trees usually sup- agree with Baker’s assessment. status on modal or dry sites ported growth of the root systems Redcedar is slightly less tolerant (Franklin and Dyrness 1973). and lower boles of suppressed trees. than western hemlock in south- However they survive, these sup- eastern Alaska and the south coast Moisture and soil conditions pressed trees often recover well region of British Columbia (Packee strongly influence the successional when released. 1976). It is also less tolerant than status of western redcedar. It is Pacific silver fir in British Columbia climax on wet sites in the Lake Forest inventory data show western (Krajina 1965, Packee 1976). Red- McDonald region of Glacier National redcedar trees in Oregon and Wash- cedar may be more shade tolerant Park (Habeck 1968) and on calcium- ington to be smaller in diameter and than western hemlock in the interior rich seepage habitats in British Co- shorter than Douglas-firs and hem- (see Haig et al. 1941). The literature lumbia (Krajina 1969). Redcedar locks of the same age on most sites indicates that shade tolerance of probably is an edaphic climax (Bolsinger 1979). This is also true on western redcedar along the coast species rather than a climatic well-drained soils in the south coast may be higher in warmer zones than climax tree. Longevity should not be region of British Columbia. On moist it is in cool zones (Packee 1976). ignored when considering succes- sites, however, the coastal redcedar sional status, however, and very old often is as large or larger than its Succession redcedar trees are often present in associates (Packee 1976). Packee climatic climax situations. cites annual radial increments of 1 Western redcedar is often present in or even 2 cm (0.4 to 0.8 in) on the all stages of forest succession, and Growth best moist sites. Packee (1975) listed its successional positions as pioneer, seral, and Radial growth is similar in western Day (1957) found that vigor of climax. Multiple attributes seem to redcedar and western hemlock western redcedar declined more be responsible, for redcedar invades (Walters and Soos 1962), but most of slowly than that of Sitka spruce or disturbed areas as widely distrib- the pseudotransverse cell divisions western hemlock as site conditions uted seeds but regenerates vegeta- in redcedar cambium occur near the became poorer on the Queen Char- tively in undisturbed areas, toler- end of the growing season (Bannan lotte Islands of British Columbia. ating competition in both situations 1951). Both species produce non- This slower decline in relative vigor (Kessell 1979). Nevertheless, red- rigid leaders, but they differ in pro- with decreasing site quality was not cedar is usually considered a climax portions of lateral and leader evident in the measurements of or near-climax species (see Munger growth. Growth of lateral branches young tree growth recorded by 1940, Guiguet 1953, Schmidt 1955, is less than half of leader growth in Walters et al. (1961) on the lower McLean and Holland 1958, Mueggler western hemlock and more than 80 mainland. Indeed, the opposite trend 1965). Idaho western white pine percent of leader growth in western was apparent - young western red- stands are slowly replaced by a redcedar (see Buckland 1956). cedars grew faster than young west- western hemlock-redcedar climax Growth rates of lateral and terminal ern hemlocks and Douglas-firs on (Watt 1960). Daubenmire and shoots were similar in the young good sites, slower on poor sites. Daubenmire (1968) listed redcedar western redcedars measured by Ages of the trees being compared as the major climax species in their Walters and Soos (1963). probably were responsible for these Thuja plica talPach is tima, Thuja differences. Although western red- plicatalOplopanax, and Thuja Growth is not always rapid. Sup- cedar may not attain its most rapid plicatalAthyrium habitat types in pressed redcedar trees that are 200 growth rate until it is 10 to 30 years Idaho. It is a minor climax species years old but only 7.6-cm (3-in) d.b.h. old (Jackson and Knapp 1914), it in their Tsuga heterophyllal and 7.6-m (25-ft) tall are not unusual grows taller than western hemlock Pachistima type. Pfister et al. (1977) or Douglas-fir during the first 5 listed redcedar as a major climax years on good sites (see Smith and species in Montana’s Thuja plicatal DeBell 1973). Smith and DeBell’s Clintonia uniflora habitat type, a data show that Douglas-fir overtakes minor climax species in the Tsuga western redcedar by age 10, and heterophyllalClintonia uniflora type. western hemlock overtakes redcedar by age 15.

30 Growth of western redcedar tends to Western redcedar growth varies Productivity be faster than that of Alaska-cedar, greatly with site quality in Britain. but it may be extremely slow on Redcedar grew taller than Douglas- Published production data for native poor sites in southeastern Alaska fir or Sitka spruce in a 14-year-old western redcedar are rare, but three (Harris and Farr 1974). Height British plantation, and a 20-year-old North American studies are avail- growth may reach a maximum at an western redcedar plantation able. In the first, Smith and DeBell early age in southeastern Alaska achieved a height of 16.8 m (55 ft) (1973) assessed the productivity of (Andersen 1955b). Nearby, along the and a total volume of 2.1 m3/ha (30 short-rotation redcedar and found it north coast of British Columbia, ap- ft3/acre) (MacDonald 1957). These poorer than that of Douglas-fir, proximately 10 years are required to plantations probably were on excep- western hemlock, or black cotton- produce a 1.2-m-tall (4-ft-tall) red- tionally favorable sites, however, for wood. In a second study, Nokoe cedar on average sites. Diameters of Aldhous and Low (1974) found that (1978) developed a yield curve for 0.5 to 4.6 cm (0.2 to 1.8 in) are pro- the early growth of western redcedar medium-site western redcedar at duced on better sites during the was slower than that of Douglas-fir Salmo, British Columbia: same 10-year period (see British Co- and Sitka spruce on most British lumbia Forest Service 1948b). West- sites. Growth tends to accelerate Age Net volume ern redcedars in the United States slightly after about 25 years (Evans (mVhaY) may require 80 years to reach 1950). Redcedar eventually out- 40 70 diameters of 25 to 46 cm (10 to 18 produces Sitka spruce on British 80 21 0 in) (Lutz 1972). lowland sites. It becomes increas- 115 350 ingly more productive than Douglas- 165 490 Redcedar growth rates seem to be fir as British site quality improves 270 595 impaired by a droughty soil-moisture (see Aldhous and Low 1974). Indeed, regime or highly leached soils on Packee’s (1976) analyses of the His mathematical models indicate Vancouver Island, British Columbia paired-plot comparisons made by that the maximum current annual in- (McMinn 1960). Redcedar seems to Aldhous and Low indicate that red- crement occurs at 82 years and the grow slower than western hemlock cedar volume growth exceeds that maximum mean annual increment at but faster than Pacific silver fir.on of Douglas-fir on most British sites. 130 years for a medium site. For a coastal Douglas-fir sites (see poor site, the ages are 133 and 210 Walters and Haddock 1966). Growth of redcedar also varies with years, respectively. site quality elsewhere in Europe. Growth of redcedar is slow in the in- Dominant ,western redcedars in In the third study, Nystrom (1980) land western white pine type, and France have attained average measured volumes of 379 to 824 redcedar often forms an understory heights of 19 m (62 ft) in 39 years m3/ha(5,418 to 11, 782 ft3/acre) in after being outgrown by associated (Andre and Lheureux 1974). Younger 4040 60-year-old, pure, second- species (Haig et al. 1941). Even western redcedars in Germany grew growth stands of redcedar in when released, it often cannot keep to an average height of 7.6 m (25 ft), western Washington. Of the 939 to up with grand fir, western hemlock, with at least one tree reaching a 3,657 redcedars per hectare (380 to and western white pine in northern height of 10.8 m (35 ft) in 18 years 1,480 per acre) in these young Idaho (Deitschman and Pfister 1973). (Zimmerle and Linck 1951). Danish stands, 297 to 6421ha (120 to Slow growth during the first few redcedars have reached heights of 260/acre) were dominants with a years makes Rocky Mountain red- 20 to 25 m (66 to 82 ft) in 50 years mean annual height growth of 0.5 m cedar more susceptible to drought (Madsen 1977). Growth in the (1.64 ft) per year. and insolation injury than its faster Ukraine is slower, and the largest growing associates (Sc ho pmeye r western redcedars there were only 1940, McKeever 1942). Diameter 22 m (72 ft) tall at age 70 (Unasylva 9To obtain ft3/acre, multiply m3/ha by growth of Rocky Mountain redcedar, 1950). 14.2914. however, is less affected by high elevation than the diameter growth of ponderosa pine or Douglas-fir (Dau benm ire 1955).

39 Table 6 - Growth and yield of western redcedar in Britain' 198.6 ft3/acre), and redcedar incre- ment exceeded the mean annual in- crements of Norway spruce (10.8 Basal area of Average age m3lha or 154.3 ftalacre), Japanese Cumulative volume fully stocked of maximum larch (10.2 m3/ha or 145.8 ftslacre), Site and production in stands before mean annual European beech (9.6 mVha or 137.2 height normal stands thinning increment ft3/acre), and Scotch pine (8.8 mVha or 125.8 ftslacre) on a good site near Eberswalde (Lembcke 1970). Cubic meters Square meters per hectare2 per hectare3 Years The mean annual increment of a 57-year-old western redcedar planta- Poor sites: 72 tion in the Wirty State Forest of Age 20 50 Poland was 13.0 mVha (185.8 Age 80 953 fWacre). When previous thinning was included, its total yield of 939.5 Good sites: 58 m3/ha (13,426.7 ft3/acre) was nearly Age 20 232 twice that for pine of the same age Age 80 1838 and site quality (see Gecow 1952). Although redcedar also matched or Stand height: exceeded the production of native 10 meters 100 European species in Poland's 12 meters 49 Krynica Forests, both grand fir and 20 meters 600 55 Douglas-fir produced more than 30 meters 1400 70 western redcedar there (Jaworski and Majerczyk 1975). lAdapted from Hamilton and Christie (1971). Western redcedar productivity in 2Multiply by 14.2914 for cubic feet per acre. France apparently varies greatly 3Multiply by 4.3560 for square feet per acre. with stand age, stand density, and the environment in which it is More information on productivity is grown. Turpin and Pard6 (1959) available for western redcedar found that a young redcedar stand grown outside its natural range. A produced 13 m3lha per year (186 Montana provenance of redcedar ft3Iacre per year) on the Barres planted in Austria in 1897 produced Estate - more than Douglas-fir yields and stem forms comparable (12.3 m3/ha per year or 176 ft3/acre to those of Norway spruce grown in per year) and second only to the same district (Rannert 1976). western hemlock (14.8 mVha per Redcedar equaled or exceeded the year or 212 ftVacre per year). In con- yield of Norway spruce in north- trast, Guinier (1951) observed that an western Germany, but it was inferior 85-year-old Douglas-fir stand on the to Douglas-fir when both North Harcourt Estate would produce American species were grown there about twice as much (800 m3/ha or (Hesmer and Gunther 1968). Western 11,433 ftslacre) as an 80-year-old redcedar also produced less than western redcedar stand (400 m3lha Douglas-fir during a trial of species or 5,716 ftslacre) if both had 250 in East Germany. Nevertheless, its trees/ ha. mean annual increment (12.5 m3/ha or 178.6 ftslacre) was not far below that of Douglas-fir (13.9 mVha or

40 Mensuration

Slte Danish redcedar plantations also An early article by Jackson and Index36 vary in productivity. Two plantations Knapp (1914) provided some site in- 33 in eastern Denmark maintained formation on western redcedar in 30 periodic annual increments of 21 to terms of “short trees,” “medium 21 35 mVha (300 to 500 fWacre) until trees,” and “tall trees.” A prelimi- 24 age 46. One plantation then declined nary site-class table for mature 21 to a periodic annual increment of 16 redcedars was published 34 years to 18 m3/ha (229 to 257 ftVacre), but later (Province of British Columbia 18 the other maintained an increment 1948). Chambers and Wilson (1972) 15 of 24 to 29 mVha (343 to 414 ftVacre) used total age and 100-year site- until age 60 (Madsen 1977). index curves in developing yield 12 tables for conifer stands of western The forest-management tables pub- hemlock, Sitka spruce, and western lished by Hamilton and Christie redcedar in western Washington. (1971) seem to be the best summary Differences in the shapes of of western redcedar productivity in heightlage curves for western hem- Britain. They show that height lock and western redcedar are rela- growth of redcedar is slower than, tively small, but redcedars usually that of Douglas-fir, western hem- are shorter than hemlocks at a given lock, or grand fir during the first 50 age (see Smith et al. 1961a). The best available site-index curves for 0 10 M 50 40 M En m 80 90 rm 110 120 1YI 140 1M 160 years. It is sometimes faster than Brs.esbhelghtage (yean) that of Sitka spruce, but only on western redcedar appear to be the Figure 5. - Site index curves for western red- poor sites. Dominant redcedars have preliminary, polymorphic curves cedar in coastal British Columbia (courtesy larger diameters than other species developed by Kurucz (1978) for J.F. Kurucz, MacMillan Bloedel Limited). at any given height. The volume pro- coastal British Columbia (figs. 5 duction shown in table 6 exceeds and, 6). that of Douglas-fir, grand fir, and 210 Slte index123 Sitka spruce at heights of 20 and Height-age and diameter-age rela ma 110 190 30 m (66 and 98 ft), but is less than tionships for British Columbia IO0 180 that of noble fir. redcedars were published by the 90 110 British Columbia Forest Service 80 (1948b). For example, a 15-cm (6-in) (En Where Hamilton and Christie (1971) m present yields in terms of stand age d.b.h. redcedar that is 40 years old 150 may be expected to attain 44.5-cm 140 W rather than stand height, their nor- 130 mal yield tables show that cumula- (17.5-in) d.b.h. at 100 years and 120 50 tive volume production on good 93.5-cm (36.8-in) d.b.h. at 200 years .E 110 sites is lower for redcedar than for on a good site in coastal British Co- r 100 40 .n Douglas-fir, western hemlock, Sitka lumbia. North coast redcedars on 2 90 spruce, or grand fir - but only until average sites required 18 years to 80 age 20. For 60- and 80-year-old reach a height of 10 feet (3 m) 10 stands, cumulative production of (British Columbia Forest Service bo redcedar equals that of western 1948 b). The height -di ame t e r re Iat ion- 50 hemlock and exceeds the cumula- ship determined by Brown et al. 40 (1977) for western redcedars in Mon- 30 tive production of Douglas-fir or 20

Sitka spruce on good sites. tana is: 10

0 10 20 30 10 50 60 10 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 1.50 1s The average age of maximum mean Height = -15.40 + Bmast.heigh1 Age (years) annual increment is older for Figure 6.-Site index curves for western red- western redcedar than for Douglas- 18.80 (diameter)O.603? cedar in coastal British Columbia (courtesy fir, western hemlock, Sitka spruce, J.F. Kurucz, MacMillan Bloedel Limited). or grand fir on good sites. It is younger than western hemlock on poor sites, and younger than noble fir on all sites.

41 Height growth of western redcedars redcedar in British Columbia listed mature, old-growth redcedar were in southeastern Alaska may reach gross merchantable volume for six prepared by Farr and LaBau (1971) its maximum at an early age, and site classes by 2-inch (5-cm) d.b.h. for southeastern Alaska (table 8). Im- small-diameter trees tend to have intervals (Province of British Colum- mature redcedars managed for short higher Girard form-classes than bia 1948). The British Columbia rotations were used in deriving the large-diameter trees (Andersen Forest Service (1949) also published volume equation published by Smith 1955b). Andersen’s form-class site-class volume tables. Interim and DeBell (1973): measurements ranged from 55 to 76 tables from the Pacific Northwest for 9.8-m (32-ft) logs. Form-class Forest and Range Experiment Sta- V = 0.31 + 0.234D2H. measurements are greatly influ- tion (1953) were superseded by the enced by bark thickness. Bones cubic- and board-foot tables in Yield data for western redcedar fur- (1962) found the average ratio of Agriculture Handbook 92 (Johnson nished by Jackson and Knapp (1914) inside- to outside-bark diameters at 1955). Those tables were based on for the Puget Sound area appear to the top of the first 4.9-m (16-ft) log of measurements of interior western be more applicable to individual red- Alaska redcedar to be 0.9396. Form- redcedar, however (table 7). The cedar trees than to stands, and class measurements have not been form-class volume tables published relating them to modern manage- published as such for interior by Andersen (1955c, 19554) for ment practices might be difficult. western redcedar, but butt-taper cubic- and board-foot volumes of The preliminary redcedar growth and tables (Breadon 1957) are available. western redcedar in southeastern yield data of Smith et al. (1961b) They permit conversion of diameters Alaska are more appropriate for probably would be easier to apply, measured at 0.3, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8, 0.9, 1.1, coastal conditions. because they are sorted by stand 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 3.0, 3.7, or 5.2 m (1.0, density, age, and site index. Smith 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 8.0, Constants listed by Smith and Ker et al. assumed that the growth and 10.0, 12.0, or 17.0 ft) above ground to (1957) for their volume equation, (V yield of western redcedar are gen- diameter at breast height. = a + b (D2H/100),included appro- erally similar to the growth and yield priate values for western redcedar in of western hemlock. Chambers and Western redcedar volume tables British Columbia. The British Colum- Wilson (1972) also seem to have were included in Jackson and bia volume tables of Fligg and made this assumption in construct- Knapp’s 1914 article and in Haig’s Breadon (1959) provided regionally ing empirical yield tables for west- 1932 tables for the western white applicable information by 32-foot-log ern redcedar, western hemlock, and pine type. Several others tables have position in the tree. Those of Sitka spruce in western Washington. been published since. A cubic- Browne (1962) included separate volume table for mature western tables for interior and coastal red- cedar in British Columbia, with the coastal volumes further segregated by mature and immature trees. Volume tables and equations for

42 Table 7 - Volumes for western redcedar in the western white pine region'

Total height of tree (feet)

D. b. h. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

1 ------2 ------3 ------4 2.1 2.5 ------5 3.2 3.8 ------

6 4.5 5.3 6 7 - - - - - 7 6 7 8 9 - - - - - 8 8 9 10 12 13 14 - - - 9 9 11 13 14 16 18 - - - 10 11 14 16 18 20 22 - - -

11 14 16 19 21 23 26 29 - - 12 16 19 22 25 27 30 33 36 38 13 18 22 25 28 32 35 38 41 44 14 21 25 29 33 36 40 43 47 50 15 24 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 56

16 27 32 37 41 46 50 54 58 62 17 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 64 69 18 33 39 45 50 55 60 65 70 76 19 36 43 49 55 61 66 71 77 83 20 - - 53 60 66 72 78 84 90

21 - - 58 65 72 78 84 91 98 22 - - - - 77 84 91 98 106 23 - - - - 83 91 99 107 115 24 - - - - 90 98 106 115 123 25 - - - - 96 105 114 123 132

26 - - - - 103 113 122 131 140 27 - - - - 110 120 130 140 149 28 - - - - 117 128 138 148 158 29 - - - - 125 136 146 157 167 30 - - - - 132 143 154 165 176

'From Haig (1932), Johnson (1955). Volumes include stump, stem, and top.

43 Table 8 - Volumes for western redcedar in southeastern Alaska'

Total height of tree (feet)

D.b.h. 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170

Inches 6 3.2 3.6 4.1 ------8 6.6 7.4 8.2 ------10 10.6 11 .,9 13.2 14.4 15.7 ------

12 15.5 17.3 19.2 21 .o 22.8 24.6 ------14 21.2 23.7 26.2 28.7 31.2 33.7 ------16 27.8 31.1 34.3 37.5 40.8 44.0 47.3 ------18 35.3 39.4 43.5 47.6 51.7 55.8 59.9 64.0 - - - - - 20 43.6 48.6 53.7 58.8 63.8 68.9 74.0 79.0 - - - - -

22 52.7 58.9 65.0 71.1 77.3 83.4 89.5 95.7 - - - - - 24 62.8 70.1 77.4 84.7 92.0 99.3 07 114 - - - - - 26 73.7 82.3 90.8 99.4 108 17 25 134 142 - - - - 28 - 95.4 105 115 125 35 45 155 165 175 - - - 30 - 110 121 132 144 55 67 178 189 201 212 - -

32 - 125 138 151 164 77 90 202 21 5 228 24 1 - - 34 - - 155 170 185 199 214 229 243 258 272 287 - 36 - 174 191 207 223 240 256 273 289 306 322 338 38 - - 194 212 23 1 249 267 286 304 322 340 359 377 40 - - 215 235 256 276 296 316 337 357 377 397 41 8

42 - - 237 259 282 304 326 349 37 1 393 41 6 438 461 44 - - 260 285 309 334 358 383 407 432 456 481 505 46 - - - - 338 365 392 41 8 445 472 499 526 552 48 - - - - 368 397 426 456 485 514 543 572 602 50 - - - - 399 431 463 494 526 558 589 62 1 653

52 - - - - 432 466 500 535 569 603 637 672 706 54 - - - - 466 503 540 577 614 650 687 724 76 1 56 - - - - - 54 1 580 620 660 700 739 779 819 58 - - - - - 580 623 665 708 750 793 836 878 60 - - - - - 62 1 666 712 757 803 849 894 940

62 - - - - - 663 71 1 670 809 858 906 955 1004 64 - - - - - 706 758 810 862 914 966 1017 1069 66 - - - - 75 1 806 86 1 917 972 1027 1082 1137 68 - - - - - 797 856 914 973 1032 1090 1149 1207 70 - - - - - 845 907 969 1031 1093 1155 1217 1279

'From Farr and LaBau (1971). Volumes are based on a 1-ft stump and 4-in-top d.i.b.

44 Silviculture

Seeding Nursery Practices Petroleum products have been used as nursery weedkillers. A French Western redcedar regeneration oc- Although western redcedars compound, Desherbant Carottes No. curs after clearcutting in British Co- amounted to only a small fraction of 35,y damaged western redcedar lumbia and Alaska (Schmidt 1955, their total production, approximately seedlings more than those of the Harris and Farr 1974). Nevertheless, 650,000 redcedar seedlings were pro- firs,, spruces, or pines (Bouvarel natural regeneration has not been duced by nurseries in Washington 1951). Light petroleum was less relied on to achieve immediate and during 1977 (Bolsinger 1979). Red- damaging to redcedar than to complete restocking of logged areas cedar has been grown in European Douglas-fir, Norway spruce, or the on Vancouver Island (see Hether- nurseries for many years by several larches in Denmark (Petersen 1952). ington 1965). A seed and sawdust met hods. Redcedar was also resistant to the mixture was broadcast on melting winter application of propyzamide in snow near Cowichan Lake in an Redcedar seeds may be separated Britain (Brown and McKenzie 1974). early d irect-seeding trial (Brit ish Co- from the cones by kiln-drying at lumbia Forest Service 1948a). Only 32°C (9O”F), shaking in a mechanical Effective control of Didymascella 2.5 percent of the redcedar seeds cone shaker, and fanning. They thujina has been obtained by spray- survived, but 1,235 seedlingslha (500 should not be dewinged (Schop- ing cycloheximide fungicides on the seedlingslacre) were alive after two meyer 1974). Empty seeds are fre- affected nursery beds. The cyclohex- growing seasons. Isaac’s (1939) quent in western redcedar cones. imide itself is more damaging to early work indicated probable suc- They may be separated from full western redcedar than its oxime, cess for broadcast seeding of seeds in an airstream (Schopmeyer semicarbazone, and acetate deriva- western redcedar at rates of 5.4 to 1974) or by immersing in petroleum tives, however (Pawsey 1962a, 1965; 10.9 kglha (1 to 2 Iblacre) if it were ether (Lebrun 1967). Western red- Phillips 1962, 1964). Concentrat ions done within 2 years of slash burn- cedar seeds are stored at - 18°C of 50 to 150 plm have been recom- ing. Waiting longer than 2 years on (0°F) in many western nurseries mended for these derivatives. They Oregon’s Tillamook burn resulted in (Schopmeyer 1974). were most effective when applied in poor stocking of redcedar when the the spring and summer (Pawsey broadcast seeding was done in the Seedbeds should be sown in the 1965). spring (see Engstrom 1955). spring for best results (see Aldhous 1967, Schopmeyer 1974). Sowing Western redcedar cuttings for use in Trials of direct redcedar seeding in depths of 3 to 10 mm (118 to 318 in) silviculture may be produced easily northern Idaho indicated that seed and seedbed densities of 377 to and cheaply (Sqegaard 1956a). spots sown in the autumn resulted 1,076 seedlingslm2 (35 to 100 seed- Sqegaard recommended July and in better initial stocking than those lingslft2)are commonly used. Half- August cuttings. Untrimmed cut- sown in the spring (Schopmeyer shaded seedbeds are recommended t ings, treatment with indolebutyric 1940, Helmers 1946, Schopmeyer during the first growing season acid in talc, and a sand-peat (75 and Helmers 1947). Protection from (Schopmeyer 1974). Some European percent-25 percent) rooting medium rodents was unnecessary when the nurseries had better success with heated to 21°C (70°F) were recom- seeds were covered with a thin layer seedbeds of needle or leaf litter mended by Matthews (1951). Misting of soil, but insufficient soil mois- than with mineral soil (Hutt 1956, the rooting bed with a nutrient mist ture, erosion, and smothering by Rohrig 1958). Organic matter in the fortified with 45 gl100 liters (6 oz/lOO leaves, bark, duff, and rotten wood seedbed promotes the growth of gal) soluble 23-19-17 fertilizer im- were serious (McKeever 1942). Ex- Thelephora terres tris, however (We ir proved cutting growth and nutrient cellent 5th year stocking resulted 1921), and redcedar seedlings are content (Wott and Tukey 1965). when the redcedar seeds were sown usually grown in soil beds. Infre- on cutovers and broadcast-burned quent irrigation of nursery beds areas with stable soils and light or (“predroughting”) had no beneficial ‘OThe mention of products does not im- moderate covers of low vegetation effect on western redcedar seed- ply endorsement by the U.S. Department (Helmers 1946). lings that were subsequently sub- of Agriculture to the exclusion of other jected to dry environments (see Op- products that might be suitable. penheimer 1967). Seedlings re- sponded best to spring transplant- ing in Germany (Mormann 1956).

45 Soluble fertilizers have been added Stand Culture and Improvement When grown in fully stocked, pure to irrigation water in the production stands, the stem form of western of containerized western redcedar Natural even-aged stands of western redcedar is comparable to other nursery stock. The procedures redcedar seem to be relatively rare. western conifers. described by Owston (1974) included Redcedar grows in even-aged stands frequent irrigation at pH 5.0 to 5.5 in on poor sites in southeastern Nystrom suggested the establish- a greenhouse. Owston’s redcedars Alaska, however (Gregory 1957), and ment of 2,470 redcedarslha (1,000 were sown in mid-June in Styro- even-aged redcedar plantations are treeslacre) on site Ill (McArdle et al. blocksg filled with a peat- occasionally established. Redcedar 196l), with a merchantable thinning vermiculite mixture, grown all sum- seedlings were planted at 0.3- by to remove intermediates at age 25. mer in the greenhouse, and hard- 0.3-m (1- by l-ft) spacing in the lower The residual stand of 940 redcedar ened-off in late October to mid- Fraser River Valley and studied for dominants and codominants per ’ November. The seedlings were ready 15 years by Smith and DeBell (1973) hectare (380 per acre) could be to plant in January and February. to determine short-rotation yields in crown-thinned thereafter. The ages Unfortunately, containerized western pure, dense stands. They were less of first thinning recommended by redcedar seedlings have not sur- productive than stands of Douglas- Hamilton and Christie (1971) range vived as well as bare-root stock fir, western hemlock, or black cot- from 21 on good sites to 30 on poor when planted in western Oregon and tonwood when grown this way. sites in Britain. western Washington (see Owston 1977). Planting has not been very The four small stands of almost Mixed-species, uneven-aged stands successful in Idaho (Parker 1979). pure, second-growth redcedar with a western redcedar component studied by Nystrom (1980) in west- are more common than pure stands. Nursery stock is frequently lifted ern Washington were essentially In the mixed-species stands of when dormant, then kept in cold even aged, and his reconstruction of British Columbia, redcedar may fur- storage until field sites are ready to their growth and development led to nish an interim pole crop that will plant in the spring. Aldhous (1964) the following conclusions: provide financial help in carrying found western redcedar to be one of Douglas-fir and western hemlock to the least satisfactory species tested Douglas-firs seem able to domi- maturity (Gilmour 1945). In Idaho, for survival after cold storage. His nate western redcedars even if they well-established redcedars grow well results were somewhat confounded become established 5 years later. in the understory if they have a by postplanting rainfall differences, reasonable amount of space (Watt however, and Aldhous included red- Redcedars are rapidly overtopped 1960). Redcedar has been under- cedar in only one experiment. by red alders, but they survive under planted successfully in the western an alder understory. white pine type of Idaho (Haig 1936), Rapid emergence of western red- in Britain (Hubbard 1950), and under cedar from dormancy may affect its On moist sites, dominant and in- Scotch pine in East Germany (see survival after cold storage. In termediate crown classes are Lembcke 1970). Interplanting was J a blanczy’s (1964) ex per i ments with distinguishable by age 5 in western successful in the Podocarp forests responses to photoperiod, western redcedar. Dominant and codominant of New Zealand (Hocking and redcedar broke dormancy in 1 week. classes can be identified by age 25. Mayf ield 1939), where the redcedars Western hemlock took about 4 Stratification into crown classes oc- were able to maintain their position weeks, and Douglas-fir did not break curs more slowly on dry sites. with competing second growth and dormancy until about the 7th week should furnish an early timber yield after the beginning of artificial il- *On moist sites where crown class while the native natural regeneration lumination. differentiation occurs early, height is devoping to maturity (New growth of redcedar is not noticeably Zealand Director of Forestry 1940).

~~ affected by stand density. Diameter Small groups (“nests”) of western %tyroblocks are rectangular pieces of growth varies inversely with density. redcedar and other North American Styrofoam containing cavities in which species were recommended by tree seedlings are grown. An initial stocking level of at least llmurzyhski et al. (1968) for the 2,470 treeslha (1,000 treeslacre) will forests of Poland. produce more volume by age 25 than lower levels. After age 25, Several elaborate trials of larch- about 1,235 treeslha (500 treeslacre) redcedar (Evans 1950, Jones 1964) with not more than 490 domi- and oak-redcedar (Keatinge 1947, nantslha (200 dominantslacre) may provide maximum volume growth.

46 Jones 1964) mixtures were carried British Columbia (personal commu- than by Douglas-fir, grand fir, out in Britain. The larch-redcedar nication, Edmond C. Packee, Mac- western hemlock, or ponderosa pine, stands were two-storied with larch Millan Bloedel Limited, Nanaimo, however; the large quantities of as the overstory. Western redcedar British Columbia). Unpruned western slash probably result from the large tended to form an overstory in the redcedars are valueless in New amounts of cull and breakage oak-redcedar stands, acting as a Zealand, but epicormic branching in associated with most redcedar nurse crop. Jones (1964) found that open conditions makes pruning inef- harvesting. Breakage can be reduced British oaks grew taller than red- fective except in dense, dark stands by pulling large old-growth redcedars cedars on wet ground where compe- (Weston 1971). Pruning did not uphill (Guimier 1980). The additional tition from other vegetation was cause rot or other defects in Nor- directional felling costs are recovered extreme, creating a redcedar under- way, and the pruning season did not through increases in harvested volume story. affect results (Bauger and Orlund and improved log quality. 1962). Western redcedar understories seem When slash from decadent western capable of responding well to Fertilization with phosphorus and redcedar-western hemlock stands release after overstory removal potassium improved western red- was burned, a greater proportion of (Leaphart and Grismer 1974) when cedar growth in Irish peat-bog plan- redcedar than of hemlock slash was the overstory is of another species. tations (Carey and Barry 1975). consumed (Muraro 1971) - a result When both the overstory and under- Small, often negative growth correla- of greater longitudinal and horizon- story are western redcedar, translo- tions were associated with the red- tal fracturing of the redcedar. When cation through root grafts to cut cedar fertilization experiments of fracturing is not a factor, fresh stumps renders thinning from below Smith et al. (1968) in British Colum- western hemlock slash is at least as more effective than thinning from bia, ho’wever. The British Columbia flammable as western redcedar above (see Eis 1972). The largest fertilization had no obviously bene- slash (see Olson 1953, Fahnestock understory redcedars and those with ficial influence on production of 1960). Fire spreads slower in hem- least overstory competition usually redcedar cones. lock when the slash from both respond best to overstory removal in species is 1 year old (Fahnestock the western white pine type Harvesting 1960); hemlock drops its foliage, (Leaphart and Foiles 1972). When redcedar does not. The slash of both that overstory is removed all at As western redcedar is seldom species becomes less flammable once, however, the initial increase in found in pure stands within its when chipped (Fahnestock 1953). understory growth may be followed native range, it is usually harvested The fire hazard normally associated by redcedar chlorosis and root rot with Douglas-fir, western hemlock, with cutting of redcedar poles was 20 years later (Intermountain Forest and other associated species (see reduced by skidding entire pole-size and Range Experiment Station 1962, McBride 1959). When partially cut, trees to the landing, where the slash Koenigs 1969). Leaphart and Foiles mixed stands in the interior wet belt was chipped and blown over the (1972) found that gradual removal of of British Columbia gave the maxi- edges (Olson and Arnold 1959). the overstory worked better, stimu- mum economic return when western lating growth of the redcedar under- redcedar was cut to 30-cm (12-in) Chipping slash instead of burning it story without producing chlorosis or d.b.h., western white pine to 41 cm certainly reduces the fire hazard, but increasing root rot. Western red- (16 in), and all other species to 36 its effect on redcedar regeneration cedars released in Danish thinning cm (14 in) in 1956 (Stewart 1956). seems uncertain, and chipping is trials had less lower stem taper and Partial cutting is seldom used, how- seldom practical. Although western more upper stem taper than ever. Western redcedars cannot be redcedar can establish itself readily unreleased trees (Madsen 1977). left as scattered seed trees in after logging with or without slash Release through herbicide use is coastal British Columbia, where burning (Schmidt 1955), it seems to complicated by western redcedar’s even redcedars along clearcut regenerate better after burning on susceptibility to dormant sprays of margins may be lost to windthrow the northern coast of British Colum- 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T iso-octyl esters in or exposure (Garman 1955). Most bia (British Columbia Forest Service diesel oil (Packee 1976). redcedars are harvested by 1948b). Slash burning has little ef- clearcutting. fect on species composition in the Taper and tree form of redcedar are hemlock-cedar type of coastal profoundly influenced by stand den- Large quantities of slash are British Columbia, however, and it sity. From 1,976 to 2,470 treeslha created in clearcut harvesting opera- may retard the successful conifer (800 to 1,000 treeslacre) are needed tions; western redcedar leaves more regeneration that usually occurs to maintain good form and prevent slash than other northwestern spe- there (Stoodley 1925). Disturbance of “candelabra” growth of western cies (see Olson and Arnold 1959, the forest floor seems essential for redcedar on Vancouver Island, Gockerell 1966). Tables of residues natural redcedar regeneration (Clark by individual tree and basal area 1970). Slash burning probably is not. prepared by Snell and Brown (1980) indicate that lower weights of sound slash are produced by redcedar

47 Discussion Recommendations for Management

The various subjects included in this Redcedar rotations do not seem to The techniques used to manage report have not been equally dis- have been seriously considered other major timber crops are often cussed. Relative length and detail apart from the rotations of associ- inappropriate for western redcedar, included in each section were deter- ated species. Indeed, redcedar but few techniques have been mined by the amount of information timber often has been managed like developed for redcedar. Manage- available, not by their importance. a valuable mineral that is mined ment recommendations are based For example, the section on prod- when found in association with on the site, regeneration, growth, ucts is twice as long as the section other minerals or reclaimed from old yield, tolerance, and longevity infor- on silviculture; this inequality seems mine tailings (i.e., logging residues mation in this report. As they have particularly important. Western red- of former years). Utilization tech- not been applied in a coordinated cedar wood is a highly valued, inten- nology is advanced, but redcedar redcedar management program, they sively used product that has been usually has been removed, refined, should be considered plausible sug- studied in great detail. Unfortu- manufactured, and managed as a gestions rather than guidelines. nately, much less time, money, and declining, nonrenewable resource. effort seem to have been invested in Western redcedar management learning how to grow the wood. Western redcedar is a renewable sites should be chosen with care. More information is needed on site resource that need not decline. It Moist, fertile conditions character- evaluation, nursery culture, planting can be renewed and used forever, as ized by the presence of Athyrium techniques, fertilization, optimum are several other tree species now filix-femina, Clintonia uniflora, stand densities, thinning of red- being planted and managed inten- Dryop teris a us tria ca, Gymno carpium cedar, and management of mixed sively. More research on the culture dryopteris, and Rubus pawiflorus species. Trees with desirable annual of redcedar and a different manage- are best. ring widths, knot characteristics, ment philosophy may be necessary, and forms might even be grown to however. Western redcedar differs Redcedar probably should be order if the silviculture of redcedar from Douglas-fir or western hem- grown in pure stands when saw- were truly understood. lock, and it should be managed dif- timber, shingles, or shakes are the ferently - not as just another asso- desired products. Even-aged mix- A true understanding of silviculture ciated species, but as a major tures of redcedar and other conifers rests on foundations of physiology, timber crop. will be harvested either too early for ecology, genetics, mensuration, and the redcedar sawtimber or too late economics. Adequate knowledge for the other conifers when mixed- about western redcedar is lacking in species, even-aged stands are clear- all five categories. For example, the cut. relation of moisture to redcedar regeneration and growth should be Redcedar can be grown in mixed further investigated. So should its stands when poles are to be pro- growth on various sites - sites that duced under even-aged management are objectively described and de- regimes. fined. The breeding of superior red- cedar planting stock has scarcely e Redcedar is suitable for uneven- begun. Accurate local volume tables aged management, either in pure or and yield information are scarce, as mixed stands. Vegetative regenera- are comparative economic analyses tion probably will be more efficient of mixed- compared with pure-stand than sexual regeneration where the culture and redcedar rotation selection system is practiced. lengths. Direct seeding with redcedar is practical and effective where a mineral soil seedbed is available. Rates of 5 to 10 kglha (1 to 2 Iblacre) seem appropriate for broadcast seeding. The seeds should be covered with a thin layer of soil when seed spots are used. Sowing should be done in the fall.

48 Acknowledgment

Where mineral soil seedbeds are Michael E. Dubrasich, formerly not available, planting may be effec- forestry technician, searched much tive. Recently lifted, bare-root stock of the literature summarized here. should be used, and cold storage should be avoided.

Redcedar plantations should be dense, with 1.2- to 1.5-m (4- to 5-ft) spacing between seedlings.

Where pure, even-aged stand management is practiced, inter- mediate crown classes should be removed in a light thinning at about age 30. A nearly closed canopy should be maintained at all times, however; open-grown redcedars tend to develop poor form, excessive limbs, and multiple tops.

Where western redcedar is man- aged in mixed-species or uneven- aged stands, its shade tolerance and long life should be considered. Redcedars will tolerate understory conditions in mixed-species stands. In uneven-aged stands, they should maintain acceptable growth rates over long periods. Excessive crown space should be avoided under all management regimes.

49 Common and Scientific Names of Trees

Common Name Scientific Name

Alaska-cedar Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach A Ip i ne-as h Eucalyptus delegatensis R. T. Baker Austrian pine Pinus nigra Arnold Baldcypress Taxodium distichurn (L.) Rich. Big leaf maple Acer macrophyllum Pursh Birch Betula L. sp. BIac k cottonwood Populus trichocarpa T. & G. Brisbane boxwood Tristania conferta R. Br. California-lauqel Umbellularia californica (Hook. & Am.) Nutt. Cascara buckthorn Rhamnus purshiana DC. Chinkapin Castanopsis chrysophylla (Dougl.) DC. Douglas-f ir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco Eastern redcedar Juniperus virginiana L. Eastern white pine Pinus strobus L. Engelmann spruce Picea engelmannii Parry European beech Fagus sylvatica L. European larch Larix decidua Mill. European white birch Betula alba L. Grand fir Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes Incense-cedar Calocedrus decurrens (Torr.) Florin Japanese larch Larix kaempferi Sarg. King-William -pine Athrotaxis selaginoides D. Don Larches Larix Mill. spp. Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Dougl. Longleaf pine Pinus palustris Mill. Monterey pine Pinus radiata D. Don Mountain hemlock Tsuga mertensiana (Bong.) Carr. Noble fir Abies procera Rehder Northern whit e-ced ar Thuja occidentalis L. Norway spruce Picea abies Karst Oak Quercus L. sp. Oregon white oak Quercus garryana Dougl. Pacific dogwood Cornus nuttallii Aud. Pacific madrone Arbutus menziesii Pursh Pacific silver fir Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia Nutt. Paper birch Betula papyrifera Marsh. Pi ne Pinus L. sp. Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa Dougl. ex Laws. Port-or ford-cedar Chamaecyparis la wsoniana (A. Murr.) Parl. Quaking aspen Populus tremuloides Michx. Red alder Alnus rubra Bong. Red oaks Quercus falcata Michx. and Q. rubra L. Red pine Pinus resinosa Ait. Redwood Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl. Scotch pine Pinus sylvestris L. Shore pine Pinus contorta Dougl. var. contorta Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr. Southern yellow pines Pinus caribaea Morelet, P. echinata Mill., P. palustris Mill., and P. taeda L. Spruce Picea A. Dietr. sp. Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. Sugar pine Pinus lambertiana Dougl. Tamarack Larix laricina (Du Roi) I. Koch Tanoak Lithocarpus densiflorus (Hook. & Arn.) Rehd. Walnut Juglans L. sp. Western hemlock Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg. Western larch Larix occidentalis Nutt. Western redcedar Thuja plicata Donn Western white pine Pinus monticola Dougl. ex D. Don Whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis Engelm. White spruce Picea glauca (Moench) Voss

50 Literature Cited

Alban, D. H. Andersen, H. E. Bannan, M. W. 1969. The influence of western 1955c. Preliminary western redcedar 1951. The annual cycle of size hemlock and western redcedar on soil cubic form class volume tables for changes in the fusiform cambial cells properties, Soil Sci. SOC.Am. Proc. southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. of Chamaecyparis and Thuja. Can. J. 33(3): 453-457. Alaska For. Res. Cent. Tech. Note 28, Bot. 29(4):421-437. 12 p. Juneau. Aldhous, J. R. Banthorpe, D. V., H. ff. S. Davies, C. Gat- 1964. Cold-storage of forest nursery Andersen, H. E. ford, and s. R. Williams. plants. An account of experiments and 1955d. Extension of board foot form- 1973. Monoterpene patterns in trials; 1958-63. Forestry 37(1):47-63. class volume tables for western Juniperus and Thuja species. Planta redcedar. USDA For. Serv. Alaska For. Med. 23(1):64-69. Aldhous, J. R. Res. Cent. Tech. Note 27, 2 p. Juneau. 1967. Autumn and spring sowing. For. Barton, G. M. Comm. Lond. Rep. For. Res. Anderson, A. B., and J. Gripenberg. 1972. How to prevent dry kiln corro- 1965/66:21. [For. Abstr. 285533.1 1948. Antibiotic substances from the sion. Can. For. Ind. 92(4):27-29. heartwood of Thuja plicata D. Don. Aldhous, J. R., and A. J. Low. IV. The constitution of pthujaplicin. Barton, G. M. 1974. The potential of western Acta Chem. Scand., Copenhagen 1973a. Chemical color tests for Cana- hemlock, western red cedar, grand fir 2(8):644-650. dian woods. Can. For. Ind. 93(2):57-60, and noble fir in Britain. For. Comm. 62. Lond. Bull. 49, 105 p. Anderson, 1. V. 1961. Western redcedar poles from Barton, G. M. Allen, G. S. British Columbia. J. For. 59(1):14-16. 1973b. Wood chemistry of western 1957. Storage behavior of conifer conifers - questions and answers. seeds in sealed containers held at O'F, Andr6, P., and C. Lheureux. West. For. Prod. Lab., Can. Inf. Rep. 32'F, and room temperature. J. For. 1974. Le thuya ggant, essence de pro- VP-X-106, 28 p. Vancouver, B.C. 55(4):278-281. duction. Rev. For. Fr. 26(4):294-297. Barton, G. M. Aller, A. R. Aplin, R. T., and R. C. Cambie. 1975. Western-conifer extractive 1960. The composition of the Lake 1964. Note on the taxonomic distribu- chemistry aids the technologist. Dep. McDonald Forest, Glacier National tion of some diterpene hydrocarbons. Environ. Can. For. Serv., West. For. Park. Ecology 41(1):29-33. N. Z. J. Sci. 7(2):258-260. Prod. Lab. Inf. Rep. VP-X-142, 18 p. Vancouver, B.C. American Wood Preservers Association. Arndt, U. 1943. Report of committee 5-5-1 on the 1968. Prufung der biologischen Barton, G. M., and J. A. F. Gardner. pressure treatment of poles. Proc. Am. Aktivitat geringer Mengen von Holz- 1954. The chemical nature of the Wood Preserv. Assoc. 39:43-53. inhaltsstoffen mit der Bodentermite acetone extractive of western red Reticulitermes. Holzforsch. Berl. cedar. Pulp and Pap. Mag. Can. American Wood Preservers Association. 22(4):104-109. [For. Abstr. 30:3219.] 55(10):132-137. [For. Abstr. 16:2204.] 1944. Report of committee 5-5-1 on the pressure treatment of poles. Proc. Am. Arndt, U., and H. Willeitner. Barton, G. M., and B. F. MacDonald. Wood Preserv. Assoc. 40:122-126. 1969. Zum Resistenzverhalten von Holz 1971. Chemical reactions in green bei naturlicher Bewitterung. Holz Roh wood. Bi-mon. Res. Notes 27(6):41-42. American Wood Preservers Association. Werkst. 27(5):179-188. 1946. Report of committee 7-10. Diver- Barton, G. M., B. F. MacDonald, and T. S. sified uses of treated wood. Proc. Am. Artsybashev, D. D. Sahota. Wood Preserv. Assoc. 42:255-265. 1939. [Investigations on the acclimati- 1972. Juvenilehormone-like activity of zation of new, valuable species.] Lesn. thujic acid, an extractive of western Andersen, H. E. Khoz., Mosc. 9:16:22. [In Russian.] red cedar. Bi-mon. Res. Notes 1953. Range of western redcedar (Thu- 28(4):22-23. ja plicata) in Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Axelrod, D. 1. Alaska For. Res. Cent. Tech. Note 22, 1977. Outline history of California Barton, L. V. 2 p. Juneau. vegetation. In Terrestrial vegetation of 1954. Effect of subfreezing tempera- California, p. 139-193. M. G. Barbour tures on viability of conifer seeds in Andersen, H. E. and J. Major, eds. John Wiley & Sons, storage. Contrib. Boyce Thompson 1955a. Climate in southeast Alaska in New York. Inst. 18:21-24. relation to tree growth. USDA For. Serv. Alaska For. Res. Cent. Stn. Pap. Bailey, A. W. Bauger, E., and A. Orlund. 3, 11 p. Juneau. 1966. Forest associations and secon- 1962. [A study of pruned trees of Sitka dary plant succession in the southern spruce, grand fir, western hemlock, Andersen, H. E. Oregon Coast Range. Ph. D. thesis. Norway spruce, and western redcedar.] 1955b. Girard form class comparisons Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 164 p. Medd. Vestl. Forstl. Forsqkssta. ll(4) for three major species in southeast 36:169-197. [In Norwegian.] [For. Abstr. Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Alaska For. Baker, F. S. 24:2058.] Res. Cent. Tech. Note 26, 2 p. Juneau. 1949. A revised tolerance table. J. For. 47(3): 179-1 81.

51 Beaton, J. D., A. Moss, I. Macrae, J. W. Bones, J. T. Briggs, B. A. Konkin, and others. 1962. Relating outside- to inside-bark 1973. Research at the nursery level. 11. 1965. Observations on foliage nutrient diameter at top of first 16-foot log for Cedar sawdust as a rooting medium. content of several coniferous tree southeast Alaska timber. USDA For. Int. Plant Propag. SOC.Comb. Proc. species in British Columbia. For. Serv. North. For. Exp. Stn. Tech. Note 23158-62. Chron. 41(2):222-236. 52, 2 p. Juneau, Alaska. British Columbia Forest Service. Bell, M. A. M. Boone, R. S. 1948a. Direct sowing of hemlock 1965. The dry subzone of the interior 1965. Service life of telephone poles (Tsuga heterophylla) and cedar (Thuja western hemlock zone. Part 1. Phyto- on the island of Hawaii. USDA For. plicata). For. Chron. 24(4):333-334. coenoses. In Ecology of Western Serv. Res. Note PSW-96, 6 p. Pac. North America, p. 42-56. Vol. 1. V. J. Southwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., British Columbia Forest Service. Krajina, ed. Univ. B. C., Vancouver. Berkeley, Calif. [For. Abstr. 27:6792.] 1948b. Growth studies. B. C. For. Serv. Rep. 1947:17-18. [For. Abstr. 10:2322.] Bender, F. Borc hers. 1963. Cedar leaf oils. Can. Dep. For. 1952. Folgerungen aus den bisherigen British Columbia Forest Service. Publ. 1008, 16 p. Ottawa. Anbauergebnissen mit fremdliln- 1949. Volume tables. B. C. For. Serv. dischen Holzarten im Gebiet des Rep. 1948:ll-17. Bendtsen, B. A. Landes Niedersachsen fur die kunf- 1972. Important structural properties tige waldbauliche Planung. Mitt. British Columbia Forest Service. of four western softwoods: White pine, Dtsch. Dendrol. Ges. 57:69-81. [For. 1950. Seed dispersal of British Colum- sugar pine, western redcedar, and Abstr. 14:2116.] bia coastal conifers. B. C. For. Serv. Port-Orford-Cedar. USDA For. Serv. Rep. 1949:26-28. [For. Abstr. 12:1922.] Res. Pap. FPL-191, 17 p. Madison, Wis. Bouvarel, P. 1951. Le dbsherbage chimique des British Columbia Forest Service, Inven- Benson, R. B. pbpinieres. Rev. For. Fr. tory Divison. 1959. The sawfly, Ametastegia 1951(7/8):525-527. [For. Abstr. 13:1146.] 1967. Forest inventory statistics of glabrata (Fallh) (Hym. Tenthredi- British Columbia, 1967. Dep. Lands, nidae), damaging the timber of new Bowers, N. A. For., and Water Resour., 194 p. Vic- schools in Warwickshire. Entomol. 1956. Cone-bearing trees of the Pacific toria, B.C. Mon. Mag. 95(1140):119. [For. Abstr. coast. 169 p. Pac. Books, Palo Alto, 21 :2487.] Calif. British Columbia Lumberman. 1948. Structural boards from western Blaser, H. W., C. Marr, and D. Takahashi. Boyce, J. S. red cedar bark. B. C. Lumberman 1967. Anatomy of boron-deficient Thu- 1929. Deterioration of wind-thrown 32(2):91. ja plicata. Am. J. Bot. 54(9):1107-1113. timber on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. British Columbia Lumberman. Bleumink, E., J. C. Mitchell, and J. P. Bull. 104, 28 p. Washington, D.C. 1951. Boiler compound produced in Nater. B.C. from cedar waste. B. C. Lumber- 1973. Allergic contact dermatitis from Boyce, J. S. man 35(9):84. cedar wood (Thuja plicata). Br. J. Der- 1961. Forest pathology. 3d ed. 572 p. matol. 88(5):499-504.1 Bioi. Abstr. McGraw-Hill Book Co.: New York, British Columbia Lumberman. 57:5935.] Toronto and London. 1953. New uses for cedar. B. C. Lumberman 37(3):75, 84-85. Bohannan, B., H. Habermann, and J. E. Boyd, R. J., Jr. Lenge I. 1959. Silvics of western redcedar. British Columbia Lumberman. 1974. Taper of wood poles. USDA For. USDA For. Serv. Intermt. For. and 1959. Cedar in lead refining. B. C. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL-2, 9 p. For. Range Exp. Stn. Misc. Publ. 20, 14 p. Lumberman 43(July):44, 46. Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis. Ogden, Utah. British Columbia Lumber Manufacturers Bollen, W. B., and K. C. Lu. Bray, M. W., and J. S. Martin. Association. 1957. Effect of Douglas fir sawdust 1947. Sulfate pulping of Douglas fir, [n.d.] The screw holding properties of mulches and incorporations on soil western hemlock, Pacific silver fir, and western red cedar. B. C. Lumber microbial activities and plant growth. western red cedar logging and sawmill Manuf. Assoc. Inf. Bull. 9, 4 p. [For. Soil Sci. SOC.Am. Proc. 21(1):35-41. waste. USDA For. Serv., Rep. R1641, 10 Abstr. 27:1243. 1966.1 p. For. Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis. Bolsinger, C. L. Brooke, R. C. 1979. Western redcedar - a forest Breadon, R. E. 1965. The subalpine mountain hemlock resource in transition. USDA For. Serv. 1957. Butt-taper tables for commercial zone. Part 11. Ecotypes and biogeo- Resour. Bull. PNW-85, 24 p. Pac. tree species of interior British Colum- coenotic units. In Ecology of Western Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., bia. B. C. For. Serv., For. Serv. Note 3, North America, p. 79-101. Vol. 1. V. J. Portland, Oreg. 16 p. Victoria. Krajina, ed. Univ. B. C., Vancouver.

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52 Brown, F. L. Buchanan, T. S., and G. H. Englerth. Canadian Forestry Service. 1957. Swelling of springwood and sum- 1940. Decay and other volume losses 1975. Annual report of the forest in- merwood in softwood. For. Prod. J. in windthrown timber on the Olympic sect and disease survey, 1974. 109 p. 7(11):416-424. [For. Abstr. 19:3415.] Peninsula, Wash. U.S. Dep. Agric. Ottawa. Tech. Bull. 733, 29 p. Washington, D.C. Brown, H. P., and A. J. Panshin. Canfield, E. R. 1940. Commercial timbers of the Buckland, 0.C. 1969. Ecology as a means of cull United States. Their structure, iden- 1946. Investigations of decay in estimation in standing western tification, properties, and uses. 554 p. western red cedar in British Columbia. redcedar. Ph. D. thesis. Univ. Idaho, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York Can. J. Res. 24(Sec. C):158-181. Moscow. 48 p. and London. Buckland, D. C. Carey, M. L., and T. A. Barry. Brown, H. P., A. J. Panshin, and C. C. 1956. Terminal shoot growth of four 1975. 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53 Chan-Yeung, M., G. M. Barton, Cochrane, J. A. Cram, K. K., J. A. Eastwood, F. W. King, L. McLean, and S. Grzybowski. 1951. Cedar leaf oil extraction. J. For. and H. Schwartz. 1971. Bronchial reactions to western Prod. Res. SOC.1(1):120-123. 1947. Chemical composition of red cedar (Thuja plicata). Can. Med. western red cedar bark. For. Prod. Lab. Assoc. J. 105(1):56-61.[Biol. Abstr. Coleman, W. K., and T. A. Thorpe. Circ. 62, 12 p. Ottawa, Can. [For. Abstr. 53:102.1 1977. In vitro culture of western red- 9:1 184.1 cedar (Thuja plicata Donn). I. Plantlet Chan-Yeung, M., G. M. Barton, formation. Bot. Gaz. 138(3):298-304. Crooks, J. R. L. McLean, and S. Grzybowski. 1964. Geographic variation of tangen- 1973. Occupational asthma and Coleman, W. K., and T. A. Thorpe. tial tracheid diameter in Idaho western rhinitis due to western red cedar (Thu- 1978. In vitro culture of western red redcedar, Thuja plicata Donn. M.S. ja plicata). Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. cedar (Thuja plicata): II. 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54 Daubenmire, R. Doom, D. Enderlein, H., and M. Vogl. 1966. Vegetation: Identification of 1964. [Phloesinus thujae Perris (Col. 1966. Experimentelle Untersuchungen typal communities. Science Scolytidae) and Dendramyza sp. (Dipt. uber die SO,-Empfindlichkeit der 151(3708):291-298. Agromyzidae), two of the lesser known Nadeln verschiedener Koniferen. Arch. forest insect pests of the Nether- Forstwes. 15(11/12):1207-1224. [For. Daubenmire, R., and J. B. Daubenmire. lands.] Ned. Bosb. Tijdschr. Abstr. 285778.1 1968. Forest vegetation of eastern 36(12):354-357. [In Dutch.] [For. Abstr. Washington and northern Idaho. 27:2535.] Englerth, G. H., and T. C. Scheffer. Wash. State Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. 1954. Tests of decay resistance of four Tech. Bull. 60, 104 p. Pullman. Duffield, J. W. western pole species. USDA For. Serv. 1956. Damage to western Washington Rep. 2006, 8 p. For. Prod. Lab., Dawson, A. F. forests from November 1955 cold Madison, Wis. 1970. Green-striped forest looper in wave. USDA For. Serv. Pac. Northwest British Columbia. Can. For. Insect and For. and Range. Exp. Stn. Res. Note Engstrom, W. H. Dis. Surv. For. Pest Leafl. 22, 4 p. Pac. 129, 5 p. Portland, Oreg. 1955. Direct seeding of western red For. Res. Cent., Victoria, B.C. cedar. Oreg. State Board For. Res. Dutton, G. G. S., and N. A. Funnell. Note 20, 11 p. Salem. Day, W. R. 1973. The hemicelluloses of western 1928. Damage by late frost on Douglas red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn). Can. J. Erdtman, H., and J. Gripenberg. fir, Sitka spruce and other conifers. Chem. 51(19):3190-3196. [For. Abstr. 1948a. Antibiotic substances from the Forestry 2(1):19-30. 355502.1 heartwood of Thuja plicata Don. Nature 161(4097):719. Day, W. R. Dyrness, C. T., J. F. Franklin, and W. H. 1957. Sitka spruce in British Columbia. Moir. Erdtman, H., and J. Gripenberg. Imp. For. Comm. Bull. 28, 110 p. Her 1974. A preliminary classification of 1948b. Antibiotic substances from the Majesty’s Stationery Off., London. forest communities in the central por- heartwood of Thuja plicata D. Don. II. tion of the western Cascades in The constitution of v-thujaplicin. Acta Degen, G. Oregon. Ecosyst. Anal. Stud., Conifer. Chem. Scand., Copenh. 2(8):625-638. 1965. [Growing exotics in a Franken- For. Biome Bull. 4, 123 p. U.S. Int. Biol. wald forest district.] Holz-zentralblatt Program, Univ. Wash., Seattle. Erickson, H. D. 91(26):436-437. [In German.] [For. Abstr. 1955. Tangential shrinkage of serial 26:4996.] Eades, H. W. sections within annual rings of 1958. Differentiation of sapwood and Douglas fir and western red cedar. Deitschman, G. H., and R. D. Pfister. heartwood in western hemlock by col- For. Prod. J. 5(4):241-250. 1973. Growth of released and unre- or tests. For. Prod. J. 8(3):104-106. leased young stands in the western Eslyn, W. E. white pine type. USDA For. Serv. Res. Edlin, H. L. 1970. Utility pole decay. Part II. Pap. INT-132, 14 p. Intermt. For. and 1968. A modern sylva or a discourse of Basidiomycetes associated with decay Range Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah. forest trees. 25. Hemlocks, western in poles. Wood Sci. and Technol. red cedar, and incense cedar: Tsuga, 4(2):97-103. DeMoisy, R. G. Thuja, Libocedrus genera. Q. J. For. 1952. Progress report on chemical 62(2):145-154. Eslyn, W. E., and T. L. Highley. debarking. Wash. For. Prod. Inst. Circ. 1976. Decay resistance and suscep 19, 4 p. Seattle, Wash. [For. Abstr. Ehrlich, J. tibility of sapwood of fifteen tree 13:3870.] 1942. Recently active leaf diseases of species. Phytopathology woody plants in Idaho. Plant Dis. Rep. 66(8):1010-1017. Desch, H. E. 26( 18):391-393. 1948. Softwood cedars. Wood Espenas, L. D. 13(3):74-76. Eis, S. 1974. Longitudinal shrinkage of 1972. Root grafts and their silvicultural western redcedar, western hemloqk, Dobie, J. implications. Can. J. For. Res. and true fir. For. Prod. J. 24(10):46-48. 1976. Economics of decadent cedar- 2(2):111-120. i hemlock utiI iza t ion and re habi Iit at ion Etheridge, D. E. in the B.C. interior. West. For. Prod. Eis, S. 1972. True heartrots of British Colum- Lab. Inf. Rep. VP-X-156, 29 p. Environ. 1974. Root system morphology of bia. Can. For. Insect and Dis. Surv. Can. For. Dir. Vancouver, B.C. western hemlock, western red cedar, For. Pest Leafl. 55, 14 p. Pac. For. Res. and Douglas-fir. Can. J. For. Res. Cent. Victoria. Dominik, J. 4( 1):28-38. 1966. [Investigations on the suscep Evans, D. tibility of some exotic woods to attack Embrey, R. S. 1962. Descriptions and life history of by Hylotrupes bajulus.] Folia For. 1963. Estimating how long western Melanolophia irnita fa (Walker) Polon. (Drzewn.) 7:129-134. [In Polish.] hemlock and western redcedar trees (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). Can. En- [For. Abstr. 30:4852.] have been dead. USDA For. Serv. Res. t omol. 94(6):594-605. Note NOR-2, 2 p. Juneau.

55 Evans, J. D. D. Fligg, D. M., and R. E. Breadon. Forestry Com m iss ion, London. 1950. Red cedar and European larch in 1959. Log position volume tables. B. C. 1978. Report on forest research for the mixture. Q. J. For. 44(3):137-142. For. Serv. Note 4, 120 p. Victoria. [For. year ended March 1978. 85 p. Abstr. 22:2223.] Evans, S. G. Forristall, F. F., and S. P. Gessel. 1978. Phytophthora - symptoms and Flint, H. R. 1955. Soil properties related to forest control. GC & HTJ 183(11):24-25. [For. 1925. Fire resistance of northern cover type and productivity on the Lee Abstr. 39:3464.] Rocky Mountain conifers. Idaho For. Forest, Snohomish County, Washing- 717-10, 41 -43. ton. Soil Sci. SOC.Am. Proc. Eyre, F. H., Ed. 19(3):384-389. 1980. Forest cover types of the United Fonda, R. W., and L. C. Bliss. States and Canada. 148 p. SOC.Am. 1969. Forest vegetation of the mon- Fowells, H. A., Compiler. For., Washington, D.C. tane and subalpine zones, Olympic 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the Mountains, Washington. Ecol. Monogr. United States. U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Fahnestock, G. R. 39(3):271-301. Handb. 271, 762 p. Washington, D.C. 1953. Chipping takes the hazard out of logging slash. USDA For. Serv. North. Forest Products Laboratory. Franklin, J. F. Rocky Mt. For. and Range Exp. Stn. 1955. Wood handbook. U.S. Dep. Agric. 1961. A guide to seedling identifica- Res. Note 125, 5 p. Missoula, Mont. Agric. Handb. 72, 528 p. Washington, tion for 25 conifers of the Pacific D.C. Northwest. USDA For. Serv. Pac. Fahnestock, G. R. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., 1960. Logging slash flammability. Forest Products Laboratory. 65 p. Portland, Oreg. USDA For. Serv. Intermt. For. and 1963. Characteristics of Alaska woods. Range Exp. Stn. Res. Pap. 58, 67 p. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. FPL-1, 64 p. Franklin, J. F., and C. T. Dyrness. Ogden, Utah. Madison, Wis. [For. Abstr. 25:2692.] 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. USDA For. Sew. Gen. Farmer, R. H. Forest Products Laboratory. Tech. Rep. PNW-8, 417 p. Pac. North- 1962. Corrosion of metals in associa- 1966. Wood finishing: Discoloration of west For. and Range Exp. Stn., tion with wood. Wood 27(11):443-446. house paints by water-soluble extrac- Portland, Oreg. tives in western redcedar and red- Farr, W. A., and V. J. Labau. wood. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note Fraser, H. S., and E. P. Swan. 1971. Volume tables and equations for FPL-0132, 4 p. For. Prod. Lab., 1973. 19-N ori sop imar-8( 14), 15-dien -3- old-growth western redcedar and Madison, W is. one in Thuja plicata bark. Bi-Mon. Res. Alaska-cedar in southeast Alaska. Notes 29(2):12-13. [For. Abstr. 35574.1 USDA For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-167, Forest Products Laboratory, Canada. 18 p. Pac. Northwest For. and Range 1949. Fibreboards from mill waste. Q. Fraser, H. S., and E. P. Swan. Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Rep. For. Prod. Lab., Can. March 31, 1978. The chemistry of western red 194916-7. cedar bark. Can. For. Serv., For. Tech. Feist, W. C., and E. A. Mraz. Publ. 27, 15 p. Dep. Fish. and the En- 1978. Comparison of outdoor and ac- Forest Products Research Board. viron., Ottawa. celerated weathering of unprotected 1950a. Kiln seasoning. For. Prod. Res. softwoods. For. Prod. J. 28(3):38-43. Board, Lond. Rep. 1948:12-13. [For. Freydl, R. B. Abstr. 12:3222.] 1963. Toxic values of certain extrac- Fergusson, J. A. tives of Thuja plicata to four destruc- 1938. Comparative durability of Forest Products Research Board. tive fungi. M.S. thesis. Univ. Mich., shingles and shingle nails. Pa. Agric. 1950b. Wood as a causal factor in the Ann Arbor. 23 p. Exp. Stn. Bull. 353, 25 p. Pa. State corrosion of metals. For. Prod. Res. Coll. Sch. Agric. and Exp. Stn., State Board, Lond. Rep. 1939-47:24-26. [For. Fuller, C. E. K., and F. J. Newhook. College. Abstr. 12:2048.] 1954. A report on cypress canker in New Zealand. N. Z. J. Agric. 88(3):211, Findlay, W. P. K., and C. B. Pettifor. Forestry Abstracts. 220. [For Abstr. 16:653.] 1941. Dark coloration in western red 1964. Notes on progress in forest cedar in relation to certain mechanical science. For. Abstr. 25(1):ix. Funk, A. properties. Emp. For. J. 20(1):64-72. 1973. Phomopsis (Diaporthe) canker of Forestry Abstracts. Douglas-fir in British Columbia. Can. Fisher, G. M. 1965. Forestry the world over. For. For. Insect and Dis. Surv. For. Pest 1935. Comparative germination of tree Abstr. 26:176. Leafl. 60, 5 p. Pac. For. Res. Cent., Vic- species on various kinds of surface- toria. soil material in the western white pine Forestry Commission, London. type. Ecology 16(4):606-611. 1970. Flowering induced by girdling Funk, A. branches. Rep. For. Res. For. Comm., 1974. Microfungi associated with Flannery, R. D. Lond. (69/70):109-110. dieback of native Cupressaceae in 1940. Physical character and chemical British Columbia. Can. Plant Dis. Serv. composition of forest floors under Forestry Commission, London. 54(4):1 66 - 168. selected forest types in western Wash- 1974. Keithia disease of western red ington. (Abstr.) Bull. Ecol. SOC.Am. cedar, Thuja plicata. 4th ed. For. 21:ll. Comm., Lond. Leafl. 43, 7 p.

56 Furniss, R. L., and V. M. Carolin. Gashwiler, J. S. Graham, R. D., and E. Wright. 1977. Western forest insects. U.S. Dep. 1969. Seedfall of three conifers in 1959. Stronger spray cuts pole rot. Agric. Misc. Publ. 1339, 654 p. west-central Oregon. For Sci. Reprinted from Electr. World, New Washington, D.C. 15(3):290-295. York, July 27, 1959. [For. Abstr. 21: 1093.1 Gandevia, B. Gashwiler, J. S. 1970. Ventilatory capacity during ex- 1970. Further study of conifer seed Grantham, J. B., T. B. Heebink, J. M. posure to western red cedar. Arch. En- survival in a western Oregon clearcut. Black, and E. A. Mraz. viron. Health, Chicago 20(1):59-63. Ecology 51(5):849-854. 1976. Natural exterior finishes for wood in the Pacific Northwest. For. Gandevia, B., and J. Milne. Gecow, R. Prod. J. 26(8):21-27. 1970. Occupational asthma and 1952. Zywotnik olbrzymi. Sylwan rhinitis due to western red cedar (Thu- 96(1):52-69. [For. Abstr. 13:3740.] Grasso, V. ja plicata), with special reference to 1952. Conifere suscettibili ed immuni bronchial reactivity. Br. J. Ind. Med. Gessel, S. P., R. B. Walker, and P. G. al Coryneum cardinale Wag. Ital. For. 27(3):235-244. Haddock. Mont. 7(3):148-149. [For. Abstr. 14:439.] 1951. Preliminary report on mineral Gardner, J. A. F. deficiencies in Douglas-fir and western Gratkowski, H. J. 1963. The chemistry and utilization of red cedar. Soil Sci. SOC.Am. Proc. 1956. Windthrow around staggered western red cedar. Can. Dep. For. 151364-369. settings in old growth Douglas-fir. For. Publ. 1023, 26 p. Ottawa. Sci. 2(1):60-74. Gilbertson, R. L., C. D. Leaphart, and F. Gardner, J. A. F., and G. M. Barton. D. Johnson. Gray, V. R., and M. E. Wheeler. 1958a. Occurrence of /3-dolabrin 1961. Field identification of roots of 1959. Waterproofing. Timber water- (4-i sop ro pe ny It ro po Ione), in west ern conifers in the Inland Empire. For. Sci. proofing agents. Timber Dev. Assoc. red cedar (Thuja plicata Donn.). Can. J. , 7(4):352-356. Res. Rep. CIRRIG., 10 p. London. [For. Chem. 36(12):1612-1615. Abstr. 21:4980.] Gilmour, J. D. Gardner, J. A. F., and G. M. Barton. 1945. Observations on the growth of Greaves, C., and J. F. Harkom. 1958b. The extraneous components of the next forest crop in the lower 1949. Treatment of pencil slats. Parts western red cedar. For. Prod. J. Fraser Valley and southern Vancouver 1 and 2. For. Prod. Lab., Can. 8(6):189-192. Island. 24 p. H. R. MacMillan Export Mimeogr. 0-122(rev.), 45 p. [For. Abstr. Co. Ltd., Vancouver, B.C. 12:1436.] Ottawa. Gardner, J. A. F., B. F. MacDonald, and H. MacLean. Glendenning, R. Gregory, R. A. 1960. The polyoxyphenols of western 1948. The occurrence of a columnar 1957. Some silvicultural red cedar. II. Degradation studies on form of the western red cedar. Can. characteristics of western redcedar in plicatic acid, a possible lignan acid. Field Nat. 62(1):39-40. southeast Alaska. Ecology Can. J. Chem. 38(12):2387-2394. 38(4):646-649. Glocker, K., and G. Krussmann. Gardner, J. A., E. P. Swan, S. A. 1957. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der In- Greig, B. J. W. Sutherland, and H. MacLean. dustriefestigkeit der immergrunen 1974. Fomes annosus: Mortality rates 1966. Polyoxyphenols of western red Geholze. Dtsch. Baumsch., Aachen in young trees underplanted among cedar (Thuja plicata Donn.). Ill. Struc- 9(4-6):85-92, 124-128, 150-153. [For. pine. In Proceedings of the fourth in- ture of plicatic acid. Can. J. Chem. Abstr. 19:3112.] ternational conference on Fomes an- 44( 1):52-58. nosus, p. 53-63. E. G. Kuhlman, ed. Gockerell, E. C. USDA For. Serv. Southeast. For. Exp. Garman, E. H. 1966. Plantations on burned versus un- Stn., Asheville, N.C. 1951. Seed production by conifers in burned areas. J. For. 64(6):392-394. the coastal region of British Columbia Gremmen, J. related to dissemination and regenera- Godman, R. M. 1963. Conifer inhabiting fungi, II. tion. B. C. For. Serv. Tech. Publ. T. 35, 1953. Moss retards regeneration in Chloroscypha Seaver and Fabrella 48 p. Victoria. southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. tsugae (Farl.) Kirschst. in the Alaska For. Res. Cent. Tech. Note 18, Netherlands. Nova Hedwigia Garman, E. H. 1 p. Juneau. 6(1/2):21-27. 1955. Regeneration problems and their silvicultural significance in the coastal Graff, J. H., and I. H. Isenberg. Grier, C. C., and R. S. Logan. forests of British Columbia. B. C. For. 1950. The characteristics of un- 1977. Old-growth Pseudotsuga men- Serv. Tech. Publ. T. 41, 67 p. Victoria. bleached kraft pulps from western ziesii communities of a western hemlock, Douglas fir, western red Oregon watershed: Biomass distribu- Gashwiler, J. S. cedar, loblolly pine, and black spruce. tion and production budgets. Ecol. 1967. Conifer seed survival in a II. The morphological characteristics Monogr. 47(4):373-400. western Oregon clearcut. Ecology of the pulp fibers. Tappi 33(2):94-95. 48(3):431-438.

57 Griffin, J. R., and W. B. Critchfield. Haig, I. T. Harris, A. S., and W. A. Farr. 1972. The distribution of forest trees in 1936. Factors controlling initial 1974. The forest ecosystem of south- California. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. establishment of western white pine east Alaska. 7. Forest ecology and PSW-82, 114 p. Pac. Southwest For. and associated species. Yale Univ. timber management. USDA For. Serv. and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif. Sch. For. Bull. 41, 149 p. New Haven, Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-25, 109 p. Pac. Conn. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Grondal, B. L. Portland, Oreg. 1913. The comparative durability of Haig, I. T., K. P. Davis, and Douglas-fir, western hemlock and R. H. Weidman. Harris, J. M., and S. Kripas. western red cedar as determined by an 1941. Natural regeneration in the 1959. Notes on the physical properties investigation of the Stampede Switch- western white pine type. USDA Dep. of ponderosa pine, monticola pine, back. M.S. thesis. Univ. Wash., Seattle. Agric. Tech. Bull. 767, 99 p. western red cedar, and Lawson 39 p. Washington, D.C. cypress grown in New Zealand. N. 2. For. Serv. For. Res. Note 16, 24 p. Guiguet, C. J. Hale, W. H. Wellington, N.Z. 1953. An ecological study of Goose 1954. Some timbers used in pattern Island, British Columbia, with special making. Timber Technol. Harvey, A. E., and J. L. Grasham. reference to mammals and birds. B. C. 62(2178):177-179. 1969. Procedures and media for ob- Prov. Mus. Occas. Pap. 10, 78 p. Vic- taining tissue cultures of 12 conifer toria. Hall, G. S., and T. J. Dell. species. Can. J. Bot. 47(4):547-549. 1970. Fire propagation tests on Guimier, D.Y. various timber species. Timber Res. Hedlin, A. F. 1980. Directional felling of large old- Dev. Assoc. Res. Rep. WT/RR/4, 14 p. 1959. Description and habits of a new growth cedar trees. For. Eng. Res. Inst. London. [For. Abstr. 33:3234.] species of Phytophaga (Diptera: Can. Tech. Rep. TR-43,45 p. Vancouver, Cecidomyiidae) from western red British Columbia. Halliday, J. E. cedar cones. Can. Entomol. 1959. A pharmacological study of 91(11):719-723. Guinier, P. gamma-thujaplicin. J. Am. Pharm. 1951. Quelques r6sultats de la culture ASSOC.48( 12):722-726. Hedlin, A. F. d’essences exotiques (sapin de Doug- 1964. Life history and habits of a las, Thuja gbant) dans le domaine Hamilton, G. J., and J. M. Christie. midge, Phytophaga thujae Hedlin d’Harcourt. C. R. Acad. Agric. Fr. 1971. Forest management tables ( Di p t e r a: Ce c ido my i id a e) i n west ern 37(2):75-77. [For. Abstr. 13:202.] (metric). For. Comm. Bookl. 34, 201 p. red cedar cones. Can. Entomol. Her Majesty’s Stationery Off., Lond. 96(7):950-957. Guernsey, F.W. 1951. Collapse in western red cedar Hamilton, J. K., and E. V. Partlow. Hedlin, A. F. B.C. Lumberman 35(4):44-45, 62. 1958. The hemicelluloses of western 1974. Cone and seed insects of British red cedar: The constitution of a Columbia. Environ. Can. For. Serv. BC- Haard, R. T. glucomannan. Am. Chem. SOC.J. X-90, 63 p. Pac. For. Res. Cent., Vic- 1971. The periodicity of spore release 80( 18):4880-4885. toria. from a conifer, a liverwort, and a bracket fungus. Northwest Sci. Hanley, D. P. Heinig, M., and F. A. Simmonds. 45(3):183-187. 1976. Tree biomass and productivity 1948. Length and width of unbleached estimated for three habitat types of sulphate pulp fibers from certain Habeck, J. R. northern Idaho. Univ. Idaho, Coll. For., western woods. Reprinted from Pap. 1968. Forest succession in the Glacier Wildl. and Range Sci. Bull. 14, 15 p. Ind. and Pap. World, August, 1948, 4 p. Park cedar-hemlock forests. Ecology Moscow. [For. Abstr. 10:2053.] 49(5):872-880. Hansbrough, J. R. Helmers, A. E. Habeck, J. R. 1934. Occurrence and parasitism of 1946. Fifth-year results of direct 1978. A study of climax western Aleurodiscus amorphus in North seeding with western redcedar and redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn.) forest America. J. For. 32(4):452-458. Engelmann spruce. USDA For. Serv. communities in the Selway-Bitterroot North Rocky Mt. For. and Range Exp. Wilderness, Idaho. Northwest Sci. Hansen, H. P. Stn. Res. Note 42, 4 p. Missoula, Mont. 52(1):67-76. 1941. Paleoecology of two peat deposits on the Oregon coast. Oreg. Hennig, H. von. Hach, V., and E. C. McDonald. State Monogr. Stud. Bot. 3, 31 p. Cor- 1954. Die tierischen und pflanzlichen 1971. Diethylamide of thujic acid: A val Iis. Schad I i nge u nserer wich t igsten potent repellant of Aedes aegypti. fremdlandischen Holzarten. Z. Science 174(4005):144-145. Hard, J. S. Pflanzenkr. 61 (5):255-269. 1974. The forest ecosystem of Haig, I. T. southeast Alaska. 2. Forest insects. Hepting, G. H. 1932. Second growth yield, stand, and USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade volume tables for the western white PNW-13,32 p. Pac. Northwest For. and trees of the United States. U.S. Dep. pine type. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. Bull. Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Agric. Agric. Handb. 386, 658 p. 323, 68 p. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C.

58 Hergert, H. L., and 0. Goldschmid. Holmes, G. D., and G. Buszewicz. Isaac, L. A. 1958. Biogenesis of heartwood and 1958. The storage of seed of 1940. Life of seed in the forest floor. bark constituents. J. Org. Chem. temperate forest tree species. For. USDA For. Serv. Pac. Northwest For. 23(5):700-704. [For. Abstr. 20:1014.] Abstr. 19, p. 313-322, 455-575. and Range Exp. Stn. For. Res. Note 31, p. 14. Portland, Oreg. Hesmer, H., and K. H. Gunther. Holubgik, M. 1968. Kulturversuche und Auf- 1968. [Valuable conifers of the forest Isenberg, 1. H. forstungserfahrungen auf arboretum Kysihibel, near BanskA 1951. Pulpwoods of United States and Pseudogleyboden des Kottenforstes. Stiavnica.] Ved. Prhe Viskum. est. Canada. 2d ed. 187 p. Inst. Pap. Zweiter Teil: Nadelholzanbau. Forstar- Lesn. Hosp., Zvolen 10:71-132. [In Chem., Appleton, Wis. chiv 39(1):1-23. Czech.] [For. Abstr. 31:6206]. Ishizaki, T., T. Miyamoto, T. Shida, and Hetherington, J. C. Holzer, W. F., and K. G. Booth. others. 1965. The dissemination, germination, 1950. The characteristics of un- 1971a. [Studies on the western red and survival of seed on the west coast bleached kraft pulps from western cedar asthma: (1) Epidemiology.] Jap. of Vancouver Island from western hemlock, Douglas-fir, western red J. Allergol. 20(7):504-513. [In Japanese.] hemlock and associated species. B. C. cedar, loblolly pine, and black spruce. [Biol. Abstr. 53:46904.] For. Serv. Res. Note 39, 22 p. Victoria. Ill. The comparative pulping of the woods. Tappi 33(2):95-98. Ishizaki, T., T. Shida, T. Miyamoto, and Heuser, E., W. Shockley, and R. others. Kjellgren. Howard, J. 0. 1971b. [Studies on the western red 1950. The characteristics of un- 1973. Logging residue in Washington, cedar asthma: (2) Clinical analysis bleached kraft pulps from western Oregon, and California - volume and with special reference to the allergical hemlock, Douglas fir, western red characteristics. USDA For. Sew. aspect.] Jap. J. Allergol. 20(7):514-522. cedar, loblolly pine, and black spruce. Resour. Bull. PNW-44, 26 p. Pac. [In Japanese.] [Biol. Abstr. 53:35175.] V. A study of the distribution of the Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., degree of polymerization of the Portland, Oreg. Jablanczy, A. cellulose in the kraft pulps. Tappi 1964. Influence of slash burning on the 33(2):101-107. Howell, H. B. establishment and initial growth of 1948. The use of logged-off land. U.S. seedlings of Douglas-fir, western Higgins, N. C. Dep. Agric. Yearb. Agric., p. 594-599. hemlock, and western redcedar. Ap- 1957. The equilibrium moisture con- Washington, D.C. pendix C. In Ecology of the forests of tent - relative humidity relationships the Pacific Northwest, p. 27-32. V. J. of selected native and foreign woods. Hubbard, M. Krajina, ed. 1963 Prog. Rep., Natl. Res. For. Prod. J. 7(10):371-377. 1950. Western red cedar. Wood Counc. Grant T-92. Dep. Biol. and Bot., 15(6):217. Univ. B. C., Vancouver. Hillis, W. E. 1968. Heartwood formation and its in- Hunter Blair, J. Jackson, A. G., and J. B. Knapp. fluence on utilization. Wood Sci. and 1946. Frost damage to woodlands on 1914. Forest characteristics of western Technol. 2(4):260-267. Blairquhan estate in April, 1945. Scott. red cedar. West Coast Lumberman For. J. 60(1):38-43. 25( Feb.):34-40. Hirose, Y., and T. Nakatsuka. 1967. Terpenoids. XII. The occurrence Hutt, P. A. Jacquiot, C., and D. Lapetite. of nezukone in the wood of Thuja 1956. The Dunemann nursery system. 1960. Sur la rkistance naturelle du plicata Donn. J. Jap. Wood Res. SOC. Q. J. For. 50(2):155-156. bois de quelques coniferes exotiques 13(3): 123 -124. introduits en France aux attaques de Ilmurzyhski, E. and others. champignons. Rev. Pathol. Veg. Hitchcock, C. L., and A. Cronquist. 1968. [Investigations on the growth 39(1):19-33. [For Abstr. 23:2850.] 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. and development of certain North 330 p. Univ. Wash. Press, Seattle. 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Reforestation by broadcast wood fibers in tension. For. Prod. J. 1971. Evaluation of fire-retardant seeding with small-seeded species. lO(6): 316-322. treatments for wood shingles. USDA USDA For. Serv. Pac. Northwest For. For. Serv. Res. Pap. FPL-158, 27 p. For. and Range Exp. Stn. For. Res. Note 27, Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis. p. 9-10. Portland, Oreg.

59 Johnson, F. A. Kawada, M., and K. Yamaji. Kirbach, E., and S. Chow. 1955. Volume tables for Pacific North- 1949. [Study of the results of European 1976. Chemical wear of tungsten car- west trees (a compilation). U.S. Dep. spruce planting in Gumma prefecture, bide cutting tools by western Agric. Agric. Handb. 92, 112 p. Central Honsu; with notes on trials of redcedar. For. Prod. J. 26(3):44-48. Washington, D.C. other exotic species.] For. Exp. Stn. Meguro, Tokyo. Bull. 41:63-84. [In Klein, J. A. Johnson, K. Japanese.] [For. Abstr. 13:210.] 1951. Defect in the climax forests of 1976. Three new Nearctic species of southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Callophrys (Mitoura) with a diagnosis Keatinge, G. Alaska For. Res. Cent. Tech. Note 9, of all Nearctic consubgenera (Lepi- 1947. Mixtures of oak with conifers. Q. 1 p. Juneau. doptera: Lycaenidae). Bull. Allyn Mus. J. For. 41(2):82-83. 38:l-30. [Biol. Abstr. 62:32167.] Kobayashi, Y. Keatinge, G. 1956. [Some new data on the anatomi- Johnson, N. E. 1948. Keithia thujina. Q. J. For. cal characters of softwoods.] J. Jap. 1958. Ambrosia beetle infestation of 42(4):199-200. Wood Res. SOC.2(3):119-120. [In coniferous logs on clearcuttings in Japanese.] [For. Abstr. 18:4515.] northwestern Oregon. J. For. Keen, F. P. 56(7):508-511. 1952. Insect enemies of western Koenigs, J. W. forests. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 1969. Root rot and chlorosis of re- Johnston, D. R. 273, 280 p. Washington, D.C. leased thinned western redcedar. J. 1951. Structure drawings to “specimen For. 67(5):312-315. woods.” Wood 16(7):264. Keen, F. P. 1958. Cone and seed insects of west- Koot, H. P. Jones, E. W. ern forest trees. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. 1972. A conifer seedling weevil in 1964. Oak-larch and oak-Thuja mix- Bull. 1169, 168 p. Washington, D.C. British Columbia. Can. For. Insect and tures in the woods of Hazel, Wytham. Dis. Surv. For. Pest. Leafl. 51, 4 p. Pac. Q. J. For. 58(3):197-207. Keller, E. L., and J. N. McGovern. For. Res. Cent., Victoria, B.C. 1945. Sulfite pulping of western red Jones, K. L. cedar. USDA For. Prod. Lab. Mimeogr. Kosturkiewicz, A., and J. Meixner. 1966. Varnish-holding properties of R1494, 7 p. Madison, Wis. 1956. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Parl. timber. J. Oil and Colour Chem.’ i. Thuja plicata Lamb. na terenie Assoc., Slough 49(4):314-339.[For. Keller, T: , nadlesnictwa panstwowego Abstr. 28:2928.] 1974. Uber die Filterwirkung von Lopuchowkd. Roczn. dendrol. polsk Hecken fur verke hrs bed ingte Tow. bot., Warsz. 11:195-224. [For. Juneja, S. C. staubformige Luftverunreinigungen, Abstr. 18:3908.] 1972. Stable and leach-resistant fire insbesondere Bleiverbindungen. retardants for wood. For. Prod. J. Schweiz. Z. Forstwes. 125(10):719-735. Krahmer, R. L., and W. A. Cote, Jr. 22(6):17-23. [For. Abstr. 365349.1 1963. Changes in coniferous wood cells associated with heartwood for- Jurazs, P. E., and R. W. Wellwood. Kessell, S. R. mation. Tappi 46(1):42-49. 1965. Variation in penetrability of 1979. Gradient modeling: Resource western redcedar within a single stem and fire management. 432 p. Springer- Krajina, V. J. section. For. Prod. J. 15(2):76-80. Verlag, New York. 1959. Ecological requirements of Douglas-fir, western hemlock, Sitka Kalmhr, S. Kimmey, J. W. spruce, and western redcedar. 1958 1973. A fenybfblbk dugvhnyozasa. 1956. Cull factors for Sitka spruce, Prog. Rep., Natl. Res. Counc. Grant KertgazdasAg 5(4):67-69.[Hortic. Abstr. western hemlock, and western red T-92:l-5,15 p. Univ. B. C., Vancouver. 44(9):691 3.1 cedar in southeast Alaska. USDA For. Serv. Alaska For. Res. Cent. Stn. Krajina, V. J., Ed. Kamp, B. J. van der Pap. 6, 31 p. Juneau. 1965. Ecology of western North 1975. The distribution of microorga- America. Vol. 1, 112 p. Univ. B. C., Van- nisms associated with decay of King, F. W., and F. Bender. couver. western red cedar. Can. J. For. Res. 1951. Production of insulating 5(1):61-67. fibreboard from western red cedar Krajina, V. J. shingle mill waste. Pulp and Pap. Mag. 1969. Ecology of forest trees in British Kamp, H. J Can. 52(1):75-79.[For. Abstr. 12:3190.] Columbia. In Ecology of Western 1951. Zur Kenntnis von Phloeosinus North America, p. 1-146. Vol. 2. V. J. thujae Perr. Allg. Forst. Jagdz. King, F. W., and F. Bender. Krajina, ed. Univ. B. C., Vancouver. 123(1):26-27. 1952. Production of hard-pressed fibreboard from western red cedar mill Krajina, V. J. Katz, A. R., and D. G. Miller. waste. Pulp and Pap. Mag. Can. 1971. NH,NO, in nitrogen economy of 1963. Effect of water storage on elec- 53(6):137-141. conifers in Douglas-fir forests of the trical resistance of wood. For. Prod. J. Pacific Northwest of America. (Abstr.) 31(7):255-259.[For. Abstr. 252737.1 King, F. W., and S. C. Juneja. Pac. Sci. Assoc. 12th Congr. Proc. 1974. A new fire-retardant treatment 1971 :44. for western redcedar shingles. For. Prod. J. 24(2):18-23.

60 Krajina, V. J., S. Madoc-Jones, and G. Leaphart, C. D. Longman, K. A. Mellor. 1958. Root characteristics of western 1976. Some experimental approaches 1973. Ammonium and nitrate in the white pine and associated tree to the problem of phase change in nitrogen economy of some conifers species in a stand affected with pole forest trees. Acta Hortic. 56:81-90. growing in Douglas-fir communities of blight of white pine. USDA For. Serv. the Pacific Northwest of America. Soil Intermt. For. and Range Exp. Stn. Res. Loughnane, J. B., and L. U. Gallagher. Biol. Biochem. 5(1):143-147. Pap. 52, 10 p. Ogden, Utah. 1963. A note on damage caused to apples by storage in Thuja plicata Krueger, K. W. Leaphart, C. D., and M. W. Foiles. boxes. Ir. For. 20(1):17-18. [For. Abstr. 1963. Compounds leached from 1972. Effects of removing pole-blighted 251361.1 western redcedar shingle tow found western white pine trees on growth toxic to Douglas-fir seedlings. USDA and development of a mixed conifer Lumberman, The For. Serv. Res. Note PNW-7, 6 p. Pac. stand. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note 1957. Cedar shakes stage big come- Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., INT-161, 6 p. Intermt. For. and Range back. Lumberman 84(10):40-45. Portland, Oreg. Exp. Stn., Ogden, Utah. Lutomski, K., and J. Raczkowski. Krueger, K. W. Leaphart, C. D., and M. A. Grismer. 1963. [Natural durability of wood of 1968. Investigations of shingle tow 1974. Extent of roots in the forest soil Thuja plicata of Polish origin.] Rocz. packing material for conifer seedlings. mantle. J. For. 72(6):358-359. Dendrol. Polsk. Tow. Bot., Warsz. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-63, 17:173-182. [In Polish.] [For. Abstr. 10 p. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Leaphart, C. D., and E. F. Wicker. 25: 1400.1 Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. 1966. Explanation of pole blight from responses of seedlings grown in Lutz, J. F. Kuchler, A. W. modified environments. Can. J. Bot. 1972. Veneer species that grow in the 1977. The map of the natural vegeta- 44(2):121-137. United States. USDA For. Serv. Res. tion of California. In Terrestrial vegeta- Pap. FPL-167, 127 p. For. Prod. Lab., tion of California, p. 909-938. M. G. Lebrun, C. Madison, Wis. Barbour and J. Major, eds. John Wiley 1967. Tri densimetrique des graines & Sons, New York. par immersion dans des liquides. Rev. Lyon, E. D. For. Fr. 19(11):786-789.[For. Abstr. 1939. Machine shave, sterilize, sap Kurucz, J. F. 29:3734.] wood to stop cedar pole sap rot. 1978. Preliminary, polymorphic site in- Electr. World, New York 112:455-456, dex curves for western redcedar-Thuja Lee, I. D. G., and A. D. Lord. 515. [For. Abstr. 2:63.] plicata Donn-in coastal British Colum- 1960. Comparative test on the nailing bia. For. Res. Note 3, 14 p. MacMillan properties of European redwood and Lyr, H. Bloedel Ltd. [Vancouver, B.C.] western red cedar. Timber Dev. Assoc., 1961. Die Wirkungsweise toxischer Lond., Test Mem. UTMMO, 17 p. [For. Kernholz-lnhaltsstoffe (Thujaplicine Ladell, J. L. Abstr. 22:3596.] und Pinosylvine) auf den Stoffwechsel 1953. High-temperature kiln drying of von Mikroorganismen. Flora Canadian woods: Report of explora- Lembcke, G. 150(2/3):227-242. tory investigations - softwoods. For. 1970. Steigerung der Ertragsleistung Prod. Lab. Can. Mimeogr. 0-170, 11 p. durch Anbau raschwuchsiger und er- McAndrews, J. H., A. A. Berti, and Ottawa. [For. Abstr. 14:3912.] tragreicher auslandishcher Holzarten. G. Norris. Soz. Forstwes. 20(11):344-345. [For. 1973. Key to the Quaternary pollen and Larsen, C. S. Abstr. 32:4103.] spores of the Great Lakes region. Life 1953. Studies of diseases in clones of Sci. Misc. Publ. 1SBN 0-88854-149-X, forest trees. Hered itas 39( 1/2):179-192. Lewis, H. F. Roy. Ont. Mus., 61 p. Toronto, Can. 1950. The significant chemical com- Larsen, J. A. ponents of western hemlock, Douglas McArdle, R. E., W. H. Meyer, and 1940. Site factor variations and fir, western red cedar, loblolly pine, D. Bruce. responses in temporary forest types in and black spruce. Tappi 33(6):299-301. 1961. The yield of Douglas-fir in the northern Idaho. Ecol. Monogr. Pacific Northwest. U.S. Dep. Agric. 10(1):1-54. Lewis, H. F., L. E: Wise, and B. L. Tech. Bull. 201, 74 p. Washington, D.C. Browning. Lassen, L. E., and E. A. Okkonen. 1950. The characteristics of un- McBride, C. F. 1969. Sapwood thickness of Douglas- bleached kraft pulps from western 1959. Utilizing residues from western fir and five other western softwoods. hemlock, Douglas fir, western red red cedar mills. For. Prod. J. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. FPL-124, cedar, loblolly pine, and black spruce. 9(9):313-316. 16 p. For. Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis. I. The chemical constituents of the un- bleached kraft pulps. Tappi 33(2):92-94. MacDonald, B. F., and G. M. Barton. Lawniczak, M., and J. Raczkowski. 1973. Lignans of western red cedar 1970. The influence of extractives on Little. E. L., Jr. (Thuja plicata Donn). XI. pAploplicati- the radiation stability of wood. Wood 1971. Atlas of United States trees. Vol. toxin. Can. J. Chem. 51(4):482-485. Sci. and Technol. 4(1):45-49. 1. Conifers and important hardwoods. U.S. Dep. Agric. Misc. Publ. 1146, 9 p. MacDonald, B. F., and H. MacLean. + 200 maps. Washington, D.C. 1965. High tempergture drying doesn’t weaken western red cedar shingles. Can. For. Ind. 85(3):93, 95.

61 MacDonald, B. F., and E. P. Swan. MacLean, H., and J. A. F. Gardner. Meyer, R. W., and G. M. Barton. 1970. Chromatography of the lignans 1956a. Distribution of fungicidal ex- 1971. A relationship between collapse of Thuja plicata Donn. J. Chromatogr. tractives (thujaplicin and water-soluble and extractives in western red cedar. 51(3):553-555. phenols) in western red cedar heart- For. Prod. J. 21(4):58-60. [For. Abstr. wood. For. Prod. J. 6(12):510-516. 32:7098.] MacDonald, J. 1957. Thuja plicata. In Exotic forest MacLean, H., and J. A. F. Gardner. Michel, M.-F. trees in Great Britain, p. 131-135. J. 1956b. Distribution of fungicidal ex- 1976. Note prbliminaire sur la MacDonald, R. F. Wood, M. V. Ed- tractives in target pattern heartwood prbsence de substances antibiotiques wards, and J. R. Aldhous, eds. For. of western red cedar. For. Prod. J. chez quelques essences forestibres. Comm. Lond. Bull. 30, 167 p. 8(3):107-108. Ann. Sci. For. 33(3):151-159. [For. Abstr. 38, p. 332.1 McGovern, J. N., J. S. Martin, and R. M. McMinn, R. G. Kingsbury. 1960. Water relations in the Douglas- Middlekauff, W. W. 1951. Semichemical pulping fir region on Vancouver Island. Can. 1974. Larva of the wood-boring sawfly characteristics of Pacific coast red Dep. Agric. Publ. 1091, 71 p. Ottawa. Syntexis libocedrii Rohwer a Ider, Douglas -f i r, west ern redcedar, (Hymenoptera: Syntexidae). Pan-Pac. and western hemlock. USDA For. Prod. Madsen, S. F. Entomol. 50(3):288-290. [Rev. Appl. En- Lab., Rep. R1912, 10 p. For. Prod. Lab., 1977. Tre faste pr@vefladerI Thuja tomol. 64:134.] Madison, Wis. [For. Abstr. 14:1707.] plicata. Forstl. Forsggsvaes. Dan. 35(2):227-266. Milbrath, J. A., and R. A. Young. McGowan, W. M., and W. J. Smith. 1949. Root rot of Chamaecyparis. 1965. Strength and related properties Maeglin, R. R., and H. E. Wahlgren. Oreg. State Dep. Agric. Newsl. of western red cedar poles. Can. Dep. 1972. Western wood density survey Nurserymen 60:4. For. Publ. 1108, 34 p. Ottawa. [For. report 2. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. Abst r. 27:2912.] FPL-183, 24 p. For. Prod. Lab., Miller, P. R. Madison, W is. 1978. Abiotic diseases. In Diseases of McGuffin, W. C. Pacific coast conifers, p. 5-41. R. V. 1943. New descriptions of larvae of Malcolm, D. C., and E. A. Caldwell. Bega, Tech. Coord. U.S. Dep. Agric. forest insects, VI. Semiothisa, 1971. Environmental effects on shoot Agric. Handb. 521, 206 p. Washing- Pa raphia, Pro toboa rm ia ( Lep ido pt e ra, growth in conifers. Rep. For. Res. For. ton, D.C. Geo met r id ae) . Ca n. Ent o mo I. Comm. Lond. 1970/71:141. 75(7):134-138. Milne, J., and B. Gandevia. Maloney, T. M. 1969. Occupational asthma and McKeever, D. G. 1973. Bark boards from four west rhinitis due to western (Canadian) red 1942. Results of direct seeding of coast softwood species. For. Prod. J. cedar (Thuja plicata). Med. J. Aust. western redcedar and Engelmann 23(8):30-38. 56-2(15):741-744.[Biol. Abst r. 51 :50802.] spruce in the northern Rocky Moun- tain region. North. Rocky Mt. For. and Manners, G. D., and E. P. Swan. Ministry of Agriculture, Belfast. Range Exp. Stn., USDA For. Serv. Res. 1971. Isolation and structure of a [n.d.] Wastage of apples in relation to Note 21, 9 p. Missoula, Mont. dilignol rhamnoside from the leaves of the type of wood used in the construc- Thuja plicata trees. Can. J. Chem. tion of storage boxes. Res. and Exp. McLean, A., and W. D. Holland. 49(22):3607-3611. Rec. Minist. Agric., Belfast 1958. Vegetation zones and their rela- 10(2):269-270. [For. Abstr. 24:2837.] tionship to the soils and climate of the Manners, G. D., and E. P. Swan. upper Columbia Valley. Can. J. Plant 1977. Biosynthesis of two dilignol Minister0 dell 'Agricoltura e delle Sci. 38(3): 328-345. rhamnosides in leaves of Thuja plicata Foreste, Collana Verde, Roma 1965. Donn. Wood and Fiber 8(4):218-222. 1965. 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62 Minore, D. Mormann. Munz, P. A., and 0.D. Keck. 1970. Seedling growth of eight north- 1956. Erfahrungen in der Exotenan- 1959. A California flora. 1681 p. Univ. western tree species over three water zucht. Allg. Forstz. 11(8/9):116-118. Calif. Press, Berkeley. tables. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note [For. Abstr. 19:1649.] PNW-115,8 p. Pac. Northwest For. and Muraro, S. J. Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Morrison, D. J. 1971. Prescribed-fire impact in cedar- 1969. Effect of hot-water-soluble Thuja hemlock logging slash. Can. For. Serv. Minore, D. plicata heartwood extractives on the Publ. 1295, 20 p. Ottawa. 1972. Germination and early growth of growth of Thuja and non-Thuja coastal tree species on organic seed isolates of Poria weirii. Can. J. Bot. Murray, C. E., and B. B. Thomas. beds. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. 47( 10):1605-1610. 1961. Papermaking characteristics of PNW-135, 18 p. Pac. Northwest For. cedar fiber. Tappi 44(9):625-633. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg. Morton, H. 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63 Okkonen, E. A., H. E. Wahlgren, and R. R. Ovington, J. D., and H. A. I. Madgwick. Packee, E. C. Maeg Iin. 1957. Afforestation and soil reaction. 1976. An ecological approach toward 1972. Relationships of specific gravity J. Soil Sci. 8(1):141-149. [For. Abstr. yield optimization through species to tree height in commercially impor- 18:3778.] allocation. Ph. D. thesis. Univ. Minn., tant species. For. Prod. J. 22(7):37-42. St. Paul. 740 p. Owens, D. F. Oliver, A. C. 1964. The determination of the thermal Palka, L. C., and W. G. Warren. 1957. Project 26.1 - weathering. Main emissivity of western red cedar. M.S. 1977. Grouping of Canadian veneer test. Weathering of clear finishes on thesis. Univ. Wash., Seattle, 62 p. species based on plywood rolling- various timber species. Timber Dev. shear properties. West. For. Prod. Assoc. Lond. Test. Rec. C/TR/2, 8 p. Owens, J. N., and M. Molder. Lab., Can. Inf. Rep. VP-X-163, 38 p. [For. Abstr. 21:2400.] 1971. 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64 Perepadya, I. P. Phillips, D. H. Purslow, D. F. 1971. [Thuja plicata in the conditions 1964. Forest pathology: Needle blight 1962. The effect of specimen size on of Trostyanets Park.] Byull. GI. Bot. (Didymascella thujina (Dur.) Maire, syn. the life of timber in contact with the Sada 79:104-107. [In Russian.] [For. Keithia thujina Dur.) of Thuja. Rep. ground. Wood 27(3):99-100. [For. Abstr. Abstr. 33501.] For. Res. For. Comm. Lond. 235875.1 1962/63:56-57. [For. Abstr. 26:3865.] Perham, A. N. Quon, H. H., and E. P. Swan. 1938. Pacific coast species in New Phillips, D. H. 1969. Norditerpene alcohols in the Zealand forestry. N. Z. J. For. 1965. Effects of winter cold. Rep. For. bark of Thuja plicata Donn. Can. J. 4:158-161. [For. Abstr. 1:33.] Res. For. Comm. Lond. 196316459-60. Chem. 47(23):4389-4392.

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65 Research News, Ottawa. Ross, C. R. Sawyer, J. O., D. A. Thornburgh, and J. R. 1962a. Density and hardness informa- 1932. Root development of western Griffin. tion. Summarized in For. Abstr. 23:161. conifers. M.S. thesis. Univ. Wash., 1977. Mixed evergreen forest. In Ter- Seattle. 63 p. restrial vegetation of California, Research News, Ottawa. p. 359-381. M. G. Barbour and J. Major, 1962b. Metal corrosion information. Ruderman, F. K. eds. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Summarized in For. Abstr. 23:720. 1978. Production, prices, employment, and trade in Northwest forest in- Scharpf, R. F. Research News, Ottawa. dustries, second quarter 1978. USDA 1978. Rots. In Diseases of Pacific 1962c. Strength information. Sum- For. Serv. Pac. Northwest For. and coast conifers. R. V. Bega, Tech. marized in For. Abstr. 23:345. Range Exp. Stn., 68 p. Portland, Oreg. Coord. U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Handb. 521, p. 157-188. Washington, D.C. Reukema, D. L. Rudman, P. 1965. Seasonal progress of radial 1962. 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66 Schopmeyer, C. S., and A. E. Helmers. Simak, M., A. Gustafsson, and Smith, R. S., Jr. 1947. Seeding as a means of reforesta- W. Rautenberg. 1978. Root diseases. In Diseases of tion in the northern Rocky Mountain 1974. Meiosis and pollen formation in Pacific coast conifers. R. V. Bega, region. U.S. Dep. Agric. Circ. 772, 31 p. haploid Thuja plicata gracilis Oud. Tech. Coord. U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Washington, D.C. Hereditas 76(2):227-237. [Plant Breed, Handb. 521, p. 142-156. Washing- Abstr. 45667.1 ton, D.C. Schwartz, H. 1949. Structural boards from cedar Skolmen, R. G. Smitt, A. barks. Paper Trade J. 128(24):27-28. 1968. Natural durability of some 1950. Fremmede treslag i Vest-Norge. woods used in Hawaii - preliminary Tidsskr. Skogbr. 58(6):115-122. [For. Scroggins, T. L., and R. Currier. findings. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note Abstr. 13:2027.] 1971. Agricultural uses for western PSW-167, 7 p. Pac. Southwest For. and redcedar residues from shake and Range Exp. Stn., Berkeley, Calif. 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67 Southam, C. M. Stoodley, G. E. Syrach Larsen, C. 1946. Antibiotic activity of extract of 1925. Reproduction studies in 1943. Erfaringer med udenlandske western red cedar heartwood. Proc. hem Ioc k-ceda r and hemI oc k-ba I sam- Traearter i dansk Skovsbrug. Sven. SOC.Exp. Biol. and Med. 61:391-396. spruce types. B. C. For. Serv. Libr., Skogsvardsforb., Stockholm. Tidskr. [For. Abstr. 9:929.] Victoria. 411166-199.

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Stewart, D. L., and D. L. Butler. Swan, E. P., and K. S. Jiang. Unasy Iva. 1968. Hardboard from cedar bark. For. 1970. Formation of heartwood extrac- 1950. News of the world. Unasylva Prod. J. 18(12): 19-23. tives in western red cedar. Tappi 4( 1):38. 53(5):844-846. Stewart, M. University of British Columbia Forest 1956. Cost study of partial cutting Swan, E. P., K. C. Jiang, and J. A. F. Club. treatments in interior wet belt of Gardner. 1959. Forestry handbook for British British Columbia. B. C. For. Serv. Res. 1969. The lignans of Thuja plicata and Columbia. 2d ed., 800 p. Univ. B. C., Note 32, 22 p. Victoria. the sapwood-heartwood transforma- Vancouver. tion. Phytochemistry 8(2):345-351. [For. Abstr. 31:1362.] Vaartaja, 0. 1957a. Photoperiodic responses in seedlings of northern tree species. Can. J. Bot. 35(2):133-138.

68 Vaartaja, 0. Von Rudloff, E. Walters, J., J. Soos, and J. W. Ker. 1957b. The susceptibility of seedlings 1962. Gas-liquid chromatography of 1961. Influence of crown class and of various tree species to terpenes II. The volatile oil of Thuja site quality on growth to breast height Phytophthora cactorum. Can. Dep. plicata Donn. Phytochemistry, Oxford of Douglas fir, western hemlock, and Agric. For. Biol. Div. Bimon. Progr. 1(3):195-202. [For. Abstr. 255936.1 western red cedar. Univ. B. C. Fac. Rep. 13:2. For. Res. Note 37, 4 p. Vancouver. Von Rudloff, E., and M. S. Lapp. Vandersar, T. J. D., and J. H. Borden. 1979. Population variation in the leaf Watt, R. F. 1977. Aspects of host selection oil terpene composition of western red 1960. Second-growth western white behavior of Pissodes strobi (Col- cedar, Thuja plicata. Can. J. Bot. pine stands. U.S. Dep. Agric. Tech. eoptera: Curculionidae) as revealed in 57(5):476-479. Bull. 1226, 60 p. Washington, D.C. laboratory feeding bioassays. Can. J. 2001. 55(2):405-414. Walker, R. B., S. P. Gessel, and Webber, B. D. P. G. Haddock. 1973. Plant biomass and nutrient Van Frankenhuyzen, A. 1955. Greenhouse studies in mineral distribution in a young Pseudotsuga 1974. [Argyresthia thuiella (Lep. requirements of conifers: Western red menziesii forest ecosystem. Ph. D. Argyresthiidae).] Entomol. Ber. cedar. For. Sci. 1(1):51-60. thesis. Oreg. State Univ., Corvallis. 34(6):106-111. [For. Abstr. 37:6249.] 182 p. Wallis, G. W. Vastokas, J. M. 1962. Initiation and spread of the root Weintraub, R. L., and L. Price. 1969. Architecture and environment: rot fungus Poria weirii in second- 1948. Inhibition of plant growth by The importance of the forest to the growth stands of Douglas fir. (Abstr.) emanations from oils, varnishes and Northwest coast Indian. For. Hist. Proc. 28th Sess. Can. Phytopathol. woods. Smithson. Inst. Publ. 2912, 13(3):12 -21. SOC.29:18. Ottawa. 13 p. Washington, D.C.

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70 Minore, Don. 1983. Western redcedar: A literature review_. USDA For. Sew Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-150, 70p. Pac. Northwest For. and Range Exp. Stn., Portland, Oreg.

This report is a comprehensive compilation of information on western redcedar (Thuja plicata Donn) - its occurrence and abun- dance; associated plant species; morphology and anatomy; pro- ducts; medical aspects; diseases; insect, bird, and mammal pests; genetics; hort i cu It u re; physiology; eeo logy; me nsuration ; and silviculture. Management recommendations and an extensive list of references are included.

Keywords: Western redcedar, Thuja plicata, silviculture, ecology, physiology, products. The Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is dedicated to the principle of multiple use management of the Nation’s forest resources for sustained yields of wood, water, forage, wildlife, and recreation. Through forestry research, cooperation with the States and private forest owners, and management of the National Forests and National Grasslands, it strives - as directed by Congress - to provide increasingly greater service to a growing Nation. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is an Equal Opportunity Employer. Applicants for all Department programs will be given equal consideration without regard to age, race, color, sex, religion, or national origin.

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