Walden University

College of Management and Technology

This is to certify that the doctoral study by

Melvin J. Rivers

has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made.

Review Committee Dr. Tim Truitt, Committee Chairperson, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Dr. Yvonne Doll, Committee Member, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Dr. Kathleen Barclay, University Reviewer, Doctor of Business Administration Faculty

Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D.

Walden University 2014

Abstract

Declining Union Membership and the Reduction of Union Representation

In the Workplace

Melvin J. Rivers

MBA, Keller Graduate School of Management, 2009

BS, DeVry University, 2006

Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

February 2014

Abstract

Union membership has declined 24.2 % since 1945. Declining union membership leads to a general business problem of economic losses to labor unions. The problem is relevant to both scholars and the labor movement, requiring development of a deeper understanding of the reasons for union membership decline. In this qualitative phenomenological study, experiences with declining union membership are explored with union representatives in Los Angeles County. The study’s conceptual framework was comprised of three models: the utility of union membership, human motivation, and collective bargaining to identify relevant elements of union membership decisions.

Twenty face-to-face interviews using open-ended questions were conducted with participants who had a minimum of 3 years’ experience as a full-time union representative. The data were coded, and themes developed using the modified van Kaam method and NVivo 10 software. Three primary emergent themes resulted: (a) globalism is the primarily perceived cause of declining union membership, (b) unions are effective in collective bargaining, and (c) communication with union members must increase. The results from this study could be used to improve internal union communication, increase operational efficiency, and develop leadership training. The implications for positive social change include new insights to support labor union leaders in efforts to increase membership, retain jobs, and improve the economic health of their members.

Declining Union Membership and the Reduction of Union Representation

In the Workplace

Melvin J. Rivers

MBA, Keller Graduate School of Management, 2009

BS, DeVry University, 2006

Doctoral Study Submitted in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree of

Doctor of Business Administration

Walden University

February 2014

Dedication

I would like to dedicate this dissertation to Zakkiyya. You have been with me prior to my MBA Journey. You have weathered storms with me. You have taught me the meaning of love and support. I thank God for you.

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Tim Truitt for his ability to keep me focused on the project and deliverables. He provided the wisdom and guidance needed to inspire and challenge me to utilize the tools provided by Walden University in the coursework.

Thanks to Dr. Geraldine Goodstone for her ability to convey clarity and direction in satisfying the rubric requirements. Thanks to Dr. Yvonne Doll for teaching me how to write in a scholarly voice. Thanks to Dr. Kathleen Barclay for her ability to encourage me in thinking through the requirements. I also would like to acknowledge the faculty and staff under the direction of Dr. Freda Turner for providing quality education I anticipated while choosing to attend this great institution of higher learning.

Table of Contents

Section 1: Foundation Of The Study ...... 1

Background Of The Problem ...... 1

Problem Statement ...... 2

Purpose Statement ...... 3

Nature Of The Study ...... 4

Research Question ...... 6

Interview Questions ...... 7

Conceptual Framework ...... 8

Definition Of Terms ...... 10

Assumptions, Limitations, And Delimitations...... 11

Assumptions ...... 11

Limitations ...... 11

Delimitations ...... 12

Significance Of The Study ...... 12

Contribution To Business Practice...... 12

Implications For Social Change ...... 13

A Review Of The Professional And Academic Literature ...... 14

Historical Background ...... 15

Demographic Factors ...... 21

Political Factors ...... 26

Social Factors ...... 32

Economic Factors...... 40

Conceptual Framework Analysis ...... 44

Transition And Summary ...... 49

Section 2: The Project ...... 51

Purpose Statement ...... 51

Role Of The Researcher ...... 53

Participants ...... 53

Research Method And Design ...... 54

Method ...... 55

Research Design...... 57

Population And Sampling ...... 58

Ethical Research...... 60

Data Collection ...... 61

Instruments ...... 61

Data Collection Technique ...... 62

Data Organization Techniques ...... 64

Data Analysis Technique ...... 65

Reliability And Validity ...... 67

Reliability ...... 67

Validity ...... 68

Transition And Summary ...... 68

Section 3: Application To Professional Practice And Implications For Change ...... 70

Overview Of Study ...... 70

Presentation Of The Findings ...... 71

Demographics ...... 74

Emerging Themes ...... 76

Analysis Of Research Findings ...... 83

Additional Information From Participants ...... 90

Applications To Professional Practice ...... 90

Implications For Social Change ...... 91

Recommendations For Action ...... 92

Recommendations For Further Study ...... 94

Reflections ...... 95

Summary And Study Conclusions ...... 96

References ...... 97

Appendix A: Permission to Use Research Instrument ...... 125

Appendix B: Interview Questions ...... 126

Appendix C: Consent Form ...... 127

Appendix D: Confidentiality Agreement ...... 129

Appendix E: NIH Certificate of Completion ...... 130

Appendix F: Node Structure ...... 131

Curriculum Vitae ...... 137

iii

List of Tables

Table 1. Emerging Themes With Percentage Of Categorical Response ...... 73

List of Figures

Figure 1. Industries Represented In The Study...... 74

Figure 2. Public And Private Unions Categorized By Industry...... 75

Figure 3. Union Industry Categorized By Sex Of The Participant...... 75

Figure 4. Public And Private Union Participants Categorized By Sex Of Participants. ... 76

Figure 5. Emerging Themes...... 77

Figure 6. Perceived Cause Of Declining Union Memberships...... 89

Section 1: Foundation of the Study

Union membership has been in decline since 1954 (Burns, 2011; Godard, 2009;

Rosenfeld, 2010; Sharma, 2012; Weber, 2011). Contributing factors to this phenomenon include polarization, market decline, technology, and globalization (Briskin, 2011;

Griswold, 2010; Hirsch, 2010; Judis, 2011; Steigerwald, 2010). In 2011, anti-union legislation originated in the state of Wisconsin and other republican-controlled statehouses (Fraser & Freeman, 2011; Weber, 2011). In 2010, 820 new bills restricted or eliminated the collective bargaining rights of public workers (Hogler & Henle, 2011).

The union’s abilities to gain political support through membership voting are imperative

(Rosenfeld, 2010). The focus of this study was on how union representatives located in

Los Angeles County have experienced the declining union membership phenomenon.

Background of the Problem

Union membership declined substantially after the signing of the National Labor

Relations Act in 1935 (Gallaway, 2010; Gross, 2012; Livingston, 2011). In 1954, union membership then peaked at 34% and has since decreased over the past 4 decades

(Sharma, 2012). In 2012, union membership reached the lowest percentage in the post

Second World War Era. Union membership rates decreased from 2.8% to 11.3% of the workforce (Magdoff & Foster, 2013). Globalization has had a negative effect on collective bargaining power (Griswold, 2010; Hirsch, 2010). Conservatives view collective bargaining as a rival to economic freedom (Hogler & Henle, 2011). Union membership has dropped from 36% to less than 8%, while imports in relation to gross domestic product increased from 6% to 23% (Griswold, 2010).

Scholars have classified unions as contributors to social movement (Lewis &

Luce, 2012; Bryson, Gomez, & Willman, 2010). Unions have played a major role in establishing legislation regarding child-labor laws, minimum wage levels, and employee overtime regulations (Calvasina et al., 2011; Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009).

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA) provided the U.S. worker with the right to organize, strike, and bargain collectively through the protection of labor unions.

Union workers have a 25% increased probability of health insurance and an employer- sponsored retirement plan compared to the general population (Schmitt, Waller,

Fremstad, & Zipperer, 2008).

Problem Statement

The decline in union membership is present in both industrialized and developing countries (Dawson & Zanko, 2009; Fiorito & Jarley, 2012; Sharma, 2012). In 2010, union membership in the United States decreased by 610,000 workers to 11.9%, down from 12.3% in the year prior (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). It is unlikely that declining union membership will change in the near future due to inadequate organization efforts (Artz, 2010; Bryson, Cappellari, & Lucifora, 2010; Flavin, Pacek, & Radcliff,

2010). The general business problem is that there are economic losses to labor unions and the reduction of union representation in the workplace is problematic (Estlund, 2012;

Fichtenbaum, 2011; Fick, 2009). The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 started the public protection of labor unions (Gallaway, 2010). U.S. unions, however, are associated with reduced worker turnover, higher wage distribution, increased fringe benefits, dismissal standards, workers' compensation, collective negotiation, and grievance

3 procedures (Clark, 2012; Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). The specific business problem investigated in this study was the economic losses experienced by unions because of declining union membership in Los Angeles County, CA.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore how union representatives’ experience declining union membership. The population that I interviewed was comprised of union representatives who were all represented by a Los

Angeles County labor group. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques resulted in my selection of 20 participants from various industries for personal interviews. The

Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire (Kelly & Kelly, 1994) was reviewed, and I incorporated the employee concerns referenced within this 1994 questionnaire into the interview questions. The social constructivist worldview aided in the understanding of the phenomenon (Khalifa, 2010).

The data from this study might affect social change by increasing union membership. Union membership is associated with increases in voting and charitable donations (Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011; Zullo, 2011). An increase in union membership positively affects the economy and society (Schuster, 2009; Zucker &

Zucker, 2009). The information gained is useful to the development of strategic initiatives focused on stabilization and growth. A reversal of union membership decline could increase employee representation in the collective bargaining process and the protection of workers’ rights (Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010).

Nature of the Study

The three methods used to perform research are (a) quantitative, (b) qualitative, and (c) mixed methods (Baran, 2010; Crump & Logan, 2008). Qualitative researchers develop an understanding of the meanings participants assign to a particular phenomenon

(Baumbusch, 2010; Klopper, 2008). A qualitative approach meets the aims of science, and historians, anthropologists, and sociologists have endorsed it (Khalifa, 2010). A qualitative methodology satisfied the requirement of this complex study and required in- depth interviews with participants in order to include their experiences (Bernard, 2013;

Wolcott, 2009). I use open-ended questions to promote spontaneously, in-depth answers

(Ryan, Coughlan, & Cronin, 2009). Qualitative inquiry provides a platform for participants to provide insight into how the phenomenon is experienced (Baumbusch,

2010; Bernard, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The natural setting is in the field where declining union membership took place. I designed this study so that I could collect data from participants who had a personal experience within the phenomenon and a purposive understanding of declining union membership. Therefore, a qualitative methodology was the appropriate approach for this research.

The case study method is an approach for examining a distinct event where the relevant behaviors cannot sustain manipulation (Bulpitt & Martin, 2010). Such study provides insight into how participants experience a phenomenon using multiple sources of information (Bulpitt & Martin, 2010; Klopper, 2008). Although I examined how unions located in Southern California are experiencing a contemporary event, the topic is not a distinct occurrence. Narrative research is not appropriate for this study because it

5 requires a focus on specific stories delivered by individuals (Frost & De Vries, 2011).

Narrative research focuses on an event or a series of events, which this study did not involve (Creswell, 2009).

The purpose of this study was to understand how a particular phenomenon was experienced. Using this phenomenological methodology, I relied on a social- constructivist worldview. In this study, I used social constructivism to investigate the subjective meanings of participants’ responses (Bay, Bagceci, & Cetin, 2012; Khalifa,

2010). The approach was satisfactory for this research because it allowed me to collect data from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon (Rubin & Rubin, 2012).

Social constructivism enables the researcher to examine the complexities of views in the workplace (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Using the work of Yin (2009) as a model to ensure constructed validity, I obtained various sources of data including documents, archival records, interviews, and direct observations. The participants reviewed the interview transcriptions to ensure that the intended message’s meaning came across correctly. The primary goal of this study was to understand how union representatives in Los Angeles County have experienced a decline in union membership. The information provided could increase union membership, possibly leading to significant social change (Leymon, 2011; Schmitt et al.,

2008; Zullo, 2011). Union membership leads to social change through charitable donations, and closing the gap in income-based equality among the electorate

(Fichtenbaum, 2011; Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011; Zullo, 2011).

Research Question

The central research question for this study was: How are union representatives experiencing declining union membership in Los Angeles County?

A social-constructivist worldview helped me identify common themes that emerged from the interviews (Baumbusch, 2010). As recommended by Baumbusch

(2010), I used overarching and open-ended questions to reflect the project’s purpose in specific terms. Marshall and Rossman (2011) categorized research questions into four types: exploratory, explanatory, descriptive, and emancipatory. The conceptual framework of this study was used to identify what is relevant to union membership decisions (Jones, Rodger, Boyd & Ziviani, 2012; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). I used the conceptual framework to capture what is relevant to the shared meaning of the phenomenon and used the information to define the scope of the interview questions

(Denzin, 2009; Flood, 2010).

The process of purposeful sampling is how I determined my selection of union management and staff members as participants in this study (Cooper & Schindler, 2008;

Denzin & Lincoln 2011). The demographic profiles of unions in Los Angeles County are diverse. Industries include unions of engineers, doctors, nurses, auto parts workers, wireless communications workers, writers, hotel workers, restaurant workers, security officers, poultry workers, and home health care aides. I purposely selected participants to reflect the demographics of unions located in Los Angeles County. Each participant was required to have a minimum of 3 years employment as a union representative, with 2 years of direct contact with union employees.

Interview Questions

The following research questions were used in the exploration, explanation, description, and identification of factors significant to the decline in union membership. I modified the questions based on Kelly and Kelly’s (2006) Participation in Trade Unions

Questionnaire as a reference in order to identify employee concerns significant to union membership. Through these open-ended questions, I incorporated the scope of employee concern within the validly constructed Kelly and Kelly’s (2006) instrument.

1. How would you describe declining union membership?

2. Describe union employee participation within the union?

3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?

4. How would you describe your communication with union members?

5. What influences membership participation?

6. How are union members involved in contract negotiation?

7. How would you describe your relationship with union members?

8. What is the cause of the decline in union membership?

9. How is union membership affected by outside organizations?

10. What effect do labor laws have on union membership?

11. What additional information would you like to add that was not asked?

Follow-Up Questions

1. How are you affected by this experience?

2. What changes do you associate with declining union membership?

3. What significant events stand out?

4. What remaining thoughts would you like to share?

Conceptual Framework

Using the study’s conceptual framework, I integrated three models: Jones and

McKenna (1994) on the utility of union membership, Maslow (1943) on human motivation, and Webb (1891) on collective bargaining. Jones and McKenna’s (1994) was the overarching framework for this research. I used the additional concepts of human motivation and collective bargaining in this triangulated conceptual framework.

Therefore, my approach was synergistic. Using the triangular design originally helped me to incorporate core issues that potentially impact decisions about union membership

(Howard, 2010). I used the interview questions to inquire about factors which could explain the decline in union membership.

Jones and McKenna (1994) argued that the union membership increases when its utility outweighs not being a member. According to Jones and McKenna (1994), the cost of union dues must be less than the benefits of collective bargaining. Chang and Wen-Ya

(1998) posited that Jones and McKenna (1994) provided an explicit micro foundation for individual membership decisions and behavior dynamics. Union instrumentality is the perceived support of the union and the potential to improve labor conditions (Fiorito et al., 2011). The presence of low union instrumentality precludes the decertification of unions (Gahan, 2012). Jones and McKenna’s (1994) theory was applicable to this study because it clarified certain decisions about union membership. The instrumentality of unions is determined by employee needs.

Maslow (1943) identified physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self- actualization needs and arranged them into a hierarchy of relative potency. He regarded each need as a level of human motivation. Ugah and Arua (2011) explained what motivates individuals to engage in activities perceived to meet individual needs. The researchers supported the use of the model to create satisfying employee work conditions.

Therefore, the level of security offered by union representation is relative to the union’s utility. Liu, Guthrie, Flood, and MaCCurtain (2009) discovered that high performance work systems improve organizational performance through employee training and motivation. Liu et al. (2009) determined that union representation decreases the use of high-performance work systems. The needs of the employee are satisfied through collective bargaining.

Beatrice and Sidney Webb first used the term collective bargaining in 1891 (as cited in Farnham, 2008). Richardson (2010) argued employee-participation programs are independent of collective bargaining between the union and an employer. Bodah,

McHugh, and Yim (2008) found that most unions do not include direct employee involvement in the collective-bargaining process. The concept of collective bargaining is the primary purpose of union representation (Jones & McKenna, 1994). Collective bargaining is a major component of this study because union members use the collective bargaining agreement to determine the utility of union membership. Employee participation in the collective-bargaining process is significant to future growth strategies

(Cooper, 2011). In order to determine the factors leading to a decline in union membership, an investigation of collective bargaining took place.

Definition of Terms

Collective bargaining: A voluntary process of agreement between employers and union workers in regards to wages, benefits, and conflict resolution in the workplace

(Liebman, 2008).

Esteem needs: The need and desire for self-respect and the esteem of others based on real capacity and achievement; the desire for confidence, strength, independence, and freedom in the world; recognition, attention, or appreciation from others; feelings of self- confidence, worth, strength, capability, and adequacy of being useful and necessary in the world are present when the need is satisfied (Maslow, 1943).

Love needs: The need for belonging to a group with meaningful interpersonal relationships; a deficiency in the satisfaction of these needs is common (Maslow, 1943).

Membership utility: Weighing the costs versus the benefits; the advantages of membership and retention outweighing the cost of membership (Jones & McKenna,

1994).

Physiological needs: The need for air, food, shelter, and clothing; satisfied prior to psychological or growth needs (Weinberg, 2011).

Safety needs: The need for security, lack of threats, stability, peace, and security; physiological needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1943).

Self-actualization need: To realize one’s full potential in respect to individual capabilities; emerges after lower-level needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1943).

Union representative: An individual employed by the union; to represent union employees in collective bargaining, grievances, and labor law compliance; provides union consciousness, directives, policies, and values to union employees (Arif, 2011).

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations

Assumptions

In this qualitative, phenomenological study, I made the following assumptions: (a) the participants were honest in their answers to the interview questions, (b) the participants had no incentive to provide misleading information, (c) the participants were well-informed in regard to their union’s organizational culture, (d) the sample group was a microcosm of the larger union population, and (e) I interpreted the participants’ responses and recorded their intended responses accurately.

To mitigate risk, I implemented purposive and snowball sampling methods to select participants in the study based on criteria for qualification (Bernard, 2013; Bulpitt

& Martin, 2010). The use of open-ended questions reduced any personal bias and promoted neutrality (Wheeler & Bell, 2012). Participants verified my interpretations to ensure the data’s validity (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Wolcott, 2009).

Limitations

In addition, I required participants in this study to have a minimum of 3 years of experience as a union representative. I purposefully chose the participants while considering the industry union demographics in Los Angeles County. The information provided was limited to the diversity of Los Angeles unions in regard to gender, ethnicity, and industry. I assumed that the organizational culture of the unions had an

12 insignificant impact on the study’s scope. The participants were located in Southern

California. This study was limited to unions located in Los Angeles County. The demographics of the participants and geographic location may have had a significant influence on the results of this study. The population of other geographic regions could provide additional insight into how unions experience declining union membership.

Delimitations

Delimitations are characteristics that the researcher has selected to define the boundaries and focus the scope of a study (i.e., participants, instruments used, and the geographic area; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). The study did not include union representatives outside a 100 mile radius of Los Angeles. The participants were union representatives with a minimum of 3 years’ experience as a union representative. There were 20 participants in this study. Twenty interviews are sufficient to reach data saturation in a qualitative study (Green & Thorogood, 2009).

Through the theoretical framework, I identified key areas influential to union- membership decisions. I developed the interview questions using The Participation in

Trade Unions Questionnaire as a model to support the study’s reliability (Kelly & Kelly,

1994). The geographical area of Los Angeles was large enough to provide insight into other cities across the United States.

Significance of the Study

Contribution to Business Practice

Both scholars and the labor movement have identified reasons for why union membership has been declining (Clawson & Clawson, 1999; Fiorito, 2007; Flanagan,

2005; Freeman, 2008). Fiorito (2007) suggested that declining union membership is due primarily to differential growth rates between union and non-union sectors. Freeman

(2008) suggested declining union membership has resulted in part to the changes in the structure of the U.S. economy. Glynn (2011) argued a lack of worker rights enforcement is significant to declining union membership. Insight gained from this study could be used to stabilize union membership decline.

I expected that findings from a qualitative study designed to explore the declining union member phenomenon could provide insight into the stakeholders’ information gaps. The information gained could be useful for developing pilot programs to increase participation in unions. The study’s results could also be useful as part of an initiative to improve internal communication, provide a feedback loop, and build strategic alliances

(Voss, 2010).

Implications for Social Change

As illustrated by Maslow (1943), employees have needs that are the foundation for motivation. The ability to satisfy needs through stable employment and collective bargaining is central to this study’s conceptual framework. Job security promotes a healthy and productive work environment (Ram & Prabhakar, 2010). The probability of a private-sector union member being a registered voter is 6.7 points higher than that of non-members and public-sector union members are 2.4 points higher than non-members

(Rosenfeld, 2010). The effects of unions on political participation reveal a strong positive relationship in the United States (McCartin (2011; Weber, 2011).

The information in this study provides insight into how the current decline in union membership could be stabilized. The results may also be helpful to develop standard operating procedures and best practices designed to increase the utility of unions. As discussed by Fick (2009) and Chintrakarn (2011), unionization provides political equality by closing the gap in income-based equality among the electorate. Any increase in political representation could affect social change. Fichtenbaum (2011) found that unions significantly influence laborer’s share of income. The study results indicated that labor’s share of income declined 17.9% between 1997 and 2006.

A Review of the Professional and Academic Literature

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to explore how unions in Southern California are experiencing declining membership. To understand this phenomenon, I conducted a literature review to provide insight and clarity (see Marshall,

2010). In the literature review, I cover past research on the historical background of labor unions and their declining membership.

Scholars have discussed declining union membership in terms of several major areas: (a) demographic changes, (b) the role of the union as an institution, (c) the state, especially its legal system, (d) globalization and neoliberalism, (e) employers’ anti-union offensive, and (f) occupational shifts in employment (e.g., Clawson & Clawson, 1999;

Fiorito, 2007; Flanagan, 2005). As mentioned by Freeman (2008), declining union membership has resulted in part to the changes in the structure of the U.S. economy. Job- related satisfaction and lack of union commitment are two major reasons for declining union membership (Garcia-Serrano, 2009; Powdthavee, 2011; Singh & Loncar, 2010).

The literature review supports the study’s conceptual framework and provides information regarding its application (Brown-Jeffy & Cooper, 2011). I used Maslow’s

(1943) theory of human motivation in the assessment of the utility of union membership as related to collective bargaining. I obtained the information through various search strategies via the Walden library to access the following databases: ABI/INFORM

Complete, Business Source Complete, Sage Journals, Thoreau Multiple Search Engine, and Google Scholar. I employed the following search terms to locate information: collective bargaining, union membership, union politics, union economics, union global, and union voting. This strategy identified leading scholars and their studies. Integration of this knowledge supported this study (Marshall, 2010).

Historical Background

Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw of Massachusetts was the first judge to legalize

American unions in 1842 (Gallaway, 2010). The upsurge in conspiracy prosecutions after this ruling found courts in other states unsupportive of labor unions (Helfand, 1977).

Beatrice and Sidney Webb first used the term collective bargaining in 1891 to describe the conditions of employment between employers and unions. The Webb’s were democratic social reformers who helped to found the London School of Economics and

Political Science. Their primary goal was to incorporate organized labor into mainstream economic and political thought (Farnham, 2008). Before collective bargaining, unions used mutual insurance to insure workers for sickness, burial, and unemployment

(Farnham, 2008). The English Common Law doctrine of conspiracy initially dictated the view of labor unions in the United States (Farnham, 2008)

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA) provided the U.S. worker with the right to organize, strike, and bargain collectively through the protection of labor unions. The NLRA, also known as the Wagner Act, supported a high-wage doctrine to stimulate economic growth and recovery in the United States after the Great Depression

(Gallaway, 2010; Gross, 2012; Livingston, 2011; Moreno, 2010) and governed the legal formation of unions (Helfand, 1977). The formation of unions under the NRLA required representation based upon elections and collective bargaining with employers (Burns,

2011). Section 8.5 of the Wagner Act forbade an employer to refuse to bargain with union representatives. The original intent of the NRLA’s subsection is still subject to debate by politicians and union officials (Richardson, 2010). The NAACP urged Senator

Robert Wagner to add a nondiscrimination provision to his bill (Moreno, 2010).

The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision to uphold the Wagner Act as constitutional started a massive counter-offensive by the business community. Between 1937 and the

Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 (T-HA), over 230 related bills were introduced in Congress

(Burns, 2011). The T-HA was a successful response by Republicans and employers to ban the closed-shop workplace. The T-HA permitted states to establish right-to-work laws and attacked the leadership of trade unions (Burns, 2011). The T-HA amended the

NLRA to include employee rights to refrain from unionization (Freeman, 2008; Helfand,

1977; Livingston, 2011). U.S. Federal Representative Hartley viewed the legislation as a first step to a sound labor-relations policy and revision of the New Deal. The business community supported the passage of the T-HA to prevent totalitarian labor control of the economy (Burns, 2011). Employers thereby regained a balance of power to delegitimize

17 union strikes. The subsequent reduction in union strike activities and an increase in mediation and arbitration suggest the T-HA’s effectiveness in undercutting labor. Labor unions opposed passage of the 1947 law because it restricted boycotting, trade-union increase, and collective bargaining (Burns, 2011; Freeman, 2008; Helfand, 1977).

Opposition to U.S. foreign policy caused many unions to become independent to the national coalition (Eisenberg, 2010; Montgomery, 2010).

The National Labor Relations Board adjudicates complaints of unfair labor practices by employers and unions. After the passage of the T-HA, there was a significant reduction of union-sponsored strike activity from 1948 to 1980 leading up to the Reagan administration (McCartin, 2011). The Professional Air Traffic Controllers’ strike of 1981 marked the rise of conservatism with regard to organized labor. At least 75% of the nation’s 17,500 air-traffic controllers lost their jobs and could no longer take positions in federal employment (Schuster, 2009; Shostak, 2009). Ronald Reagan’s decision to fire the air-traffic controllers was the costliest labor conflict in American history. The effort of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to hire and train new controllers cost $2 billion (McCartin, 2011). Reagan’s decision also placed public safety at risk.

Representative Guy Molinari of New York found many security concerns with air traffic

(McCartin, 2011). The National Air Traffic Controllers Association was concerned about the safety of air-traffic control and the FAA’s integrity (Shostak, 2009).

The Clinton administration took a collaborative approach to labor-management policies (Breul & Kamensky, 2008). President Bill Clinton created a task force called the

National Performance Review (NPR), which focused on streamlining government

18 agencies. The NPR’s goal was to increase operational efficiency in the federal government. Employee unions via labor-management partnership councils participated in each agency (Breul & Kamensky, 2008). The Clinton administration also created a

Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations to produce recommendations to reform labor law (Breul & Kamensky, 2008). Divisions in organized labor unions about reform priorities, failure to engage the public and political rivalry led to a legislative stalemate on labor-law reform (Carrigan, 2011; Judis, 2011; McCartin,

2011).

As discussed by Kilberg et al. (2009), the George W. Bush administration endorsed a measured approach to labor unions and labor laws in the United States. The administration focused on providing the greatest possible clarity to the law and limited resources to the most pressing problems. In 2004, the Bush administration revised the

Federal Labor Standards Act that defined white-collar exemptions for overtime benefits.

Previous administrators had avoided the 50-year-long policy (Kilberg et al., 2009).

Fiorito (2007) noted how union membership experienced a dramatic decline during the Reagan-Bush era. Under these Republican presidents, federal administrations launched numerous anti-union initiatives disguised as positive public policy goals

(Fiorito, 2007). Many complaints filed during the Bush administration objected to assault on workers’ rights. The Bush Administration appointees to the NLRB used unprecedented administrative power to shift labor policies rightward. Organized labor favors a left to center a party favorable to collective bargaining (Dark, 2011).

Under the Obama administration, the U.S. Department of Labor increased enforcement activities and broadened the scope of the Wage and Hour Division's interpretive guidance (Fine & Gordon, 2010; Sonn & Bernhardt, 2010) Employers were required to implement a regulatory approach for finding and fixing problems rather than waiting for the Labor Department investigator to discover problems and enforce the law

(Calvasina et al., 2011). The Department of Labor was aggressively seeking to prevent employers from misclassifying workers as independent contractors or as exempt employees under the Fair Labor Standards Act (Fine & Gordon, 2010; Sonn & Bernhardt,

2010). The Obama administration’s initial strategic planning conference for the NLRB involved concurrent viewpoints. Dau-Schmidt and Kelley (2012) argued unionism is an outdated process that no longer serves the need of employees. Independent compliance monitoring programs were beneficial to employees and employers.

The reintroduction of the Employee Free Choice Act was designed to amend the

NLRA under the Obama administration. The legislation supported a union official’s ability to obtain the majority of employee signature cards in support of unionization

(Livingston, 2011; Nissen, 2009; Sachs, 2010). Union officials strongly supported the bill because it increased employee union support by 12.7% (Livingston, 2011). As discussed by Duff (2011), union officials used salting campaigns to infiltrate organizations and expose federal labor law violations. Duff (2011) found that employers discharged workers after finding out that they were union members. Lalas (2011) discussed the importance of neutrality agreements to protect workers from employer intimidation during an organizing campaign. Employers created hostile environments through the

20 dissemination of misinformation, one-on-one interrogation, and intimidation. Hartley

(2010) provided information on the use of employer captive audience meetings in the workplace. In the article, the researcher argued for the unconstitutionality of employers attempting to use the First Amendment in support of anti-union meetings in the workplace.

Republican victories in the 2010 elections provided a majority of seats in the U.S.

House of Representatives and a reduction of the Democratic majority in the U.S. Senate.

Numerous Republican-led attacks on trade unionism with Democratic compliance followed these victories (Rachieff, 2012). In the 2010 U.S. legislative session, the introduction of 820 bills led to the restriction or elimination of the collective-bargaining rights of public workers (Hogler & Henle, 2011). The attacks on public unions occurred based on old English common law doctrine of sovereignty (Dvorak, 2010).

In 2011, Republican governor Scott Walker and the Republican-controlled legislature in Wisconsin passed a state budget that eliminated key collective-bargaining rights for public employees (Weber, 2011). The current law outlaws strike by public employees and have received protest at a level emulating the recent Egyptian democratic movement against the Mubarak regime (Aronowitz, 2011). Consequently, Lewin, Keefe, and Kochan (2012) found that public sector union workers were under compensated relatively less than private sector union workers. Lewin et al. (2012) also found that labor dispute resolution procedures and management-labor relationships functioned well in comparison. Bahrami, Bitzan, and Leitch (2009) discovered that the differences in union wage premiums between private and public sectors were due to their reward systems.

Walters (2010) found that unions reduce profitability, investment, and productivity growth. Western and Rosenfeld (2011) found that the decline of union membership explains a fifth to a third of the increase in wage inequality.

Edwards (2010) elaborated on the rising cost of public union compensation. Early retirement in public unions is available after completion of a 30-year service contract.

Some employees double dip to another job after filing for retirement. In some states, employees have the ability to inflate their pensions by spiking their income in the final years of employment. Excessive fraudulent disability claims and pension plans are significant to the rising cost. Some employees retire with a pension over $100,000

(Edwards, 2010).

Demographic Factors

Scholars have debated the impact of demographics on union membership in past research (Briskin, 2011; Hogler & Henle, 2011; Leymon, 2011; Rachieff, 2012;

Rosenfeld & Kleykamp, 2009). Rosenfeld and Kleykamp (2009) found that the minority

Hispanic population joins unions at higher rates than other demographic groups. The duration of residence and citizenship are the primary deterrents of Hispanics joining a union (Zullo, 2012). The researcher emphasized that organized labor cannot depend on any single group’s capacity for collective-bargaining action with respect to the revitalization. However, Burgoon, Fine, Jacoby, and Tichenor (2010) discussed the transition of unions taking an anti-immigrant stance to recruiting immigrant workers. The researchers found immigration has no significance to union membership levels.

In his research, Robinson (2011) discussed the North American Free Trade

Agreement (NAFTA) and how it provided unions in the United States with the opportunity to unionize immigrant workers to combat declining union membership, wages, and share of national income. Ironically, Medina (2011) found that the Service

Employees International Union (SEIU) lost over 2,000 workers in Minnesota, Illinois, and California due to expanded I-9 audits by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.

Moons (2012) discussed the historical adversarial role that unions representing the entertainment industry took to prevent immigrants in the industry. Entertainment unions are exclusively white, and African American entertainers tend to form their own unions for the protection of their rights. Duff (2009) discussed the paradox involved in representing undocumented workers for remedy under the NLRA. Unlawful immigrant conduct, witness credibility, and the discharge of union-represented, unauthorized workers threatening the erosion of immigrant labor rights (Duff, 2009). The applicability of the NLRA is questionable when individuals undermine the witnesses’ integrity by their illegal status. Cummings (2009) illustrated how the economic power of illegal sweatshops in Los Angeles undermined the integrity of labor laws with contract labor agreements between employers and the union.

Rosenfeld and Kleykamp (2012) discussed the historical role unions played in blocking African Americans out of high paying stable employment. There was a subsequent increase in African American’s union membership percentage to avoid racial discriminatory treatment on the job. The researcher found unions vital to African

American men and women being involved in the workforce. In support, Pencavel (2009)

23 found unions to be most beneficial to African Americans. African Americans benefited from union membership more than any other group (Pencavel, 2009). Abel (2011) provided supporting information regarding the African American struggle to join unions with all of the rights and privileges afforded to whites. The researcher revealed common discriminatory practices in hiring, promoting, and firing African American workers. The primary goal of union inclusion for African Americans was a lack of available labor due to World War II. Rubio (2009) highlighted the internal conflicting values that African

Americans experienced as members of segregated Jim Crow unions. Priest and Botson

(2012) revealed the internal segregation African American workers endured as employees initiated the creation of their own civil unions as a means to prevent unions from entering oil refineries in the south. Moreno, (2010) discussed how unions controlled the supply and demand of labor through racial discrimination. The researcher suggested that unions increased the cost of labor. The NAACP advised unions that African American employees would improve the increasing value of their own unions (Moreno, 2010).

Leymon (2011) cited social inclusiveness as a major effect on union membership.

Social conservatism and the exclusion of women and minorities before 1960 reduced the potential membership and strength of the labor movement. Furthermore, seniority clauses in union contracts kept African Americans in undesirable positions before and after the

Civil Rights Act (citation?). Affirmative Action lawsuits motivated union officials to ensure equal access for everyone. Leymon (2011) also posited that individuals frequently overlook women as potential union members even though they were more likely to certify a union. In contrast, Rosenfeld and Kleykamp (2009) showed that any influx of

24 immigrants into a country undermines solidarity, promotes competition between workers, and lowers unionization rates. Rosenfield and Kleykamp (2009) also demonstrated that immigrant workers seek refuge from discrimination at lower rates because they compare

U.S. work conditions to those in their countries of origin. Barrett, McGuiness, O'Brien, and Connell (2013) found that immigrant training programs fail because immigrants do not take advantage of the training. Leymon (2011) emphasized that white men remain the largest group comprising union demographics. The proportional increase of women and non-white men in unions was a significant demographic change.

Briskin (2011) examined the potential benefits of women in union leadership roles to revitalize organizing efforts and increase union membership. Scholars consider the value of highly visible and accessible women at every level of the union as advantageous (Boris & Orleck, 2011; Briskin, 2011; Powdthavee, 2011). Briskin (2011) posited that female leaders in unions have less tolerance than men for hierarchy and traditional authorities. Generational shifts in union demographics as a whole suggest commitments to consensual decision-making. Boris and Orleck (2011) argued that women comprise almost 50% of unionized workers. The general shift from manufacturing to service sector jobs was significant to the demographic change. Briskin

(2011) suggested a need to utilize women as informal and local union leaders to build solidarity among marginalized groups. In support of that point, Powdthavee (2011) found that women were significantly more committed to unions than men because they identified with the union’s goals and values. In contrast, Norwood (2009) noted that

25 individuals viewed women as incapable of long-term commitment due to their responsibilities at home.

Hogler and Henle (2011) examined the deeply-embedded values and ideology of the current state of anti-unionism in the United States. Ideas about the supremacy of individual rights; hostility toward the national government, distrust of outsiders, deference to traditional authorities, and a regard for states as the guardians of liberty and property were seen as the political ideology of conservative forces like the Tea Party

(Hogler & Henle, 2011). Hogler and Henle (2011) suggested that the cultural outlook of an individual state is indicative of its union membership. For example, certain groups and individuals distrust public unions in states where a hierarchical and individualistic culture is the norm. Right-to-work laws interfere with unions’ ability to maintain solidarity and acquire resources (Hogler & Henle, 2011). In contrast, Hanagan (2009) found union strikes to be significant to union membership growth. In the study, the researcher suggested that the inability of unions to develop a strategic plan for growth and social transformation is significant to membership decline. Unions no longer have access to their grassroots activists and often neglect their main mission (Hanagan, 2009). In support, Mironi (2010) argued the need for the replacement of unions with models that represent the social movements and employee relationships in the modern workplace are pertinent. Some individuals have suggested non-governmental agencies and multidimensional organizations as alternatives to union representation.

Rachieff (2012) explored how Republican victories in the 2010 elections have sparked a new round of attacks on labor unions. The researcher found the public

26 employees’ rights to collective bargaining were seen as a threat to individual states, and their ability to balance state budget. Anti-union attacks have prompted labor unions to become active in their resurgence efforts. Rachieff (2012) also focused on how statistics shows that a right-to-work state have a negative effect on employee wages, employer- sponsored health insurance, and pension plans. I chose to include this research in this discussion because states aspiring for identification as right-to-work states affect the demographics of unions.

Political Factors

Cooper (2011) advocated the value of employee voices in collective bargaining and a revision of section 8(a) (2) in the NLRA. The researcher provided insight into how employer-sponsored labor organizations and alternative programs were minimized by

Senator Wagner during Senate hearings in 1935. Cooper (2011) also provided information on the involvement of employees in the development of the NLRA. Senator

Wagner called the employees who addressed the Senate committee members’ “puppets” for the employer-sponsored programs whom they represented (Cooper, 2011).

The conceptual framework of this study involved three models: Jones and

McKenna (1994) on the utility of union membership, Maslow (1943) on human motivation, and Webb (1891) on collective bargaining. Maslow’s theory supports the right of employees to bargain in order to fulfill social and esteem needs. Cooper (2011) concluded that employer-sponsored programs could satisfy needs within the local community. Jones and McKenna’s (1994) model of the utility of union membership is

27 applicable because social and esteem needs, which lie outside the scope of unions’ collective bargaining, add value to negotiated labor agreements.

Webb’s (1891) construct of collective bargaining indicates the primary reason for becoming a union member is the benefits of collective bargaining. Jones and McKenna

(1994) argue the concept of collective bargaining is the primary purpose of union representation. Kaufman (2012) argued employer sponsored programs improved workplace relations, but were a threat to wage-led organized labor. Godard and Frege

(2013) found that 54% of workers with employer-sponsored programs were satisfied with a consultation, compared to 41% unionism. Some employer-sponsored programs sought to keep unions out by the use of yellow dog contracts. Baird (2010) elaborated on employers’ use of anti-union contracts as a term of employment. The contract required employees to abstain from involvement with the union as a condition of employment.

Jarley, Fiorito, and Delaney (1997) suggested that unions must incorporate employee involvement in the process of collective bargaining and decision-making. The researchers regarded unions as operating simultaneously as an employee democracy and as an organizational bureaucracy. Unions’ rationale for administrative systems originated from their need for centralized bargaining (Jarley et al., 1997). Consequently, the researchers found that increases in administrative functions reduced employees’ direct involvement in decision-making and their ability to influence union officials.

Judis (2011) concluded that the Republican Party was systematically attacking collective bargaining and public-sector unions in an effort to cut wages and benefits.

McCartin (2011) found the Republican-controlled U.S. House of Representatives, in an

28 effort to undermine unions’ power, was stifling aid to states seeking to balance their budgets by reducing the collective-bargaining rights of public-sector unions. Public sector unions organize election campaigns for officials who, in return, voted for union wage and benefit increases despite significant shortfalls in state budgets (Carrigan, 2011).

On average, a unionized state employee makes $30,000 more per year than does a private-sector employee (McCartin, 2011). Moreover, there is a 60.1% probability of a union member voting Democratic in an election (Leymon, 2011). Judis (2011) consequently emphasized the Republican Party’s effort to prevent union contributions to the Democratic Party, thereby seeking to change the political landscape of the country

(Lofaso, 2011). States having a majority of their public employees unionized were predominantly Democratic in representation. Ironically, McCartin (2011) found that there was no correlation between state-budget deficits and unionized public workers.

Scholars have also debated the possible impact of the Employee Free Choice Act

(EFCA) on unions (Matchulat, 2009; Pope, Kellman, & Bruno, 2008; Seaton & Ruhsam,

2009; Sachs, 2010; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). The 1947 Taft-Hartley amendments to the

NLRA added the secret ballot to the process of organizing. The elimination of the secret ballot was the EFCA’s focus (Seaton & Ruhsam, 2009; Sachs, 2010). The EFCA would make the card-check process mandatory, stipulate a 120-day period for reaching a collective-bargaining agreement, and require punitive measures for employer misconduct during negotiations (Matchulat, 2009). Zucker and Zucker (2009) noted that the EFCA sought to make injunctions against employers mandatory rather than discretionary

Matchulat (2009) said the EFCA was an attempt by labor unions to rescind the NLRA,

29 making it easier to organize and represent employees in the private sector. Matchulat

(2009) posited that some individuals portray the EFCA as a blessing, but is actually a self-interested institutional ploy that misleads union workers about the unionization process and collective bargaining. Also, relevant is the finding that 58% of non- managerial workers in the United States would join a union if given the opportunity

(Zucker & Zucker, 2009). As mentioned in Seaton and Ruhsam (2009), unions have a 60-

70% probability of winning an election with authorization cards from 90-100% of the employees. Right-to-work laws in a state decrease the probability of union membership by 8.2% (Coombs & Cebula, 2011). The decline in union membership negatively affects the middle class and undermines equality values (Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker,

2009).

Matchulat (2009) claimed that the passage of the EFCA would deprive employees of essential information and inhibit employers’ ability to communicate with employees by shortening the certification time. Zucker and Zucker (2009) discussed how mandatory meetings during the certification process aided in threatening workers with job loss if the union was certified. Pope et al. (2008) suggested the EFCA makes it easier for unions to gain due-paying members in the short-term, but does not strengthen the labor movement in the long-term. Consequently, the researchers proposed that unions operate as a genuine rights movement, the fundamental principles of which should rely on membership activity instead of politics and staff-driven campaigns (Dean, 2012). Currently, the

National Labor Relations Board does not allow employers to challenge employees’ interest in union representation through authorization cards (Moore & Bales, 2012).

Haedicke (2013) and Parker (2011) suggested unions operate like social justice organizations to combat the neoliberalism, ensure political rights, and promote economic democracy. In contrast, Schuster (2009) advised companies to identify potential union targets and implement appropriate policies proactively. Li (2012) found that employees working for targeted union takeovers experienced a negative affect from the takeover. Li also found that labor unions do not mitigate these negative consequential effects proactively.

Chandler and Gely (2011) examined the effects of state card-check legislation on public-sector union membership in the U.S. The researchers determined that states with card-check legislation had a significant increase in union-membership levels relative to states that did not. Card checks enable unions to circumvent the default rule and minimize employers’ impediments to certification (Chandler & Gely, 2011). Card-check legislation enables unions to organize new types of workplaces and aids in facilitating membership growth (Chandler & Gely, 2011; Schuster, 2009). Ironically, Chandler and

Gely (2011) revealed that employees were more willing to report employer pressure than coworkers or unions in card-check campaigns. Dawkins (2012) found that 30% of the involved firms fired pro-union workers in metropolitan Chicago in 2002. The researchers also found that 49% of the involved firms threatened to close, and 51% of the involved firms used bribery.

Calvasina, Calvasina, and Calvasina (2011) provided information on the current compliance and enforcement strategy of the U.S. Department of Labor. The researchers illustrated how the agency’s focus shifted from compliance to enforcement under the

Obama administration. The Department of Labor sought to enact 90 rules and regulations in 2010 in order to ensure employees’ representation in the workplace as well as wages, safety, and secure retirement. The Department of Labor advised employers to find and fix problems via preventive audits, compliance programs, and decision-making practices. In support, Sinclair, Martin, and Sears (2010) found that a perceived lack of security concern prompted union member reaction. The Labor Department’s enforcement of workers’ rights is directly associated with union representation (Fine & Gordon, 2010;

Sonn & Bernhardt, 2010). Glynn (2011) argued that high-ranking officials would respond differently if held personally responsible for workplace violations. The researcher posited that a lack of worker rights enforcement is significant to declining union membership.

Liebman (2008) argued that the Taft-Hartley Act provided competing statutory goals promoting the stability of collective-bargaining relationships and security of the person’s right to reject union representation. The researcher further postulated the

Wagner Act of 1935 supported U.S. policy in encouraging collective bargaining.

Liebman found the National Labor Relations Board struggled to reconcile these competing goals during George W. Bush’s administration. Liebman (2008) pointed to the

Board’s policy shift supporting employees’ rights to reject union representation and the creation of a bureaucratic union-certification process. Under the Bush administration, the

Board allegedly missed an opportunity to endorse collective action as leading to economic justice.

Sonn and Bernhardt (2010) recommended that the U.S. Department of Labor should aggressively enforce labor laws against unfair practices because unions are

32 struggling to maintain their share of the workforce. Current wage laws are inadequate for promoting good jobs in the industry and regions with low union presence (Sonn &

Bernhardt, 2010). The researcher emphasized the need for government’s collaborating with unions to ensure compliance and to protect workers from employer retaliation.

Schuster (2009) advised companies of the impending need to train human-resource managers for sweeping changes in labor policy under the Obama administration. The researcher focused on how declining union membership has created a lack of qualified managers with the necessary training and experience to manage a union environment.

The researcher noted that organized labor expected favorable laws and regulations because organized labor donated nearly $450 million to the 2008 election of Barack

Obama. Schuster (2009) consequently predicted that unions would seek power-sharing opportunities through government contracting requirements. The researcher also forecasted new union activity in sales, administrative support, and professional non- managerial occupations.

Social Factors

Researchers have consistently shown union members to be dissatisfied with their jobs (Artz, 2010; Artz, 2012; Bryson, Cappellari, & Lucifora, 2010; Flavin, Pacek, &

Radcliff, 2010; Garcia-Serrano, 2009; Powdthavee, 2011; Singh & Loncar, 2010). As discussed in Raymo, Warren, Sweeney, Hauser, and Ho (2011), union members are more likely to retire before age 65 than non-union workers who experience poor jobs and layoffs at a higher rate than union members. The negative coefficient in job satisfaction is an empirical regularity in the worldwide research (Bryson et al., 2010). The

33 demographics of union membership are evolving. Union membership is predominately less white and more female-driven (Zullo, 2012). Female union members are dissatisfied with union membership because male-dominated unions do not address female concerns concerning work flexibility (Artz, 2012).

Garcia-Serrano (2009) found that non-union workers with employer agreements were satisfied with their jobs compared to union employees who were not satisfied with their jobs. Bryson et al. (2010) confirmed that intrinsically motivated employees opted for union membership because they had an attachment to their jobs. Employees dissatisfied with their pay had an increased probability of stealing from the company or quitting their jobs (Singh & Loncar, 2010). It is interesting to note that Flavin et al.

(2010) found union members with lower pay had higher life satisfaction compared to union members with higher pay. Artz (2010) posited that employees experienced job satisfaction when they first joined the union but that their job satisfaction decreased over time. Employees with prior union experience showed no change in their job satisfaction.

Neuman (2011) found union workers had a 7.3% increase in the probability of being satisfied with retirement. Unions protect workers from businesses forcing them into retirement and provide a network for retired workers to socialize in (Neuman, 2011).

Powdthavee (2011) maintained union members are generally more dissatisfied with their jobs than non-union members. Union officials encourage unionized employees to express high levels of grievance and dissatisfaction during contract negotiations.

Powdthavee (2011) contended the unhappy employees are likely to join a union and participate in its activities. Meardi (2011) provided insight into the different cultures with

34 unions. Meardi suggested union officials use a cultural, sociological communication plan to satisfy union member needs. In support, Siebert (2011) suggested that unions use the workplace to educate workers and create harmony with employers. Some view workplace education as an essential element to the revitalization of union membership. Linné, Sosin, and Benin (2009) advocated pro-union education in the classrooms to combat the anti- union content currently taught in U.S. public schools.

Weber (2011) discussed the current and future state of health-care unions, their complex relationship with management, and the interruption of medical services in the

United States. Such practitioners are increasingly joining unions. In 2010, 18.7% of registered nurses in their unions paid dues, while 20.4% enjoyed negotiated benefits

(Weber, 2011). As discussed by Thompson (2011), approximately 8% of all pharmacists belong to a union. Pharmacists in urban cities tend to have a higher unionization percentage. Antitrust enforcement policies forbid physicians to bargain collectively

(Schiff, 2009).

Benson and Brown (2010) studied the reception of employees’ voices at different organizational levels. Unions, they contended, enable employees to voice their concerns without fear of penalization. Benson and Brown also found that management-sponsored programs for negotiation with employees had the same effect as union representation on employee turnover rates. Union members perceive greater organization voice as the union achieves improvements for members in the face of opposition (Benson & Brown, 2010).

Union participation during contract negotiations must involve employee voices to ensure the addressing of concerns (Estlund, 2012; Strauss & Mapes, 2012).

Lund and Taylor (2010) reported the results from the membership survey designed to explore low attendance at the International Brotherhood of Electrical

Workers (IBEW) Local 2150 union meetings. As discussed in the study, information of local union meetings as well as their location and duration are major factors affecting membership attendance. Senior members who are highly skilled and educated are likely to attend union meetings. The IBEW Local 2150 had 4516 union members at the time of this study. There were 1409 survey responses. The response rate was 31.2% Lund and

Taylor found that 64% of respondents had not attended a union meeting within the past

12 months and that only 15% had attended at least one meeting during the year. In addition, 60% indicated that a more convenient location choice would help to increase attendance. Employees were also concerned about their union’s political stance, the lack of issues addressed at meetings, and negative experiences at past union meetings (Lund &

Taylor, 2010). The researchers found union members are likely to attend if they felt they would be able to participate in the local union meeting. Fiorito, Tope, Steinberg, Padavic, and Murphy (2011) examined the effects of selected contextual factors on faculty-union activism at a large public university with over 2000 faculty members. The Researchers found union activism plays a central role in the union environment. Union members view union membership as insurance rather than as a social movement and volunteers are the most devoted members. Fiorito et al. (2011) found that the economic exchange was the most important factor between the union and its membership. The instrumentality effectiveness of the union is associated with future activity (Gahan, 2012). Most importantly, the researchers found that the union members with social links to other

36 union activist had the greatest potential to increase commitment and activism in a faculty union member. Bryson et al. (2010) verified that social media networking sites are active in demanding production and attention from their members. The bandwagon effect of social networking has potential benefits for new members to join the social media networking site (Bryson et al., 2010).

Eren (2009) examined the union membership wage premium for private sector non-union employees covered by collective bargaining agreements using current population survey data for 2000-2003. Union members enjoyed a wage premium of 9% above comparable non-members. Eren found that non-union members covered by a collective bargaining agreement were likely to join a union if there were pecuniary gains, a psychological benefit, and community support. Eren suggests unions offer members only benefits to discourage free riders.

Lewis and Luce (2012) examined the common interests of the labor movement and the Occupy Wall Street (OWS) movement. Labor and OWS were involved from the beginning of the OWS movement. Labor, the researchers suggested, should work with community partners, unorganized and unemployed workers, and students to create a new agenda that includes social issues. The current message of labor is risk-averse. Unions would be successful in electing Democrats if they spent 50% of their election-campaign budgets on supporting social movements like OWS (Lewis & Luce, 2012). Friedman

(2009) suggested that unions focus on societal empowerment and the socioeconomic democracy as a strategy of revitalization. Dreier (2011) suggested that unions focus on workplace organizing, grassroots community alliances, and the political arena. Estey

(2011) advocated the inclusion of faith-based organizations to support revitalization efforts.

Hickey, Kuruvilla, and Lakhani (2010) examined the value of rank-and-file activism on union-organizing campaigns. Union activism is presented as fundamentally necessary to organizational strength but insufficient for membership renewal. The commitment of a union member to the union does not guarantee participation in its activities (Hickey et al., 2010). According to the researchers, organizing success requires comprehensive strategies for combining workplace activism with organizational resources, leadership, and external sources of benefit. The researchers found membership activism to be a significant ingredient in successfully organizing campaigns. Catano

(2010) found loyalty, satisfaction, activism, and democracy are the important views and attitudes for potential union members. Goods (2011) suggested that unions incorporate sustainability into their strategies. Goods suggested that this strategy could engage the members and incorporate the employers.

Scholars have different views regarding the effect of union corruption on membership (Coombs & Cebula, 2011; Godard, 2009; Greene-May, 2011; Moore &

Bales, 2012; Phillips-Fein, 2011). Incidents of embezzlement, theft, and illegal elections affect union membership by a coefficient of .007% (Coombs & Cebula, 2011). Phillips-

Fein (2011) found organized labor operates as a racketeer, employs organized-crime members, and exercises excessive power over union members. Union racketeers permit employers to run as a non-union, enabling them to pay wages lower than what the standard collective-bargaining agreement requires (Phillips-Fein, 2011). Corruption is

38 both personal character flaw and a structure of the union created to funnel payments from organized crime to politicians (Greene-May, 2011). Union membership dropped after the

U.S. Senate’s McClellan Committee hearings exposed widespread corruption and racketeering in the labor movement (Phillips-Fein, 2011). In 1983, the Organized Crime

Strike Force in Chicago estimated that approximately 85 labor organizations and parent unions were suspected of being associated with or controlled by organized racketeering elements (Phillips-Fein, 2011). Thieblot (2010) discussed the disregard unions have for the law by seeking political favors through corrupt symbiotic relationships with politicians. Lerner (2011) suggested that unions focus on mobilization without fear of offending their political associations. Unions recruit friends, cronies, and organized-crime members who need a legitimate cover for their criminal endeavors (Phillips-Fein, 2011).

Stepan-Norris and Southworth (2010) investigated the effects of rivalry among unions on union membership. Although it is expected that unions be democratic and run in solidarity, research shows that unions’ commitment to common goals promotes cooperative efforts but that their rivalry produces destructive competition. For example, rival unions sometimes engage in deal making with employers against other unions. The researchers found such rivalry hampers resources, personnel, and innovative tactics that have the potential to increase union membership. Eidlin (2009) provided the landmark account of the Minneapolis International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) and Trotskyist leaders of Minneapolis Local 544. The IBT sought state intervention in union affairs to dismantle Local 544. Although this effort was successful, it initiated the erosion of the union foundation and opened the door to future anti-union legislation.

Heery (2009) explored the dominant themes in unions’ revitalization literature with an emphasis on neoliberalism. The researcher focused on the historical split between the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations’ 2005 campaign called Change to Win. The ideological split occurred because of the tradition of union exclusivity or class organization within a broader international labor movement.

Heery (2009) suggested labor unions focus on solidarity and build relationships to enlarge their movement’s scope. Labor unions must build strategic civil support on broader issues than neoliberalism and focus on organizing the collective capacity of working individuals (Heery, 2009).

Brochu and Morin (2012) examined the links between job insecurity and union membership. The study used a limited sample size of private-sector workers between the ages of 18 and 60 who were not self-employed between 1978 and 2008. The researchers found that educated and older individuals had less fear about job insecurity than part-time workers and African Americans. The quality of employer-employee relations is economically and statistically significant to job security, but inconclusive to union membership decisions (Brochu & Morin, 2012). A union employee in the manufacturing industry has a 7.0% probability of being insecure about employment (Brochu & Morin,

2012). The researchers concluded union members were 3.1 and 3.9% percentage points likely to be insecure in regards to employment. Mechtel and Stahler (2011) discussed how employers who use temporary agency staffing circumvent the associated union cost to terminate an employee. Temporary work agencies would increase long-term contracts if unions included them in a collective bargaining agreement.

Zullo (2011) examined the role that organized labor plays as a benefactor for community-based charity. Researchers have found both national and local union membership to be positively associated with per-capita donations to United Way campaign drives (Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011). Zullo discussed how local communities benefit indirectly from collective bargaining and unions’ political action.

For example, unions serve as formal fundraisers for national charities through payroll deductions and food donations at the local level. Zullo found union membership increases the probability of civic volunteering by 4.5% and increases attendance at community meetings by 4.0. There is also a 4.2% probability that union members would donate $25 to charity in the past year.

Economic Factors

Scholars have debated the effects of globalization on union membership in the scholarly literature (Griswold, 2010; Hirsch, 2010; Magnani & Prentice, 2010;

McCallum, 2011). As discussed in Hirsch (2010), globalization has forced employers to reduce labor costs, increase the availability of lower-cost labor, and reduce the effectiveness of collective bargaining. Griswold (2010) posited that the effects of globalization on union membership are secondary to the primary national driving forces.

Magnani and Prentice (2010) found that the union wage premium increased with the extent of the worker outsourcing, but did not affect union membership. In contrast,

Tuerck (2010) found that project labor agreements exclude non-union contractors and workers from public projects due to the political backlash. Jalette and Hebdon (2012) found union wages increased the cost of public services and threatened the use of

41 privatization. Unions utilized a variety of strategies to defeat privatization efforts. As discussed in Vedder (2010), some unions have negotiated labor contracts where marginal labor cost exceeds marginal revenue. Block and Berg (2009) suggested that unions reduce operational cost by assuming additional responsibilities previously performed by management.

Union membership has dropped from 36% to less than 8%, while imports in relation to gross domestic product increased from 6% to 23% (Griswold, 2010). The labor supply in countries with little capital has suppressed wages and compensation, hindering organized labor’s ability to improve workplace conditions (Griswold, 2010;

Hirsch, 2010). Magnani and Prentice (2010) suggested that globalization has a negative effect on collective bargaining, but does not outweigh the benefits gained. Globalization allows companies to avoid restrictive work rules that stifle innovation, reduce productivity, and inhibit the response time to market conditions (Griswold, 2010). The effects of globalism have also required organized labor to form collaborative foreign- employee organizations designed to create voluntary global labor standards (Griswold,

2010; Hirsch, 2010; McCallum, 2011).

Bieler, Lindberg, and Sauerborn (2010) examined the possibilities for labor unions to represent members and workers in general, in transnational companies. The researchers emphasized the greater part unions must play in regard to sociopolitical issues and the global economy. According to the researchers, Bieler et al. stated transnationalism increases the possibility of companies relocating and motivates workers to accept current wages and working conditions in order to keep their jobs. Labor unions

42 cannot function in a transnational group because they do not have a monopoly on labor.

They must still operate globally, incorporate underprivileged groups, and create a new perception of labor (Bieler et al., 2010).

Burns (2010) focused on the economic power of the strike as a key weapon in collective bargaining. The researcher revealed how the essence of collective bargaining is rooted in the ability of unions to impose economic sanctions on employers through the strike. The threat of a strike enables unions to bargain for better working conditions and secure employment, but unions must confront illegitimate restrictions in resisting the forces of global capitalism (Burns, 2010). In contrast, Martin and Dixon (2010) concluded that unions must evaluate all of the peripheral issues before making a decision to strike. The researcher determined globalism and corporate resistance to be major deterrents to strike activity.

Rosenfeld (2010) tested competing hypotheses of how economic sectors affect union membership voting. According to the researcher, unions operate as civic organizations that foster skills and knowledge to increase political participation, thus connecting workplace issues to the political sphere. Declining union membership threatens to remove an important buffer against political inequality in the United States

(Rosenfeld, 2010). The researcher revealed private-sector union members had a 6.7% higher probability of voting than non-union members. The comparable probability for public-sector union members is 2.4%. Flavin and Radcliff (2011) found union members have the highest probability to be a registered voter; more than any other general predictor. Rosenfeld found union membership to be an equal opportunity mobilizer with

43 consistent political influence across nations. Lamare (2010) posited socioeconomic status mitigates the probability of a union member being a registered voter. Zullo (2008) found that pro-labor political candidates find it difficult to increase working class voter support.

Boniface and Rashmi (2012) examined the usefulness of interest-based bargaining in realizing mutual gains for the employee and employer. Interest-based bargaining strengthens the union, negotiates employment terms and conditions, and strategically resolves workplace issues (Boniface & Rashmi, 2012). The study revealed a pattern of employee concessions that required prior benefits returned to the employer. Collaboration between workers and management increases productivity and quality. When the bargaining approach of the negotiators does not meet employees’ aspirations, this jeopardizes union solidarity (Boniface & Rashmi, 2012). The researchers found interest- based bargaining to be effective in resolving strategic workplace problems. Fisk (2011) argued the importance of unions protecting the intellectual property rights and managing markets for the labor and ideas of writers. The failure to secure the property rights, labor markets, and regulation gaps are significant factors to de-unionization.

Zimmer (2011) described the economic, political, and social issues of the union movement, demonstrating how neoliberalism hinders union success. The researcher posited that unions can play a valuable role in the restoration of economic equality during the great recession crisis. Because it favors unregulated markets, neoliberalism is a major cause of declining union membership (Volscho, 2012; Zimmer, 2011). Zimmer advocated a transnational union to increase membership, strengthen the labor movement, and bring equality to the economy. In particular, Zimmer emphasized increased

44 competition in the global market and how neoliberalism is at odds with macroeconomics

(Chan, 2010; Lawson, 2011).

Holcombe and Gwartney (2010) examined the effects of unionization on economic freedom and market growth Holcombe and Gwartney discuss how labor law has altered the terms and conditions of collective bargaining to provide unions with an advantage over firms. Collective bargaining is conceptually an economic freedom, but current labor law has limited the freedom of contract between employers and employees

(Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010). According to the researchers, the steady decline of unionized industries and workforce migration away from them are the effects of unionization. Some have attributed the decline of private-sector unionization to high union-contract labor costs (Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010). In contrast, Steigerwald

(2010) suggested that technological advances are significant to displaced union workers and require negotiation through collective bargaining.

Conceptual Framework Analysis

Jones and McKenna (1994) recognized the links between employee wage, employment level, and future union membership. Membership is behavioral because employees are likely to become union members when the benefit of being a member outweighs the benefit of non-membership. The benefit of union membership is a motivating factor when steady state employment is questionable. The benefits from paying the union dues and retention probabilities must exceed the cost of the union dues

(Jones & McKenna, 1994). The researchers found that an increase in union dues increased steady-state employment and increased union membership. In addition, an

45 increase in interest rates increased steady-state employment and increased union membership. Employees will also join a union if the marginal benefits and union protection are comparable to the cost (Jones & McKenna, 1994).

Human motivation theory, utility of union membership theory, and collective bargaining theory helped to establish the conceptual framework of this study. I examined the significance of theories in the conceptual framework in predicting declining union membership. I used the conceptual framework to guide the interviews and identify the emerging themes from the interviews.

Fick (2009) addressed the historical and contemporary roles unions have played in creating conditions favorable to democratic equality. The union has had a strategic advantage in mediating socioeconomic-political issues between the elite and the underserved. Unions have effective organizational characteristics that fulfill roles in democratic representation, financial independence, and social/economic concerns

(Catano, 2010; Fick, 2009).

Unions are the quintessential civil society organization, with a scope of influence extending beyond the workplace. Unions affect society as a whole because they make key contributions to (a) creating, (b) maintaining, and (c) rebuilding democratic societies

(Fick, 2009). Unions have been influential in creating democracy in (a) voting, (b) education, (c) housing, and (d) urban renewal. This information is applicable to the current study because it links the utility of the union to human motivation theory. Social needs include belonging to a group. Fick found that unions extend the potential social benefits beyond the borders of the workplace. This study solidifies the purpose for

46 selecting a conceptual framework that includes utility, human motivation, and collective bargaining.

The collective bargaining agreement has benefits beyond the workplace (Dawson,

2010; Lewis & Luce, 2012; Zullo, 2011; Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010). The union’s ability to affect political representation satisfies a social need directly related to human motivation (Judis, 2011; McCartin, 2011; Leymon, 2011). As discussed in Fick (2009), the union’s ability to affect issues outside the workplace is a benefit usually unrecognized by society. The additional benefits of collective bargaining validate the decision to include utility theory in the conceptual framework. The scope of the collective bargaining agreement affects issues outside the workplace (Fick, 2009; Holcombe & Gwartney,

2010; Zullo, 2011).

Carrigan (2011) examined the idea of motivation within the public sector unionized businesses. The perception of public union employees being lazy and delivering substandard performance requires behavior modification (Carrigan, 2011).

Optimal workplace performance is necessary to substantiate the benefits provided and paid for by taxpayers. Various methods are required because a single method will yield many responses (Carrigan, 2011). Rewards and recognitions are tools with different applications and the possibility of creating competition and negative effects. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the preferred model for motivating employees to act unselfishly and encourage productivity (Carrigan, 2011).

Managers must understand how to satisfy basic human needs in the workplace.

Researchers have discussed the use of performance evaluations as a means to determine

47 eligibility for cost of living, performance, and other pay increases (Carrigan, 2011; Liu et al., 2009). Carrigan (2011) solidifies the inclusion of Maslow’s (1943) human motivation in the conceptual framework of this study. The union’s ability to satisfy basic needs through collective bargaining is the rationale for the conceptual framework design. The overarching human motivation theory (Maslow, 1943) is triangulated with Jones and

McKenna’s (1994) utility of union membership theory and Webb’s (1891) collective bargaining theory to investigate declining union membership.

Courtney (2010) discussed the continuing evolution of labor relations in contrast to the current collective bargaining issues in the viability of private-sector collective bargaining. The election of President Obama increased interest in collective bargaining because organized labor had donated $450 million to the 2008 Obama election campaign

(Schuster, 2009). The collapse of the banking industry and health insurance initiatives caused the union agenda to get sidelined (Courtney, 2010). Union membership rates and current market trends do not support collective bargaining. The overall labor practices to outsource, downsize, and close plants illustrate an economic downturn. Furthermore, unfavorable public opinion has overshadowed unions’ efforts to reverse declining membership. Many individuals view the union as focused on self-interest to the detriment of public interest (Courtney, 2010).

The public perception of collective bargaining is of interest in this study. Martinez and Fiorito (2009) discussed the general feelings employees have towards their employer and the potential union significant to union certification. The researcher selected the concept of collective bargaining as part of the conceptual framework of this study

48 because it essentially states the terms of employment. Human motivation to be a union member and the utility of union membership is linked to the terms of the collective bargaining agreement. The conceptual framework of this study used this triangular approach to define the scope of the research. The use of any single theory does not consider the effect of the remaining two theories.

Adams (2011) argued that collective bargaining is essentially a human right; most usually considered an option for disgruntled workers to gain acceptable terms of employment. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has suggested that collective bargaining should be a minimum condition of employment, providing workers the right to negotiate the terms of their employment (Adams, 2011). The perception of collective bargaining as an economic problem instead of human right is a major reason for why employee right-to-work laws do not address autocratic management issues. Collective bargaining provides workplace laws that enable negotiations with equal representation.

The civil and political values of collective bargaining protect worker dignity (Adams,

2011). The historical position of employers to avoid unions illustrates the need to have collective bargaining become a minimum requirement for everyone employed under standardized conditions of work. The central issue is that employers’ abilities to determine the terms and conditions of employment have a basis on their level of benevolence. The ILO does not require participating governments to enact legislation requiring collective bargaining. The ILO prefers participating governments to bring about collective bargaining through indirect methods to force companies to recognize unions

(Adams, 2011).

Transition and Summary

The preceding literature review detailed the extant scholarship on the phenomenon of declining union membership. The historical background of collective bargaining reveals political, social, demographic, and economic factors operative during the developmental stages of unionization (Cooper, 2011; Gallaway, 2010; Gross, 2012;

Livingston, 2011). Cooper (2011) advocated the value of employee voice in collective bargaining. Before the Wagner Act, employer-sponsored programs satisfied employee needs outside the regular scope of collective bargaining (Cooper, 2011). During U.S.

Senate hearings, Senator Wagner called the employees advocating employer-based programs “puppets” because they supported alternative programs. Employer-based programs before the Wagner Act satisfied the general employee concerns within collective bargaining (Cooper, 2011).

The current factors contributing to the decline union membership have increased in the political arena. Republican-led initiatives in recent months to restrict or eliminate collective bargaining are a major development in the affairs of trade unionism (Hogler &

Henle, 2011; Rachieff, 2012). Meanwhile, scholars continue to debate whether unions are the key to business stabilization and revitalization (Fick, 2009; Zullo, 2011).

The factors that I outlined in the literature review were involved in my exploration of how unions located in Los Angeles County experienced the phenomenon of declining union membership. I used a social-constructivist worldview in the discovery of common themes. In Section 2, I provide further details on the methodology, the researcher’s role, the chosen participants, data collection, and the study process.

Section 2: The Project

The legal, ethical, and political environment of union membership and collective bargaining has been the subject of many scholarly articles (e.g., Adams, 2011; Burns,

2011). The resurgence of the Employee Freedom Choice Act indicates an effort to restore unionization to previous levels by the circumvention of legal ambiguities in the Taft-

Hartley Act (Seaton & Ruhsam, 2009). The inability to get the Employee Freedom

Choice Act approved by Congress has stifled this effort. The legal ambiguities in the

Taft-Hartley Act and the defeat of the Employee freedom Choice act have forced labor unions to pursue other methods to increase union membership (Courtney, 2010).

In this qualitative, phenomenological study, I collected and analyzed data on how union representatives in Los Angeles County experienced declining union membership.

The resulting data could offer insight into possible solutions to fragmentation within this bureaucratic system. In Section 2, I outline the following: (a) the purpose statement, (b) the role of the researcher, (c) the participants, (d) research method and design, (e) population and sampling,(f) ethical research, (g) data collection, (h) data analysis technique, (i) reliability and validity, and (j) transition and summary.

Purpose Statement

The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to understand how union representatives in Los Angeles County are experiencing declining union membership. The goal of this qualitative phenomenological study was to collect, present and analyze data on how union representatives with a minimum of 3 years of employment experience the phenomenon. The specific population was union

52 representatives located within a 100 mile radius of Los Angeles. A qualitative research methodology is appropriate for exploring and understanding how individuals or companies have experienced the phenomenon (Bernard, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011;

Wolcott, 2009). I sought to understand and explain how participants have experienced the declining union membership phenomenon. Marshall and Rossman (2011) posited that qualitative phenomenological research seeks to understand the lived experiences of the participants in order to gain insight into the phenomenon. Denzin (2009) argued that the case study method is preferred in the study of a modern event where behavior cannot undergo manipulation.

The effects of collective bargaining on organizations outside the workplace support the necessity of this research (Fick, 2009; Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010; Weber,

2011; Zullo, 2011). The current political landscape, pending legislation, and the global economic crisis have created a perfect storm centered on collective bargaining

(Holcombe & Gwartney, 2010; Magnani & Prentice, 2010; Rosenfeld, 2010; Zimmer,

2011). This study has the potential to enhance unions’ strategic initiatives. These study findings could bring to light union issues in relation to national and global trends involving collective bargaining, the utility of union membership, and the human motivation to become a union member. split lengthy paragraphs for easier reading-single topic per paragraph please. As noted on page 68 of the APA6 Manual, “If a paragraph runs longer than one double-spaced manuscript page, you may lose your readers. Look for a logical place to break a long paragraph, or reorganize the material.”

Role of the Researcher

I am an African American male with 25 years of experience in business and management. I previously worked in a union environment, for 3 years, as an employee.

Through my experience as a union employee, I gained insight into the union environment and related issues mentioned within the literature review. Through member checking on the interview transcriptions, I was able to reduce personal bias. My principle responsibilities were to collect, organize, and interpret data, as well as to provide the results, pursuant to Creswell’s (2009) dimensions of qualitative research. I obtained permission to use Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire as a reference to design the interview questions for this study. I used the literature review to provided pertinent background information regarding declining union membership. I did not have a personal relationship with any of the participants.

Participants

I required the participants in this study to have a minimum of 3 years’ experience as a representative of a union organization located within a 100-mile radius of the metropolitan Los Angeles area. The participants were required to have a minimum of 2 years of experience working directly with union employees in the workplace. The participants were located through a Google search engine, metropolitan union websites, and personal rapport with union gatekeepers. I visited websites of unions physically located in Los Angeles County to identify potential participants. I included no more than three participants from the same industry to reflect the larger population. Purposive and snowball sampling ensured participants had the required experience for the study (Cooper

& Schindler, 2008; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). I purposely selected the participants to consider the variety of unions located in Los Angeles County, and from a variety of vocational backgrounds to represent the larger population. As discussed by Zullo (2012), union demographics have a behavioral and structural effect on union membership. Therefore, I selected participants from different types of unions to include various industries, educational levels, genders, and ethnicities, and verified participants’ eligibility to take part in this study before their actual participation (Rubin &

Rubin, 2012). I used the demographic profile of each participant to explore common themes emerging from the data. I analyzed the data to discover common themes in regards to the type of union, industry, and sex of the participant. All participants had the opportunity to review my synthesis of their interviews and correct any misinterpretations

(Sangasubana, 2011; Wolcott, 2009). I selected a sample size of 20 participants for this qualitative phenomenological study (see Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

The Walden University Institutional Review Board (IRB) ensured compliance with ethical standards before I conducted any research. Walden University’s approval number for this study is 07-17-13-0227842. I provided each participant with a consent form, containing a general description of the study, data confidentiality, and provisions ensuring anonymity, and with contact information for both the IRB representative and myself. The participants could withdraw from the study at any time.

Research Method and Design

The purpose of this study was to identify and explore factors adversely contributing to decline union membership in Southern California. I used the literature

55 review to disclose several factors generally accepted by scholars to have a significant effect on the phenomenon. The goal of this qualitative study was to reveal how local union representatives in Los Angeles County were experiencing this national phenomenon.

Method

I chose a qualitative methodology to include the voices of union representatives located in Los Angeles County (Creswell, 2009). Qualitative inquiry provides a platform for members to provide insight on their personal experience with the phenomenon

(Baumbusch, 2010; Bernard, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The focus of qualitative inquiry is to examine, understand, and describe participant experience with the phenomenon and to identify the participants’ thought processes (Denzin & Lincoln,

2011). The natural setting of this study was in the field, where the phenomenon occurred.

I designed this study to collect data from participants with personal experience within the phenomenon and a purposive understanding of the phenomenon. Therefore, a qualitative methodology was appropriate for this study.

A quantitative methodology is appropriate when the research question involves testing a hypothesis (Bernard, 2013), but this study did not involve hypothesis testing.

Similarly, a mixed-methods approach is where the researcher triangulates data and provides support for the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the study. A mixed methods approach would also require hypothesis testing. A mixed-methods approach was not appropriate for this study due to time constraints. Walden University requires the study to be completed within one year of the original IRB Approval date. I designed this

56 study to explore the participants’ lived experiences (Sangasubana, 2011). The research questions are not required to be analyzed statistically. Based on the nature and objectives of this study, the research affirmed the appropriateness of a qualitative phenomenological design. A social-constructivist worldview reduces bias and ensures the validity through the members’ verification of the transcribed interviews (Bernard, 2013; Wolcott, 2009).

Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire and this study’s literature review provided the basis for developing open-ended interview questions. I used a semi structured interview approach. Wolcott (2009) advocated the use of semi structured interviews with follow-up questions to gain an understanding of the participants’ answers. Ryan, Coughlan, and Cronin (2009) advocated the use of semi- structured interviews with open-ended questions to promote spontaneous, in-depth answers. Likewise, Baumbusch (2010) posited that the interview should be a semi- structured, guided conversation. Therefore, I used semi structured interviews in this qualitative phenomenological study.

I provided participants with a consent form, prior to conducting the interviews

(see Appendix C), and used the demographic profile of each participant to discover common themes and/or trends. The demographic profile identified the complexities of general responses relative to industry, years of service as a union representative, and gender. I recorded the interviews with the permission of participants, and ensured data security and anonymity to prevent inhibition, and I transcribed all interviews verbatim and coded the responses using the Tesch’s (1990) eight-step process. I then analyzed the interviews using Moustakas’s (1994) modified van Kaam method. Member checking

57 ensured the interpretation of each interview was accurate (Jones et al., 2012). Data were entered into NVivo 10 software and analyzed for emerging themes.

Research Design

I chose a qualitative phenomenological design to understand how union representatives have experienced the phenomenon of declining union membership in

Southern California. I included Jones and McKenna (1994) on utility of union membership, Webb (1891) on collective bargaining, and Maslow (1943) on human motivation in the conceptual framework of this study. James (2011) found a conceptual triangulation provides unique insight into the complex phenomenon. In support, Crump and Logan (2008) argued a conceptual triangulation provides a robust platform for ensuring the systematic collection and analysis of data. Denzin (2009) argued the value of using a conceptual triangulation to capture all that is relevant and necessary to the shared meaning within the phenomenon. The hermeneutic phenomenologist seeks to grasp how an experience influences the choices of participants (Flood, 2010).

The goal of this study was to understand the business problem. Declining union membership has a financial loss associated with the reduction of union dues. Information gathered could develop policies and procedures for stabilization. Phenomenological research is appropriate when seeking to develop a deeper understanding of a business problem (Bernard, 2013; Marshall & Rossman, 2011). Phenomenology researchers attempt to develop descriptive insights into the conditions or similarities consistently recognized within the lived experience of a phenomenon (Jones et al., 2012).

I considered both grounded theory and case-study methodologies for this project.

Grounded theory involves a sociological perspective on the problem rather than a conceptual framework (Age, 2011). A generalized explanation is needed for understanding the phenomenon through this approach (Bulpitt & Martin, 2010).

Grounded theory, however, was not best suited to achieve the goals of this research.

Grounded theory is rooted in observation but would exceed the time constraints of this research study.

I use the research question of this study to focus on the lived experiences of the participants. Phenomenology is appropriate because it focuses on the participant’s lived experience and interpretations. In contrast, case study researchers seek to understand a specific event or distinct occurrence experienced by participants in a study (Bulpitt &

Martin, 2010). Case studies also include varied data-collection methods over prolonged periods of time (Denzin, 2009). I rejected the case study design for this research because the phenomenon in question was not a specific event.

Population and Sampling

The literature review revealed a complex and interdependent union environment besieged by a declining union membership. This study fills a gap in the literature by exploring how union representatives have experienced this phenomenon. The general population consisted of union representatives located in Southern California within a

100-mile radius of Los Angeles.

I used purposive and snowball sampling in order to achieve a sample size of 20 participants for the study with a minimum of 3 years’ experience as full-time union

59 representatives. Three years of experience was selected as a minimum requirement to ensure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Marshall and Rossman (2011) attributed purposive sampling to the selection of individuals providing an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Likewise, Denzin and Lincoln (2011) posited that purposive sampling sets the criteria for representation of essential attributes needed for data collection. Cooper and Schindler (2008) found that purposive sampling provided unique contributions and perceptions relevant to the conceptual framework. Therefore, I chose purposive sampling for this study, and used snowball sampling to identify potential participants satisfying the purposive sampling criteria.

A sample size of 20 is acceptable for qualitative research (Denzin & Lincoln,

2011). Creswell (2009) recommended a sampling size of 20 to 30 interviews to achieve data saturation. Data saturation is reached in qualitative inquiry when the researcher can no longer identify additional themes (Walker, 2012). In support, Green and Thorogood

(2009) found that most researchers obtain saturation after the completion of 20 interviews. Therefore, I chose to conduct 20 interviews to achieve data saturation, and chose the phenomenological design to gather information from the targeted region. The sample size of this study is not based on the population of the selected geographical location (Cooper & Schindler, 2008). I used open-ended questions to gather data, and concluded each interview with a snowball strategy, by asking each participant to recommend potential participants who fit the research criteria.

Ethical Research

Walden University doctoral students are required to submit a research proposal to the school’s Institution Review Board (IRB) before collecting and analyzing research data. The IRB ensures that research proposals meet the criteria of institutional regulations, professional practice, and applicable laws (Alcadipani & Hodgson, 2009;

Beskow, Grady, Iltis, Salder, & Wilfond, 2009). Documentation of ethical research demonstrates the research methodology’s credibility and the researcher’s trustworthiness

(Bulpitt & Martin, 2010). Researchers should protect their research participants, develop their trust, and promote the integrity of the research (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Van

Deventer, 2009). As discussed by Alcadipani and Hodgson (2009) and Van Deventer

(2009), federal laws governing research involving human subjects as well as the Belmont

Principles of respect, beneficence, and justice support IRB regulations.

I selected participants using purposive sampling, and asked the participants whether they were willing to be involved in the study. In addition, I provided each participant with a consent form to indicate their voluntary participation and the confidentiality of their identity, and informed the participants of their right to withdraw from the study at any time. Before the conduction of the interviews, I obtained permission from the participants to record their answers and if a participant denied such permission, extensive notes were taken. The identities and responses of all participants remained confidential throughout the study. I used coding to maintain participants’ anonymity (e.g., as R1, R2), and did not use any incentives to increase participation. Each participant reviewed the transcription of the interview to ensure that the researcher

61 correctly interpreted the intended message. I placed all data collected in this study in a fireproof safe for a period of 5 years, accessible only by me. To protect the rights of participants, I will destroy all information 5 years after completion of the study.

Data Collection

Instruments

Kelly and Kelly (1994) developed the Participation in Trade Unions

Questionnaire to measure employees’ participation in union activities. Veenstra and

Haslam (2000) employed Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) instrument to develop an instrument for measuring industrial protest participation. The interview questions in this study stemmed from both Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) and Veenstra and Haslam’s (2000) instruments to discover common themes.

As discussed by Jones et al. (2012), the interviewing process provides a systematic, efficient, and unbiased approach to collect data. Interviewing was the primary data collection method for this study. Kelly and Kelly’s (1994) Participation in Trade

Unions Questionnaire (Appendix A) and this study’s literature review provided the basis for developing the open-ended research questions that guided the interviews (Appendix

C). I obtained permission to use the Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire as a reference to identify key areas of significance to employee participation in unions

(Appendix B). I modified the data to enable collecting data from union representatives in

Los Angeles County.

I referenced Kelly and Kelly (1994) to support the construct validity of the modified interview questions, and used the open-ended questions to probe the thoughts

62 and feelings of each participant. Wheeler and Bell (2012) argued open-ended interview questions allow the researcher to expand the depth of experience through a broad analysis of participant responses. All participants reviewed the transcripts of their previously recorded interviews (Sangasubana, 2011). A follow-up phone call designed to ensure accurate interpretation of the participants’ intended meanings, took place.

All participants responded to the same interview and follow-up questions to ensure the reliability of the research instrument. The information was gathered, reviewed, verified, coded, and analyzed using the van Kaam data analysis method and finally entered into NVivo 10 software for analysis and the identification of emerging themes.

Data Collection Technique

I obtained lists of potential participants through union websites and public records. I did not have a community research partner; therefore, a letter of cooperation was not required. I initially contacted each participant by phone, and screened potential participants to ensure the satisfaction of the purposive-sampling criteria. I exercised ethical conduct during all stages of this research to ensure the study’s reliability and validity (Alcadipani & Hodgson, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Sangasubana, 2011), and performed each face-to-face interview in the natural setting of each participant. In addition, the researcher used open-ended questions to develop in-depth answers and reduce bias. At the initial meeting, I informed the participants of the study’s commitment to anonymity and confidentiality of their responses, asked each participant to sign an

IRB consent form, and provided each participant with information on how to contact a

Walden University IRB representative for answers to any related questions pertaining to

63 the study, and I provided each participant with my contact information, and I asked for permission to record the interviews from each participant prior to conducting the interview. If the participants denied the request, the researcher took notes in the research journal.

I followed a script during the interview process. The meeting began with a personal introduction to the participant. I asked the participant to introduce him/herself and identify the industry he/she worked in as well as their number of years of employment as a union representative. After the initial greeting, I conducted the interview by asking the primary and follow-up questions listed in Appendix C, and asked each participant the following follow-up questions directly after the primary questions during the initial interviews.

1. How are you affected by this experience?

2. What changes do you associate with declining union membership?

3. What significant events stand out?

4. What remaining thoughts would you like to share?

Upon completion of each interview, I thanked the participants and asked each to provide information on other possible participants who satisfied the purposive-sampling criteria. I asked each participant’s permission to follow-up with a transcription of his or her interview upon completion via email. The follow-up included a telephone call to ensure that the participants received the emailed transcription. Each participant reviewed a transcription of the interview. The participants made any necessary changes and emailed the revision back to me. Upon reception of the revised data, I incorporated the

64 participants’ feedback and emailed the final version of the data to each participant for approval. After the completion of these steps, I reviewed and organized the data. I performed an inductive analysis of the data using Moustakas’s (1994) modification of van Kaam’s method of analysis, coded all interviews using the Tesch (1990) eight-step process, and performed a preliminary analysis. Upon completion of the coding process, I entered the data into NVivo 10 qualitative research software for final analysis and theme identification.

Data Organization Techniques

I followed strict protocols for each interview in order to maintain data collection and organization consistency, and followed the interview questions and sub-questions as a script. In addition, I used a research journal to take notes during the interviews, and recorded and transcribed the interviews verbatim, and excluded any information that identified the participant to maintain confidentiality and anonymity. Each participant received a letter “R” and a corresponding number in order to protect their identity. I performed 20 interviews, referred to each participant as R1 through R20, and screened all data gathered to ensure the confidentiality of all participants. The recorded interviews, verified transcripts, and NVivo 10 results are placed in a password-protected electronic folder. Likewise, I backed up all recorded interviews, verified transcripts, and NVivo 10 results on a secure thumb drive. All raw data collected are stored in a safe located in the researcher’s office. Only I have access to the password-protected electronic folder and safe, and will destroy all information 5 years after completion of the study to protect the rights of each participant.

Data Analysis Technique

I transcribed all interviews verbatim with the exclusion of references to a possible identification of the participant or union they represented and reflected upon notes taken during the interviews. I also provided participants with a copy of their interview transcription to ensure accurate interpretation of their intended meaning, and used member checking to verify the raw data (Baumbusch, 2010; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011;

Rubin & Rubin, 2012). Member checking validates the transcribed interview and reduces researcher bias. The hermeneutical interpretation of the interview requires the participant to verify the accuracy of the transcribed interview. Upon approval, I conducted an inductive analysis using Moustakas’s (1994) modified van Kaam method of analysis to construct a structured written narrative of the meanings of the experience for each participant. I used the Tesch (1990) eight-step process to assign codes to each interview and eliminate redundancy. Upon completion of the coding process, I entered the data into an NVivo 10 software package for the final analysis and theme identification. The NVivo 10 Consultant I worked with signed a confidentiality form to protect the rights of research participants.

There were multiple layers of review in this study: (a) inductive content analysis,

(b) thematic coding, and (c) software analysis (Marshall & Rossman, 2011; Wolcott,

2009). Inductive content analysis is a process used to analyze, organize, and reduce data for coding. Thematic coding is the process of developing a code for the entire participant answers provided in the interviews. I combined the codes into broader themes. Software analysis is the use of qualitative software to discover emerging themes from the data. As

66 discussed by Wolcott (2009), data analysis involves data reduction, analysis, and conclusions.

I transcribed 13 audio recorded interviews. Seven of the participants refused to be recorded. I did not hire anyone to perform the audio transcription. The transcribed recorded and non-recorded interviews were validated by email and phone calls. Upon validation, I read each validated interview to gain a general review of the scope of responses. I then reviewed each interview separately and made notes in the research journal about each interview. I conducted an inductive analysis by using Moustakas’s

(1994) modification of van Kaam’s method of analysis. Moustakas (1994) identified 7 steps in data analysis: (a) listing relevant terminology in a qualitative phenomenological research study, (b) reduction and elimination, (c) grouping related themes of the experience, (d) validating personal descriptions of the experience, (e) constructing individual textual descriptions of the experience, (f) constructing individual structural description of experience, and (g) constructing a structured written narrative of the meanings of the experience.

I listed and grouped the interviews into general categories, unique topics, and others that did not fall into a specific category or topic to structure the review process.

The interviews were coded using the Tesch (1990) eight-step process. Each category was assigned a code. I assigned descriptive wording to each code. The categories contained the most descriptive wording, and I alphabetized all of the codes, assembled the data in the perspective category, and performed a preliminary analysis. The data reduction phase eliminated irrelevant information. I then reviewed the coding process several times to

67 eliminate the redundancy of closely related codes similar in meaning, and upon completion of the coding process, entered the data into NVivo 10 Qualitative software for final analysis and theme identification.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability

The reliability of this study was a priority. The research processes were consistent at every level of data collection and analysis. Marshall and Rossman (2011) discussed the importance of researcher competency to plan and execute the proposed study. The utilization of member checking in the data collection process ensures reliability and validity of personal interviews (Rubin & Rubin, 2012; Wolcott, 2009). I asked each participant the same interview questions. As discussed by Creswell (2009), qualitative reliability indicates that the researcher’s approach was consistent (p. 190). I observed the following procedures.

1. The interview questions posed to all participants were the same.

2. I checked all transcripts carefully for errors.

3. Participants reviewed transcripts of their interview responses.

4. Codes used consistent meanings subject to the NVivo 10 consultant’s

agreement.

5. The researcher employed the help of an NVivo 10 consultant throughout the

data-collection process.

As discussed by Denzin (2009), the goal of reliability is to minimize errors and biases, such that others can audit the study and utilize the design to explore related issues.

Validity

The data-collection phase of this study involved the use of an NVivo 10 consultant as an external auditor. I used the triangulation of data to understand the complexities of emerging themes (Denzin & Lincoln, 2009; Rubin & Rubin, 2012;

Wolcott, 2009). The triangulation elements in this study were (a) industry of the participant, (b) years of service as a union representative, and (c) gender. Denzin (2009) argued the value of using triangulation to capture relevant and important data embedded in the phenomenon’s shared meaning. Rubin and Rubin (2012) supported triangulation to secure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon in question. I used member checking to verify interview transcriptions. Wolcott (2009) posited that participant views, values, and concerns are essential to the validity of the study. Denzin and Lincoln (2011) argued that the validity of qualitative research must be a fusion of method and analysis to produce truth. The results of the study must have the capacity of reproduction by subsequent researchers. I included any adverse or discrepant information in the report, used contrary information to address the study’s external validity, and used peer debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the study.

Transition and Summary

I created this qualitative phenomenological study to explore how union representatives in Los Angeles County experienced declining union membership. I used van Kaam’s modified method of data analysis and NVivo 10 software to identify emerging themes. The 20 participants had been union representatives for more than 3

69 years. I conducted personal interviews using identical open-ended questions to extract the lived experiences of participants

The historical, political, social, economic, and demographic factors that I identified in the literature review were areas of a potential impact. I designed the study to increase the existing body of knowledge in regards to declining union membership. In

Section 3, I provide the results of this study and recommendations for future research.

Section 3: Application to Professional Practice and Implications for Change

I designed this study to explore the factors leading to declining union membership. The central research question was: How are union representatives experiencing declining union membership in Los Angeles County? The study’s conceptual framework integrated three models: Jones and McKenna (1994) on the utility of union membership, Maslow (1943) on human motivation, and Webb (1891) on collective bargaining. I sought to understand the unique voices of union representatives in

Los Angeles County. The results of this study revealed the lived experiences of the participants.

This section contains the study results that identify the key themes participants perceived as leading to the decline of union membership. I conducted interviews using open-ended questions with 20 union representatives having a minimum of 3 years of union experience, and evaluated the results through the research question, the conceptual framework, and peer-reviewed literature. The following topics are provided in this section: (a) an overview of the study, (b) the findings of the research, (c) application to professional practice, (d) implications for social change, (e) recommendations, (f) reflections, (g) a summary, and (h) study conclusions.

Overview of Study

Unions in the United States are experiencing the lowest overall percentage of membership since the signing of the National Labor Relations Act in 1935 (Livingston,

2011). The decline in union membership negatively affects the middle class and undermines equality values (Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). Union members

71 support national and local nonprofit organizations affecting positive social change (Zullo,

2011).

I conducted 20 open-ended interviews with union representatives with a minimum of 3 years of union experience. I explored their experience of declining union membership in Los Angeles County and found that the need for union representation influences union members and threats concerning employment (R6; R16; R20). Union membership primarily functions in response to the leadership of the union and quality of the meetings (R3; R6). Unions are equally efficient in bargaining for (a) wages/ benefits,

(b) improving labor conditions, and (c) representing union members in labor issues (R5;

R7; R9; R13; R17; R19). Political organizations adversely affect union membership (R1;

R13; R20). Ronald Reagan’s decision to fire the air-traffic controllers was the most significant historical event contributing to the decline of union membership (R1; R11;

R12; R13; R19; R20). The participants perceived declining union membership adversely affected by globalism and a negative perception of unions (R1; R2; R6; R7; R15).

Presentation of the Findings

The research question was: How are union representatives experiencing declining union membership in Los Angeles County? In order to answer this question, I used a social-constructivist worldview to identify and develop common themes that emerged from 20 interviews. The interview questions were:

1. How would you describe declining union membership?

2. Describe union employee participation within the union?

3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?

4. How would you describe your communication with union members?

5. What influences membership participation?

6. How are union members involved in contract negotiation?

7. How would you describe your relationship with union members?

8. What is the cause for declining union membership?

9. How is union membership affected by outside organizations?

10. What effect does labor law has on union membership?

11. What additional information would you like to add that was not asked?

I sought to ensure the reliability of this study by asking each participant the same questions (Moustakas, 1994). I used a social-constructivist worldview to reduce bias and ensure the validity through the participants’ verification of their transcribed interviews

(Bernard, 2013; Wolcott, 2009). Additionally, I transcribed and summarized all interviews to eliminate redundancy using the modified van Kaam method of phenomenological analysis (see Moustakas, 1994). Upon verification, each interview was entered into NVivo 10 software for analysis.

Each question in the interview corresponded to a categorical coded node in the

NVivo 10 software. I placed each participant’s complete response within the categorical node for that question. All categorical nodes contained the responses of all 20 participants. I created sub nodes from the categorical node to code the emerging themes.

The emerging themes are a subset of the perspective categorical node identified in Table

1. I setup the NVivo 10 software to identify categories and major categories that mirrored

73 the interview questions. Data analysis of answers to the open-ended interview questions revealed the 11 major categories illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1

Emerging Themes with Percentage of Categorical Response

Percentage of Theme Categorical Node Participants

Appointed Representation Contract Involvement 70%

Political Organizations External Organizational Effect 65%

Quality of Communication Communication 55%

Employee Needs Participation Influence 45%

Quality of Meetings Union Participation 35%

Complaints Quality of Relationship 35%

Management Opposition Description of Unions 30%

Labor Conditions Effectiveness of Unions 30%

Representation of Members Effectiveness of Unions 30%

Wage and Benefits Effectiveness of Unions 30%

Influences Membership Labor Law Effect 30%

Reagan vs. PATCO Significant Event 30%

Outsourcing/Offshoring Perceived Cause 25%

Demographics

The participants reflected 10 industries, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Industries represented in the study.

The study involved three public sector unions: Postal, Public Safety, and City

Services. The private sector unions included: Clerical, Trade Unions, Hospitality,

Entertainment, Agriculture, Retail, and Transportation Industries, as illustrated in Figure

Figure 2. Public and private unions categorized by industry.

There were 18 males and 2 females who participated in this qualitative study. The female participants represented 10% of the total participants. As represented in Figure 3, and Figure 4, females represent both the public and private sectors.

Figure 3. Union industry categorized by sex of the participant

Figure 4. Public and private union participants categorized by sex of participants.

Emerging Themes

The emerging themes of this qualitative phenomenological study represent responses with the highest percentage within a categorical node. All relevant information is included. Each categorical node represents the individual interview question. Each question in the interview reflects a category with potential to influence union membership. I organized the data to evaluate the union as an organization. The emerging themes in this study illustrate the areas considered factors leading to the decline of union membership, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Emerging themes from interviews

Theme 1: Appointed representation in collective bargaining. The primary theme that emerged was the need to appointment representatives to collectively bargain on behalf of union members. This theme emerged from the category of contract involvement. Seventy percent of the participants said union members did not participate in negotiating the contract. The unique voice of union representatives is detectable in their responses. Participant R6 said, “The leadership negotiates based on personal objectives. Leadership wants to win the contract at all cost to help the union’s position.”

Participant R16 said, “Contract negotiation has really been affected by the recent economic woes. Unions are really fighting to keep both employers and union members satisfied.” Participant R19 added, “They elect union representatives to bargain on their behalf. They ratify the contract by popular vote.” Fifty percent of the participants also

78 said the employees were involved in contract discussions, but not directly involved in negotiations with the employer.

Theme 2: External political, organizational effect. Participants in this study identified political organizations as having an impact on union membership. This theme emerged from the external organizational effect category. Sixty-five percent of the participants suggested political organizations affect union membership. Participant R1 said, “We have a lot of oppositions from conservative forces who are anti-immigrant.”

Participant R19 said, “Only the companies which control labor laws and public perception have impact. Political organizations have both positive and negative impact.”

Participant R20 revealed the essence of union frustration through their response, “Union membership affected by political organizations supported by corporations. The labor laws during the republican controlled White House designed to stifle unionism.”

Theme 3: Quality of communication. In the category of communication, the quality of communication emerged as the primary theme. Fifty-five percent of the participants viewed the quality of communication as a contributing factor to union membership. The majority of the participants agreed that communication is necessary.

The responses varied. Participant R19 said, “We need to improve. We have been distracted with political issues. We have been focused on survival.” Participant R12 said,

“Communication is also less than adequate.” Participant R9 apologetically said, “It is a work in progress. We have upgraded our communications effort. We utilize graphics to promote readership.”

Theme 4: Employee needs influence participation. In the category of participation influence, employee needs emerged through 45% of the participants.

Interestingly, 40% of the participants also perceived threats as influential. Participant R18 said, “The ability to satisfy needs is important to union members. Union members concerned with salary and benefits. The cost of health care is a major concern.” Almost identical to the previous statement, participant R19 eloquently stated, “Union employees focus on their own needs. They look to unions to satisfy their needs; Participation based on the expectation of satisfied needs.” In support, participant R6 said, “If there is a perceived need to organize against a common issue then people will participate.”

Theme 5: Union members often complain. Union representatives described their relationship with union members as one filled with complaints from the membership. Thirty-five percent of the participants described their members as self- centered. Participant R20 said, “The past three years have been rough. We had to negotiate some tough contracts. The membership is not very pleased with some of the outcomes due to the economy.” Participant R2 said, “The union members complain often.

The union members complain against other union members.” Interestingly, participant

R13 said, “Union members have a lot of complaints. Union members do not support the union until there is a problem.”

Theme 6: Quality meetings. The quality of meetings emerged with 35% of the union participation category. The leadership of the union plays a significant role in regards to the quality of the meetings. Participant R3 said, “Any lack of participation is due to the leadership. Strong leadership unions have strong membership participation.”

Participant R6 said, “There is not enough leadership across the general population.”

Participant R4 said, “Union members do not take on leadership roles like they did in the past.” In addition, participant R3 also said, “It depends on the union. The union the researcher represents has strong participation, stewardship. We have interactive meetings and receive letters from the president every month.”

Theme 7: Unions are effective in collective bargaining. The respondents perceived unions to be equally effective in representing union workers, negotiating wage/benefits, and improving labor conditions. The participants responded equally with

30% in each node. Participant R2 said, “We have a strong health and safety committee.

Management and unions work well together. We sit at the table and talk about the problems. We provide management with suggestions to solve problems.” Participant R16 said, “We have an open door policy to address the members’ needs. We fight to keep our members employed. We settle workplace disputes as soon as possible.” Participant R15 said, “We negotiate the best contract we can within the current economic conditions. We focus on Salary and benefits. We save employees from termination in spite of their work record.”

Theme 8: Management opposition describes declining union membership.

When asked to describe declining union membership, 30% of the participants associated declining union membership with management opposition to unions in the workplace.

Twenty-five percent of the participants focused on political issues and 20% focused on the economy. Participant R14 said, “Most employers do not want unions in the workplace because they demand a lot. Companies simply just can’t afford it. Unions cost the

81 companies too much. Companies are not making profits due to the collective bargaining agreement.” Participant R3 said, “Management opposition to unionization is strong.”

Participant R6 said, “If it is perceived to jeopardize employment; people are very reluctant to join or participate.”

Theme 9: Reagan vs. PATCO is a significant event in union history. I asked participants what they considered the most significant event in labor history. Thirty percent of the participants said that President Ronald Reagan firing of the air traffic controllers was a significant event contributing to the decline of union membership. The

Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) represented these union members. Fifteen percent of the participants identified the Los Angeles City Budget

Crisis of 2010 as a significant event. Ten percent of the participants identified the defeat of the Employee Freedom Choice Act as a significant event. Five percent of the participants recognized the Taft-Hartley Act as a significant event.

Theme 10: Labor law influences union membership. Thirty percent of the participants in this study identified labor law to be influential on union membership.

Participant R16 said, “Union membership participation increases when labor law threatens their employment conditions. Union members seek refuge in the union’s ‘ability to fight for them.” Participant R19 said, “Union members have a good knowledge of what labor law provides for them. We assure them protection under our representation. The culture of an organization determines the necessity of union protection.” “Labor layers help the union resolve issues. Unfair labor practices influences employees to become union members” (R9). “The union member seeks protection under the union contract.

Union members consider the union to be a form of insurance to be used when needed”

(R15).

Theme 11: Outsourcing/offshoring significant to declining union membership. The theme identifying a cause of declining union membership emerged by a narrow margin. Twenty-five percent of the participants recognized outsourcing and offshoring of work by companies’ leaders as a significant cause of declining union membership. Participant R15 said, “Outsourcing is a major offensive used to decrease union membership.” “Outsourcing and offshoring are major contributors” (R18).

Twenty percent of the participants recognized the public perception of unions.

Participant R6 said the following:

There is no perceived value. People buy things which have value. Unions do not

know how to market themselves. Unions need to highlight what membership

means to the union member. They need to translate the features and the benefits

of union membership.

Participant R19 said, “We have never been accepted by the public as a necessary organization. We have always gotten negative publicity. We need to improve our image in regards to public perception.”

Fifteen percent of the participants recognized (a) union strategy, (b) technological advances, (c) political opposition, and (d) labor laws as significant to membership decline. Participant R14 said, “There is no cohesiveness within the union. The union is not strong anymore.” Participant R11 said, “Technology has changed the type of work available.” Participant R15 said, “Technological advances and changes in the business

83 model have decreased manufacturing labor needs.” Participant R17 said, “The

Republican Party and the Tea Party are launching an assault on unions.”

Analysis of Research Findings

I examined the emerging themes in this qualitative phenomenological study through the conceptual framework. The concepts of (a) utility, (b) need, and (c) collective bargaining illustrate the bounded rationality of potential union members. I found the conceptual framework in this study useful to interpret the data. The emerging themes validated the use of this conceptual framework. Maslow (1943) articulated the way needs motivate people. The participants in this study recognized that the needs of a union member are instrumental to membership support. Past researchers have listed threats to security as significant to the decline. Unions enforce labor laws to protect workers. Union members view the enforcement of labor laws as influential to membership decisions.

Ugah and Arua (2011) also found that union members motivated to engage in activities perceived to meet their needs.

The perceived benefits of union membership are prominent. Union representatives reported that the effectiveness of the union influenced their members. Unions are effective in (a) bargaining for salary and benefits, (b) representing the members in labor disputes, and (c) improving labor conditions (citation missing). I found union members consider healthcare to be a valuable benefit. Collective bargaining includes the aforementioned employee wage, benefits, and labor conditions. These findings are consistent with Clark (2012), who associated unions with the (a) reduction of worker turnover, (b) higher wage distribution, (c) increased fringe benefits, (d) dismissal

84 standards, (e) workers' compensation, (f) collective negotiation, and (g) grievance procedures. The union member evaluates the utility of the union through cost versus benefit analysis (Jones & McKenna, 1994).

The collective bargaining agreement determines whether the cost of the union is less than the benefits. Therefore, the concept of collective bargaining is included in the conceptual framework. Union representatives in this study found the union to be very effective in collectively bargaining for the members. I also found that the members complained frequently. In support, Powdthavee (2011) found that unhappy employees were more likely to join a union and participate in its activities. Ironically, this study also found the collective bargaining agreement was affected by the economy. Unions are involved in negative collective bargaining to prevent layoffs. Stepan-Norris and

Southworth (2010) illustrated the deal making environment of collective bargaining in their study.

The emerging theme of appointed representation is consistent with information found in the literature review of this study. Data from this study reflected that members are unsatisfied with the leadership of their unions. Participation is found to be less than

15%. Representatives suggest that the negotiating teams have been attempting to satisfy both the union members and management of the business. Jarley et al. (1997) found the appointed representation method of collective bargaining to be ineffective. The researchers suggested that unions increase employee involvement in contract negotiations and decision-making. Some scholars have claimed that unions are both a democracy and an organizational bureaucracy (Jarley, Fiorito, & Delaney, 1997). Union participation

85 during contract negotiations must involve employee voices to ensure businesses’ addresses their concerns (Estlund, 2012; Strauss & Mapes, 2012).

The political and bureaucratic culture of unions is counterproductive to establishing a healthy organizational culture. The internal operations within unions must develop two-way communications. The union member is dissatisfied with the leadership and limited interaction in contract negotiations. The union member has limited input regarding the overall strategy of the union. Unions require members to pay dues to an organization with no controlling of major strategic decisions. Any attempt to revitalize the union must begin with the culture of the union.

The external influence of political organizations on union membership also emerged as a theme in this study. These findings were consistent with those of the authors detailed in the literature review of this study. Hogler and Henle (2011) discussed the results of political, ideological, and conservative forces like the Tea Party on unionism. In support, Judis (2011) consequently emphasized the Republican Party’s effort to prevent union contributions to the Democratic Party, thereby seeking to change the political landscape of the country.

Political organizations throughout history have negatively affected unions in the

United States (Fiorito, 2007; Hogler & Henle, 2011). In this study, the participants frequently mentioned political issues and their effects on union membership. Unions operate internally as a political group vulnerable to outside politics. The analysis of the data that emerged from this study led to the observation of minimal emphasis on the use of membership feedback. A shift is needed to refocus unions toward organizing and

86 satisfying members’ needs. Unions are focusing on political rivalry while neglecting to nurture their relationship with union members. Conflicting internal interests reduce the union leaders’ ability to unite union members. Dreier (2011) supported the need to focus on internal matters.

A union serves as formal fundraising source for national charities through payroll deductions and food donations at the local level (citation). Union members are emotionally involved with local and national non-profit organizations. Unions’ leadership must tap into their ability to support non-profit organizations and build brand awareness.

Union membership revitalization begins with redesigning the democratic infrastructure and improving the corporate culture (Meardi, 2011; Parker, 2011, Siebert, 2011).

The union representatives described the quality of communication with union members as less than adequate. Communication is vital to the facilitation of strategic initiatives, operational efficiency, and a healthy corporate culture. Meardi (2011) suggested union officials use a cultural, sociological communication plan to satisfy union member needs. In support, Siebert (2011) suggested that unions use the workplace to educate workers and create harmony among employers. Researchers view workplace education as an essential element to the revitalization of union membership.

Unions must improve both their internal and external communication. The internal dialogue must facilitate the strategic initiatives of the employee union. The intellectual capital of the union member should increase the efficiency of the union’s internal functions. Benson and Brown (2010) found increased internal discussion with union members as useful to operational efficiency. Transparency is needed to reduce the image

87 of unions as being corrupt organizations funneling payments to organized crime (Greene-

May, 2011).

The females in this study revealed a significant ability to focus on both internal and external issues. There were two females in this study: Participant R4 and Participant

R17. These participants represented both public and private sectors. Each participant agreed union leaders need to improve internal communications. Participant R4 said,

“Communication limited. There is not a great forum to communicate. We primarily communicate by emails. We have information on the website.” Participant R17 said,

“The communication needs to be improved. It is not enough.” When asked what influences membership, Participant R4 focused on internal operational efficiency.

Participant R4 said, “The biggest impact is proper representation of union members. The effectiveness of addressing union membership interests increases participation.

Participation increases when the effectiveness of the union increases.” Participant R17 focused primarily on external matters. Participant R17 said, “Union members are interested in contract negotiation and labor issues. Community service opportunities get a good response from union members. Union members are active in holiday toy drives, fundraising and feeding the homeless population.” Powdthavee (2011) found that women are significantly more committed to unions than men because they identify with union goals and values. The data in this study support Powdthavee’s findings (2011).

A comparison of industries revealed significant conflict among members, specifically those in trade unions. Union representatives revealed a racial divide among union members in trade unions. African Americans have expressed discrimination

88 concerns in regards to (a) union inclusion, (b) job assignments, and (c) filtered information. Participant 13 said, “African Americans feel neglected and insignificant.

Trade unions make it difficult for African Americans to become members. Trade unions practice racism when assigning projects to the members.” Abel (2011) and Rosenfeld and

Kleykamp’s (2012) research supports this statement. Moreno (2010) provided information on the use of racism to control the supply and demand of labor. There is a need to teach the members about racially motivated systemic problems. The eradication of racial discrimination in the union culture must occur to ensure equal opportunity for all workers.

The data in this study revealed the most significant event in labor history was the firing of air traffic controllers by President Ronald Reagan on August 5, 1981. Twenty- five percent of the participants identified this to be a significant event in labor history.

Fifteen percent of the participants identified the Los Angeles city budget crisis of 2010 to be a significant event. Ten percent of the participants identified the defeated Freedom

Choice Act to be a significant event.

Thirty percent of the participants recognized President Reagan’s firing of the air traffic controllers as significant to declining union membership. Participant R12 said,

“Ronald Reagan’s attack was by design to attack unions.” Participant R13 said, “Ronald

Reagan started the decline of unions with the attack on PATCO.” Participant R1 said,

“Reagan weakened PATCO signaling to employers it’s OK to violate the social contract and attack workers.” Thirty percent of the participants identified globalism as the basis for declining union membership. Interestingly, 20% of the participants identified a

89 negative perception of unions to be the cause of declining union membership. Fifteen percent of the participants identified the points of (a) a new strategy, (b) technological advances, (c) labor laws, and (d) political opposition as significant to declining union membership. Ten percent of the participants recognized budget cuts and employer opposition. Participants identified the points of (a) immigration, (b) jobs, and (c) internal conflict as having a minimal impact on membership; therefore, the findings produced from this study vary from the results of immigration’s impact found in Rosenfeld and

Kleykamp (2009). Figure 6 provides the related categorical percentages.

Internal Conflict Jobs Immigration 3% 3% 3% Employer Opposition 6% Out Sourcing Off Shoring Trust 16% 3%

Budget Cuts 6% Perception 13%

Political Refusal to Join Opposition Strategy 7% Labor Laws 10% 10% 10% Technology 10%

Figure 6. Perceived cause of declining union memberships.

Additional Information from Participants

I asked the participants in this study if they had any additional information to provide insight into the phenomenon of declining union membership. Analysis of their response data found education to be a general interest. Participant R7 said, “New member orientation is essential. Unions are the backbone of democracy. Unions get their strength in numbers. We don’t want to go backwards in time.” Participant R2 said, “It is really important educational institutions to educate students on unions as a whole. The contributions of public sector unions to the local economy and public services need require addressing. Employee pensions are not the main issue of focus.” Participant R17 said, “The general public needs to be educated on the benefits of union protection. There is a great need to develop union leaders who know and understand the union environment.”

Applications to Professional Practice

I have identified 11 themes leading to the decline of union membership. The data revealed union representatives perceive unions to be effective in (a) collective bargaining for wage and benefits, (b) labor conditions, and (c) representing members in labor disputes. Unions need improvement in (a) communication, (b) member relations, (c) member participation, and (d) contract involvement. These themes are significant to strategic revitalization initiatives.

The information provided in this study is useful for evaluating the organizational performance of unions. Each theme listed in Table 1 provides information on how the participants experienced the phenomenon. This study adds to the existing body of

91 knowledge on union membership decline. The study was a comprehensive, qualitative view of declining union membership from a union representatives’ perspective. Union leadership members could use the data to improve their ability to attract new members.

The report is useful for improving internal communication, training union representatives, and increasing the percentage of union members participating in union activities.

Leaders of business organizations can use the data in this study to understand what is relevant to union members. The report provided an insight into improving labor conditions before becoming a target for unionization. It is useful for business leaders to understand how (a) the importance of employee needs, (b) utility of a career development plan, and (c) alignment of policies and procedures affect unionization efforts. The aforementioned employee interests are within the scope of the conceptual framework in this study. The utility of union membership, human motivation based on needs, and the collective bargaining agreement are used to determine what is relevant to decisions regarding membership. The information provided in this study can help to identify factors relevant to potential union members.

Implications for Social Change

I have explored the principal perceptions of union representatives on contributory factors in regards to declining union membership. All of the recognized themes provide insight into how union leaders can address the phenomenon. The existence of unions benefits the economy and society at large (Schuster, 2009; Zimmer, 2011; Zucker &

Zucker, 2009). Any increase in union membership could affect positive social change (a)

92 economically, (b) politically, and (c) socially (Zimmer, 2011). The decline in union membership negatively affects the middle class and undermines equality values

(Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). Union members have been associated with increases in voting and charitable donations (Flavin & Radcliff, 2011; Leymon, 2011;

Zullo, 2011).

Union membership significantly affects social change (Calvasina et al., 2011;

Schuster, 2009; Zucker & Zucker, 2009). Unions are the quintessential civil society organization, with a scope of influence extending beyond the workplace citation. Unions affect society as a whole because they make essential contributions to (a) creating, (b) maintaining, and (c) rebuilding democratic societies. Unions have been influential in creating democracy in (a) voting, (b) education, (c) housing, and (d) urban renewal (Fick,

2009).

I have identified areas where the union could improve the experience of being a union member. Internal communication and participation could be increased by the use of social media, smartphone applications, and webinars. Contract involvement must become transparent and inclusive. Unions must take an aggressive approach to increase brand loyalty through the use of technology. Increasing union membership could lead to (a) larger middle class, (b) increased numbers of registered voters, (c) increased charitable donations, and (d) a more efficient democracy.

Recommendations for Action

It is unlikely that the decline in union membership will turn around in the near future due to inadequate efforts by union leaders (Artz, 2010; Bryson et al., 2010; Flavin

93 et al., 2010). The results of this study indicate the need to develop internal communication, provide a feedback loop, and build strategic alliances. The recommendations for action are as follows:

 Leadership training is needed for all union representatives to increase

emotional intelligence, relational intelligence, and social intelligence.

 Union leaders should provide greater transparency to members during the

collective bargaining process.

 Union membership participation in the collective bargaining process must

include direct involvement.

 Union leaders should increase efforts to build strategic alliances with local

and socially responsive organizations, increase brand recognition and brand

loyalty, emotionally engage their members, and build political coalitions that

are prominent to political candidates.

 Union leaders should seek to educate the public on the benefits of collective

bargaining.

 Union leaders should use web applications and other technology aggressively

to inform and engage union members in two-way communications with their

representatives.

 Union leaders must use customer relations management to build a valued

relationship with members. The principles of customer service should become

a practical application adding value to union membership.

 Union leaders must make workplace organizing a priority over political

fundraising. The needs of the union member supersede any political agenda.

The results of this study can be used to assess the organizational efficiency of a union. Each category listed in Table 1. are important to the operational efficiency

(Benson & Brown, 2010). It is important to keep the union members satisfied as customers. Union leaders have placed a priority on political issues. There is an erosion of core values that historically made unions attractive to union members. Union leaders should pay close attention to these results and disseminate the information in their conferences and training manuals. The information published in management and trade journals should educate the public in regards to the phenomenon of declining union membership.

Recommendations for Further Study

I have identified union representatives’ perceptions of key factors leading to the decline of union membership through this study. Further inquiry is needed to investigate the phenomenon on a state and national level. I recommend other researchers perform the study in various individual industries to compare emerging themes.

I also recommend conducting a quantitative analysis for analyzing key correlates of decisions for union membership based upon a Likert scale using the categorical themes in this study as scale options. The proposed study has the potential to identify statistical significance and relationships among variables associated with declining union membership.

I recommend using a mixed method approach with a Likert scale and open-ended questions as part of a survey. Researchers may distribute the survey to both union members and union representatives. The proposed quantitative study may be helpful for discovering variances in responses and thereby perceptions of the same questions among union leaders, members, and leaders of organizations with whom they negotiate.

Reflections

This process has been enlightening to me as a scholar and researcher. I did not realize the energy it would take to secure interviews with union representatives.

Confidentiality was a primary concern. The participants were initially apprehensive.

Upon providing the confidentiality agreement and utilizing my training in regards to emotional and relational intelligence, the interviewees felt safe. The quality of their feedback increased as the interview proceeded. There were some moments when the experience seemed surreal. The participants poured out their frustrations with intensity. I knew they wanted me to hear and understand their unique voices and experiences.

A few interviewees did not want me to record their interviews. In these situations,

I took notes and assured them of the level of confidentiality provided. I found the representatives closer to the actual membership provided the most valuable feedback.

This supports the researcher’s philosophy of developing a strategy from the bottom up.

Unions are a valuable asset increasing the vitality and economic health of middle class

Americans. The researcher concluded that the union leaders in this study need to increase their level of membership feedback using leadership principles, communication, and the use of technology.

Summary and Study Conclusions

Leaders are responsible for changing the behavior of employees from undesired behavior to desired behavior. It is important to take personal responsibility as a leader.

The organizational culture is a product of the sum of its parts (Meardi, 2011). Union leaders and members must refrain from participation in a culture blaming declining union membership on external forces (Kaufman, 2012). Many view union members as customers. Unions must understand that marketing is not selling. I recommend that unions market their services towards the customer who is ready to become a member.

Collective bargaining is a service where union representatives treat union members as customers. The needs of union members are satisfied through collective bargaining. Union leaders should focus on identifying and satisfying these needs. The internal communication with union members must increase to improve relations. There is a need to increase membership involvement in contract negotiations. The utilization of membership feedback to increase the quality of meetings is imperative. An increase in the transparency of union operations should develop a healthy response by their members.

Customer satisfaction is a priority in business. The customer is always right.

Union leaders should treat union members as customers to collective bargaining.

Providing excellent customer service could increase union membership. Building a sound infrastructure is needed to increase the utility of union membership. Implementing the recommendations of this study can increase the utility of union membership. Failure to implement these recommendations is denial of the best-known business practices.

References

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Appendix A: Permission to Use Research Instrument

Date: August 11, 2011

To: Mr. Melvin J. Rivers

From: Evelyn Perloff, Ph.D.

Enclosed is the:

Participation in Trade Unions Questionnaire (AN 40840) Caroline Kelly and John Kelly

As I have indicated, authors like to receive feedback on your study. All that is asked is that you provide a brief summary of your findings upon completion of your study/project. In addition, we encourage you to send a full report which we will consider for inclusion in Health and Psychosocial Instruments (HaPI) and which you may list on your vita/resume.

You have the author’s permission to use the above instrument.

Please note that the instruments are for a single study only. It is, of course, necessary to provide the appropriate title and author credit in reproduced material and in your report.

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Appendix B: Interview Questions

The following research questions are used to explore, explain, describe, and emancipate factors that have led to the declining union membership.

1. How would you describe declining union membership?

2. Describe union employee participation within the union?

3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?

4. How would you describe your communication with union members?

5. What influences membership participation?

6. How are union members involved in contract negotiation?

7. How would you describe your relationship with union members?

8. What is the cause for declining union membership?

9. How is union membership affected by outside organizations?

10. What effect does labor law has on union membership?

11. What additional information would you like to add that is not asked?

Follow-Up Questions

1. How are you affected by this experience?

2. What changes do you associate with declining union membership?

3. What significant events stand out?

4. What remaining thoughts would you like to share?

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Appendix C: Consent Form

CONSENT FORM

You are invited to take part in a research study of Declining Union Membership. The researcher is inviting union representatives with a minimum of three years employment to be in the study. This form is part of a process called “informed consent” to allow you to understand this study before deciding whether to take part.

This study is being conducted by a researcher named Melvin J. Rivers, who is a doctoral student at Walden University.

Background Information: The purpose of this study is to see how declining union membership is experienced by union representatives with a minimum of 3 years employment.

Procedures: If you agree to be in this study, you are asked to:  Participate in (1) Interview for 45 minutes  Answer open-ended interview questions  Consent to A Recorded Interview  Review Transcribed Interview

Here are some sample questions:

1. How would you describe declining union membership?

2. Describe union employee participation within the union?

3. Describe the effectiveness of your union in the workplace?

4. How would you describe your communication with union members?

5. What influences membership participation?

Voluntary Nature of the Study: This study is voluntary. Everyone will respect your decision of whether or not you choose to be in the study. No one at Walden University will treat you differently if you decide not to be in the study. If you decide to join the study now, you can still change your mind later. You may stop at any time.

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Risks and Benefits of Being in the Study: Being in this type of study involves some risk of the minor discomforts that can be encountered in daily life, such as stress or fatigue. Being in this study would not pose risk to your safety or wellbeing.

This study could potentially benefit union employees and members. The information gained could be used to identify factors leading to declining union membership.

Payment: This study will not provide any compensation for participation. The student is most appreciative for your participation.

Privacy: Any information you provide is kept Confidential. The researcher will not use your personal information for any purposes outside of this research project. Also, the researcher will not include your name or anything else that could identify you in the study reports. Data is kept secure by placing all data in a fire proof safe located in the researcher’s office. Data is kept for a period of at least 5 years, as required by the university.

Contacts and Questions: You may ask any questions you have now. Or if you have questions later, you may contact the researcher via phone at 310-717-1178 or e-mail at [email protected]. If you want to talk privately about your rights as a participant, you can call Dr. Leilani Endicott. She is the Walden University representative who can discuss this with you. Her phone number is 612-312- 1210. Walden University’s approval number for this study is 07-17-13-0227842 and it expires on July 16, 2014.

The researcher will give you a copy of this form to keep.

Statement of Consent:

I have read the above information and I feel I understand the study well enough to make a decision about my involvement. By signing below, I understand that I am agreeing to the terms described above.

Printed Name of Participant

Date of consent

Participant’s Signature

Researcher’s Signature

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Appendix D: Confidentiality Agreement

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Appendix E: NIH Certificate of Completion

Certificate of Completion

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) Office of Extramural Research

certifies that Melvin Rivers successfully completed the NIH Web-based

training course “Protecting Human Research Participants”.

Date of completion: 09/19/2010

Certification Number: 525822

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Appendix F: Node Structure

9/8/2013 5:11 PM

Node Structure

Exploring Factors Leading To Declining Union Membership

9/8/2013 5:11 PM

Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color Node Nodes

Nodes\\Additional Information Yes Red Nodes\\Communication Yes Green Nodes\\Communication\Emails Yes None Nodes\\Communication\Propaganda Yes None Nodes\\Communication\Quality Yes None Nodes\\Communication\Quality\Feedback Yes None Nodes\\Communication\Social Media Yes None Nodes\\Communication\Telephone Calls Yes None Nodes\\Communication\Website Yes None Nodes\\Contract Involvement Yes Blue Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Appointed Representation Yes None Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Contract Discussions Yes None Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Literature Yes None Nodes\\Contract Involvement\Minimal Involvement Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership Yes Orange Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Closed Shop Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Demographic Yes None Changes Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union Yes None membership\Economy\Decreased Manufacturing

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Nodes\\Describe declining union Yes None membership\Economy\Growing Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Economy\Layoffs Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union Yes None membership\Economy\Outsourcing Nodes\\Describe declining union Yes None membership\Economy\Pension Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Failure of Yes None Freedom Choice Act Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Growing Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Management Yes None Opposition Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Motivation Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Negative Media Yes None Coverage Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Obsolescence Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Political Issues Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Political Yes None Issues\News Media Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Retirement Yes None

Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 1 of 4

9/8/2013 5:11 PM Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Service Sector Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social issues Yes None Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social Yes None issues\Community Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social Yes None issues\Family Structure Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Social Yes None issues\Public Services Nodes\\Describe declining union membership\Technology Yes None Nodes\\External Organizational Effect Yes Pink Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Community Yes None Organizations Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Health Organizations Yes None Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Media Yes None Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\No Effect Yes None

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Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Political Yes None Nodes\\External Organizational Effect\Union Cohesiveness Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect Yes Purple Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Decrease Membership Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Employee Scheduling Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Influence Membership Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Member Interest Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\NLRB Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Occupational Safety Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Parameters Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Reduced Middle Class Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\Republican Rollbacks Yes None Nodes\\Labor Law Effect\State Law Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence Yes Green Nodes\\Participation Influence\Advocacy Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Community Fundraising Yes None Volunteer Opportunities

Nodes\\Participation Influence\Effectiveness Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Family Needs Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Giveaways Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Leadership Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Need Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Percentage of Membership Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Representation Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Security Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Threats Yes None Nodes\\Participation Influence\Understanding Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship Yes Blue Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Complaints Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Confidentiality Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\General Meetings Yes None

Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 2 of 4

9/8/2013 5:11 PM

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Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Leadership Meetings Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Membership Interest Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Mutual Respect Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Open Door Policy Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Protection Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Representation Yes None Nodes\\Quality of Relationship\Satisfaction Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause Yes Red Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Budget Cuts Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Employer Opposition Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Immigration Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Internal Conflict Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Jobs Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Labor Laws Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Out Sourcing Off Shoring Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Perception Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Political Opposition Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Refusal to Join Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Strategy Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Technology Yes None Nodes\\Perceived Cause\Trust Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event Yes Orange Nodes\\Significant Event\2008 Economic Collapse Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Freedom Choice Act Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\LA Budget Crisis of 2010 Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Pay Equity Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Prop 32 Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Reagan vs. PATCO Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Taft-Hartley Act Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Union Seniority Status Yes None Nodes\\Significant Event\Wisconsin Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness Yes Yellow Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Community Yes None

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Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Difficulty Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Labor Conditions Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Labor Conditions\Equipment yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Labor Law Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Member Needs Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Political Support Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Re-Hire Furloughs Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Representation Yes None

Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 3 of 4

9/8/2013 5:11 PM Hierarchical Name Nickname Aggregate User Assigned Color Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Retirement Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Training Yes None Nodes\\Union Effectiveness\Wage and Benefits Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation Yes Purple Nodes\\Union Participation\Charitable Events Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Collective Bargaining Agreement Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Community Groups Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Crisis Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Leadership Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Meetings No None Nodes\\Union Participation\Meetings\Promotion Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\No Confidence Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Percentage No None Nodes\\Union Participation\Public Demonstrations Yes None Nodes\\Union Participation\Racism Yes None

Reports\\Node Structure Report Page 4 of 4

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Curriculum Vitae

MELVIN J. RIVERS, MBA

EDUCATION Walden University Doctor of Business Administration Concentration-Leadership 2014

Keller Graduate School of Management Master’s Degree in Business Administration Concentration-Project Management 2009

DeVry University B.S. Technical Management 2006 Concentration-Business Information Systems

AWARDS National Black MBA Doctoral Scholarship 2011 National Black MBA Doctoral Scholarship 2010 Who’s Who Among Students in American Universities and Colleges 2001 Who’s Who Among Students In American Universities and Colleges 2002 TEACHING EXPERIENCE Adjunct Instructor- University of Phoenix 2011-2012 I facilitate courses in the School of Business for both the graduate and undergraduate programs. Areas of concentration include; Management, Project Management, and Organizational Behavior

RELATED EXPERIENCE Chairperson of Volunteerism & Community Affairs- National Black MBA Association -LA Chapter 2011-2012

 Liaison to Community Volunteerism & Community Affairs  Develop Annual Operating Budget  Supervise All Chapter Volunteers  Attend Executive Committee Monthly Meeting  Provide Monthly Operations Report

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Project Coordinator- Project Management Institute-Los Angeles Chapter- 2010- 2011  Distribute monthly communication to Board of Directors  Secure speaker and vendor information for monthly meetings  Coordinate monthly meeting requirements, liaison to Board of Directors and Programs Team, coordinate A/V requirements Business Analyst - Phronesis Consulting - June 06 to Present  Lead the planning and implementation of project  Manage project budget  Manage project resource allocation  Plan and schedule project timelines  P roject evaluations and assessment of results  G enerate standard and custom reports summarizing business activities  Support recommendations for action.  Produce What If Spreadsheets.

Business Analyst– Copy Land- July 2004 – June 2006  Created sales and product/service reports  Performed Advance Excel Calculations  Manage projects on time and within budget  Performed Production Scheduling  Calculated Earned Value

Project Manager - United Methodist Church - October 2001- July 2004  Lead the planning and implementation of project  Facilitate the definition of project scope, goals and deliverables  Define project tasks and resource requirements  Develop full scale project plans

Operations Manager - Presentation Catering - May 1995 – Present  Project Management  Vendor Management  Insure Service Level Agreement  Evaluate Risk

MEMBERSHIPS Project Management Institute- Los Angeles Chapter Association for Management Consulting Firms Academy of Management

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National Black MBA Association delete extra page if one appears in final version