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Thesis Dissertation Thèse de doctorat de Télécom Ecole de Management dans le cadre de l’école doctorale SDS en association avec l’Université d’Evry-Val d’Essonne Spécialité : Sciences de Gestion Par IKRAM BOUOUD Thèse présentée pour l’obtention du diplôme de Docteur de Télécom Ecole de Management « ETUDE DE LA COLLABORATION DANS LES ENVIRONNEMENTS VIRTUELS 3D ET DE L’IMPACT DE LEUR UTILISATION SUR LA PERFORMANCE DES EQUIPES: ENTRE MANAGEMENT ET CONCEPTION DES SYSTEMES D’INFORMATION» Soutenue le 6 MARS 2014 A Institut Mines-Télécom devant le jury composé de : Directeur de thèse : M. Imed Boughzala, MCF-HDR, Télécom Ecole de Management Rapporteurs : Mme Aurélie Dudezert, Professeur, IAE, Université de Poitiers Mme Hélène Michel, Professeur, Grenoble Ecole de Management Examinateurs : M. Samir Tata, Professeur, Telecom SudParis Mme Sana Rouis Skandrani, MCF, ESSCA Ecole de Management Thèse n° 2014EVRY0003 2 “Research is to see what everybody else has seen, and to think what nobody else has thought.” Albert Szent-Gyorgyi1 (1893-1986) 1 Hungarian, 1937 Nobel Prize for Medicine. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENT "Keep away from people who try to belittle your ambitions. Small people always do that but the really great make you feel that you too can become great." Mark Twain2 (1835-1910) First of all, I would first like to thank almighty Allah for giving me patience and strength to complete this thesis. Next, I would like to thank my supervisor M. Imed Boughzala for guiding my work and helping me along the three years. I am grateful for his suggestions and encouragements. Second, I would like to thank M. Samir Tata and the review committee members Mme Aurélie Dudezert and Mme Hélène Michel for reviewing the thesis and giving suggestions for improving it. I am also grateful to the examination committee members mainly Dr Sana Rouis Skandrani. Third, my appreciation also goes to my department members for the beautiful moments we share together during my stay in Telecom Ecole de Management. Last but not least, I wish to thank my friends for their unconditional support and encouragements. I would also like to thank my parents, my sisters and brothers, who have been excellent supporters throughout my PhD and to whom this thesis is dedicated. Ikram Bououd 2 American author and humorist 4 ABSTRACT Collaboration is increasingly distributed and influenced by the technologies involved in the workspace. 3D Virtual worlds (VWs) are rich, highly interactive and promising collaboration tools providing a more realistic visual dimension in representing work environment and a growing capacity of simulation. Thanks to avatars (representation of their users), they may reinvent the notion of co- presence (the being together) and provide rich social interactions. Several researchers and practitioners are particularly interested in the potential of these new media to support collaborative practices. However, the literature does not provide yet satisfactory and accurate response to companies about impacts of these technologies’ use on team performance. Existent researchers studied specific factors influencing collaboration. A research model gathering determinants of three different categories (technological, individual and collective) impacting team performance has never been proposed. This research attempts to address this gap and looks at this effect more closely. From a methodological point of view, our methodology is based on the Hevner’s and colleagues (2004) IS research framework combining behavioral science and design science. From the behavioral science side, qualitative and quantitative studies have been conducted. We report on the impacts of a set of important determinants that influence team performance. This research describes inner IT dynamics distinguishing these new media. It research highlighted determinants that are fostering collaboration such knowledge sharing, knowledge application, cognitive absorption, virtual co-presence, VW technology usage, customization, and object manipulation. Others determinants are found to inhibit collaboration in 3D VWs such as social loafing and density. From a design science side, we designed a serious game focusing on the determinants mentioned above and could be useful to vary collaborative scenarios in the aim to deepen the study of collaboration in 3D VWs and enhance team performance. This game aims at bringing a learning-by-doing experience to explore the specificities of team collaboration in VWs. This research argues that successful collaboration is possible in VWs with the respect of a set of best practices. KEY WORDS 5 Team collaboration, Virtual teams, Virtual Worlds, Performance, Serious Games, Collaborative scenarios. 6 RESUME Les sociétés modernes sont confrontées à plusieurs contraintes comme les forces économiques, les pressions concurrentielles et les progrès technologiques. Elles ont créé et innové des outils de gestion afin de maintenir et améliorer leur performance (Wang and Haggerty, 2009). Dans le contexte complexe et non - stable de la mondialisation et de l'ouverture de marchés, l'évolution devient un défi. Ainsi, la collaboration est devenue un atout important pour les organisations qui souhaitent tirer profit de l'intelligence collective et maximiser leur productivités (Drucker, 1989; Nunamaker et al 1998; Nunamaker et al 2002). Selon Kock (2008), la collaboration efficace est l'une des clés de réussite et un avantage concurrentiel des organisations d‘aujourd‘hui car elle permet une meilleure évolution et améliore le développement (Kock, 2008). De nos jours, la collaboration est devenue de plus en plus distribuée et virtuelle, influencée par les technologies utilisées dans le milieu de travail. Griffith et ses collègues (2003) affirment que la technologie peut ouvrir des nouvelles opportunités pour les équipes et les rendre plus efficaces. De plus, McGrath et Berdahl (1998) ont démontré que la technologie peut fournir un moyen pour structurer le travail de l'équipe et améliorer l'information disponible pour les membres, ainsi qu‘elle peut leur fournir un système de communication (McGrath and Berdahl 1998). Les environnements virtuels (VWs) sont des environnements virtuels 3D où les utilisateurs interagissent via des avatars. Ils sont considérés comme des outils collaboratifs prometteurs offrant des environnements riches et interactifs. Selon Davis et ses collègues (2009), ces environnements offrent aux membres de l'équipe de nouvelles manières pour gérer et surmonter plusieurs obstacles à la collaboration. En outre, ces environnements augmentent l‘apprentissage axé sur le groupe (Suh and Lee 2005) et l‘engagement dans les processus (Franceschi et al 2009). Ils ont le potentiel pour une collaboration plus riche et engageante (Davis et al. 2009). En effet, Kock (2008) considère la collaboration comme un thème clé dans les usages organisationnels des environnements virtuels 3D. Ces VWs sont définis comme des «environnements virtuels artificiels intégrant des représentations d'éléments du monde réel comme les êtres humains, les paysages et d‘autres objets» (Kock, 2008, p 1). Ils ont évolué de chambres de 7 bavardage à des communautés virtuelles qui comprennent des espaces personnels, des affaires (Nah et al 2010), des actions collaboratives (Kock, 2008; Nah et al. 2009) et le V-learning (Chen et al. 2009; Davis and Zigurs 2008). VWs s‘inscrivent dans la tendance 3D qui touche l'Internet, la télévision, les jeux sérieux, etc. En suivant cette nouvelle tendance, ils présentent des environnements adéquats offrant de nouvelles formes de collaboration et d'interaction sociale (McKenna et al. 2010). En outre, dans le domaine des affaires, VWs sont considérées comme un moyen novateur de collaboration et de partage des connaissances au sein des organisations (Chandra et al. 2009). Par conséquent, VWs offrent un fort potentiel pour soutenir les pratiques collaboratives et constituent une alternative supplémentaire pour les situations de travail collectif (Davis et al. 2009), la prise de décision, la gestion de projet virtuel (Owens et al. 2009) et l‘apprentissage virtuel (Davis and Zigurs 2008). Owens et ses collègues (2009) ont montré que les VWs «impactent les pratiques organisationnelles et impactent la gestion de projet virtuel (VWPM)» (Owens et al. 2009, p.34). Ils ont affirmé que les VWs pourraient améliorer la collaboration et la gestion de projet virtuel (VWPM) par le biais des capacités technologiques uniques qu'ils fournissent. En effet, en utilisant les capacités de cette nouvelle technologie, les équipes virtuelles ont accès à des environnements efficaces, riches et engageants ce qui aide à surmonter les obstacles à la collaboration. Ces atouts ont été à l‘origine de la motivation et de l'intérêt remarquable à cette technologie par plusieurs sociétés de renommée internationale telles que IBM, Nike, DELL, la NASA, BNP, etc. Ces entreprises, entre autres, ont lancé leurs propres territoires sur Second Life, l'un des environnements virtuels les plus connus. Des entreprises telles que Schneider Electric et IBM ont également mené des projets de collaboration inter organisationnels dans Second Life pour combiner leurs forces et capitaliser sur un partenariat mutuellement bénéfique. En outre, de nombreuses entreprises telles que Cisco et IBM encouragent la collaboration dans les VWs en recueillant leurs employés, partenaires et clients sur leurs îles de Second Life (Hendaoui et al. 2008). En effet, les sociétés précitées considèrent les VWs comme un outil de travail pour l'interaction, la communication, la socialisation,
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