toward me. Many other people beyond my family and the not part of any planned choices but have been gifts along my Maryknollcommunity, too numerous to mentionhere, have also journeyin faith, mission, ministry, and Maryknoll. This has been shared with me abundantly their wisdom, courage, clarity, and a journeyfull of surprise meetings with our God hidden in every joy as we have journeyed together. Friendship has to be the most disconnection, loss, and trauma, as well as in joy, communion, important sustaining feature of life. It is the basis of our mutual and fulfillment. growth in faith. Would I change anything of what has been? A part of me Collegiality, collaboration, and partnership have replen­ would like to erase the pain,the traumas, and the losses. But with ished my energy for the journey. Over thirty years of friendship eachof these I have realized something of the wondrous mystery and collaboration with Fr. Jack Sullivan, a Maryknoll missioner of God's loving Spirit. I would not want to exchange any of this! in Hong Kong, has created a ministerial partnership, through I hope to spend the rest of my life cherishing and deepening my which we have served people in more than forty countries. awareness of loving relationships with friends everywhere. I Mutuality,equality,sharedcommitmentto missionin Maryknoll, hope to continue journeying with friends and colleagues as we and a redeeming humor born of faith have made our mutual act together to seek and to struggle to make present the reign of ministry credible and helpful to other missionaries and friends. God among us all. I am not sure where the journeyis leading me I am gratefulfor the richness, companionship, and meaning but remain open to the discovery of God's ongoing creation and these living treasures have given me along the way. They were love of our glorious universe.

The Legacy of William Milne P. Richard Bohr

illiam Milne was born in 1785 at Kennethmont, Morrison's task was to translate and publish the Bible, prepare W Aberdeenshire,Scotland. After his father's earlydeath, Chinese-language materials for future LMS recruits, and estab­ Milne supported the family as a farmhand and carpenter while lish a mission beachhead on China's doorstep. receiving an education from his mother and a Sabbathschool. At sixteen, Milne sensed God's "free grace" remitting the "eternal Developing a Mission Strategy wrath" thathe feared his previousindifferenceto religionandhis "profane swearing" had surely incurred.' Three years later, he On July 4, 1813, Milne and his wife, Rachel Cowie (1783-1819),6 left the Church of Scotland for the Congregational "Missionary arrived in Macao. After studying Chinese with Morrison in Kirk" at neighboring Huntley, which endorsed the conviction of Canton for several months, Milne distributed his mentor's 1813 the Evangelical Awakening that Christians must extend the New Testament translation and preached among several over­ spiritual revival and social reform taking place at home to their seas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, where he also non-Christianbrothers and sistersabroad andtherebyhastenthe scoutedthe terrainfor a newLMSmissionstation. UnderMilne's in-gathering of the imminent worldwide kingdom of God. management (while Morrison continued to alternate between Gratitude for his own redemption, admiration for mission Canton and Macao) and free of Chinese government interfer­ heroes like David Brainerd (1718-47), avid reading of the Mis­ ence, he recommended Malacca as best suited to become a center sionary Magazine, and dedication to "the coming of Christ's of evangelism, education, and publication. kingdom among the nations," inspired Milne to become a for­ A traditional entrepot between South and East Asia on the eign missionary,2 butnotbeforeearning enoughmoneyto secure western Malay coast, Malacca (Melaka) was now a European his mother's retirement. The London Missionary Society (LMS) port (alternating between Dutch and English administrations) accepted Milne in 1809, sent him to its seminary at Gosport, friendly to Protestant missions. With 17,000 Muslim Malays, England, ordained him in 1812 as "missionary in the East," and 4,000 Chinese, 2,000 Indians, and 2,000 Europeans and Eur­ assigned him to work with Robert Morrison (1782-1834), the asians, it was easily accessible to other Chinese settlements in Englishlast andboot-treemakerwhomtheLMShadsentin 1807 Bangkok, Penang, Singapore, and Batavia (Jakarta). From Mal­ as Protestantism's first missionary to the Chinese.' acca, Milne claimed, the Word would spread among Southeast Eight decades before Morrison arrived in China, however, Asians and, through the overseas Chinese, into China itself. the imperial throne had banned Christianity as "the ruin of In the spring of 1815 theMilnesarrived at Malacca withtheir morals andof the humanheart,"4 becauseit "neitherholdsspirits young daughter and newborn twins. The British colonial gov­ in veneration nor ancestors in reverence."! Since Morrison also ernment donated land for Milne's mission near Malacca's west­ served as Chinese translator to the British East India Company ern gate. Milne threw himself into Chinese and Malay language (EIC),he could reside butnotopenlyproselytizeinCanton's tiny study and began preaching in the Dutch church on Sundays. On foreign trade enclave. Nor.werethe Catholicauthoritiesin neigh­ street comers and in Chinese homes, shops, boats, and temples, boring Macao sympathetic to Morrison's desire to evangelize in Milne distributed the NewTestament and explained evangelical thatPortuguesecolony. To preparefor China'sopeningto Christ, faith in the following indigenous terms. God, "formless and invisible" and "Maker of the heavens and the earth, is the only P. Richard Bohr is Professor of History and Director of Asian Studiesat the true and living God, and there is none else." God knows that College ofSaintBenedict andSaintJohn's University, St.Joseph andCollegeville, peoplehavesinned anddeservepunishment. But becauseGodis Minnesota. "merciful and gracious," he sent Jesus, his only son, to "practice

October 2001 173 virtue, and redeem ... [people] from theiriniquities,in order that lessons on Confucian ethics and ritual, enticing students to all who repent of their sins, and trust in Jesus, should obtain worship services by first inviting their teachers, and composing eternal life in heaven." However, those "who do not receive his a Christian catechism and prayers in indigenous terms. doctrines, but work iniquity, must go down to hell, (that is, In 1818 Morrison appointed Milne principal of the Anglo­ earth's prison) and suffer undefined punishment."? Chinese College. This institution was to integrate Eastern and Inquirers were told that in addition to grace, individual Western civilizations by teaching Chinese and Southeast Asian salvation required moral action, Milne therefore exhorted the languages as well as the Confucian classics to Asia-based Euro­ Chinese to "seek-God'sgracious favor; dealjustlywithall; let not pean boys, some of whom might become missionaries. And the rich greedily oppress the poor, nor the poor discontentedly throughcoursesin English,Scripture, philosophy, history, geog­ complainof theirlot, for bothrich and poormustshortlydie." He raphy,mathematics,science,and (eventually)medicine,Morrison further admonished: "Parents, teach your children to read the and Milne hoped thatAsianstudents would not only come to see sacred book-to write-to trust in Jesus Christ-to venerate the Christianity as the core of Western culture but also convert and aged-to discharge filial piety to you-tolove their brothers and become Protestant clergy, teachers, and social reformers. When sisters-to pity the poor, and to do good to all men-then all will the building (which Morrison funded from his own EIC salary) be well." Finally, people should not set their hearts on "things was completed in August 1820, the college included seven stu­ under the sun [because they] are vanity.?" dents (some were on scholarship), a dormitory, classrooms, a Milne believed that there was much that was good in China. Yet several factors soon convinced him that to "impart the knowledge of the trueGod-theTriuneJehovah-tothis people, will be no easy task." Milne observed that while the skeptical Milne hoped the Christian philosophy of the school of Confucius stressed such biblical literature produced at virtues as filial piety, it also ignored monotheism, the sinfulness Malacca would penetrate of disobeying God's commandments, and the ability of common people (not merelyChina's ancientsages) to participatein divine China via merchant vessels. providence. Worse, Milne lamented, the Chinese saw Christ as a bodhisattva whose atoning power was based not in miraculous deeds but on fantasy, whose resurrection was simply an act of museum showcasing Chinese and Western antiquities, and a reincarnation, and whose sacrificial death was ignominious. chapel, the daily services at which students were invited (but not Moreover, such Buddhist notions as transmigration of souls compelled) to attend. Milne himself taught geography and Chi­ "confound the Christian doctrine of future retributions...."9 nese, utilizing Morrison's Chinese-language materials. Among The missionary's challenge, Milne concluded, was to win his studentswereLMSrecruitswho,once theybecamelanguage­ converts by finding points of contact between Confucianism proficient, worked in the Chinese or Malay sides of the Malacca and Christianity and by building a communal, educational, mission or founded other LMS stations in the region.'? and publishing infrastructure in which to embody the Chris­ Milne admired Morrison's view that religious tracts were tian message. "the means of exciting serious and godly thoughts, which bring the proud sinners heart to mercy's throne."!' Milne hoped that, Defining Mission Fundamentals once educated, the overseas Chinese would be moved by those tracts and that the Christian literature produced at Malacca In January 1817 Milne completed the first phase of mission would circulate through the archipelago and penetrate China construction in Malacca. The compound included a chapel, itself via merchant vessels. By late 1816 Milne had secured where Milne held daily and Sabbath worship (consisting of English-, Malay-, andChinese-languagepresses. In 1817the LMS prayers and homilies on Bible readings) in both Chinese and sent Walter Henry Medhurst (1796-1857), a printer and gifted Malay. The mission also included a library of works in Chinese linguist, to superintend the Chinese press." The chief Chinese and English, a printing shop, and living quarters for missionar­ printer was Liang Fa (1789-1855), a poorly educated peasant­ ies, language assistants, translators, and printers. turned-woodblock carver who had clandestinely printed In China, the Jesuits had proselytized the scholar-official Morrison's New Testament in Canton before coming to Malacca elite before the emperors began proscribing Christianity. But with the Milnes. Malacca's Chinese elite were marginally educated merchants Publishing began with the second edition of Morrison's who resembled the targets of evangelical preaching, education, New Testament and two widely circulated journals: the Chinese and good works back home. Realizing that the Malacca Chinese Monthly Magazine (in Chinese), devoted to Christianity and must become more literate in their own language to understand Western learning, and the Indo-Chinese Gleaner, an English-lan­ the written Word, Milne made education a top priority. In mid­ guage quarterly highlighting missions in Asia as well as trends August 1816, with contributions from British Army friends in in world religion, philosophy, literature, and history. In addition Bengal, he converted a stable on the mission grounds into Asia's to writing for and editing these periodicals, Milne translated first Christian "charity school" for poor Chinese boys. By mid­ thirteen Old Testament books for the Morrison-Milne Bible, 1818 Milne oversaw six such boys' schools around Malacca­ completed in November 1819. Before the Malacca press pub­ four for Chinese, one for Malay, and one for Indians-where lished it in 1823, both missionaries were honored with honorary local teachers taught the respective languages and literature as doctorates from the University of Glasgow. well as Western mathematics. Milne introduced a mentoring While Morrison focused primarily on translating scriptural systemin whicholderstudents tutored the youngerones accord­ and doctrinal works, Milne became the first missionary to por­ ing to fixed lesson plans and textbooks. Moreover, Milne accom­ tray, in nineteen Chinese-language pamphlets, evangelical the­ modated local custom by opening new schools on "auspicious" ology in the Chinese cultural idiom. Writing in the vernacular days in the lunar calendar, introducing Christian themes in style of contemporary Confucian "morality books" and reflect­

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Programs • BA or Minor in Intercultural Studies • MA in App lied Linguistics • Minor or Certificate in TESOL • MA in Intercultural Studies • SILlWycliffe Linguistics program • DMiss Doctorate of Missiology • MA in TESOL • PhD in Intercultural Education ing evangelical concern for culture's impact on the individual's giveness."l7 Afterweekly Bible reading and prayersessions with soul, Milne condemned what he perceived to be Malacca's habits Milne, Liang became a Christian through a conversion scenario of lyingand commercialmalfeasance as well as gambling's harm strikingly similar to the one played out in TheTwo Friends. to family and community."In an 1819pamphletMilne character­ On November 3, 1816-as Liang acknowledged his sinful izedthatyear's choleraepidemicas God's punishmentfor immo­ nature and vowed to repudiate idol worship, believe in Jesus' rality and a call for people to embrace each other as brothers and atonement, follow God's commandments, and act justly-Milne sisters under the same creatorGod. In the Folly ofIdolatry, Milne baptized him. (Milne accommodated Liang's request to perform lambasted China's deities for feigning God's powers and de­ the rite precisely at noon to avoid the sun's casting shadows on nounced the practitioners of astrology, divination, geomancy, such a sacred ritual.) Liangsubsequently thanked the HolySpirit necromancy, spells, and charms. for casting out his "evil self." In 1819 Milne published his masterpiece: The Two Friends. After studying Christianity part-time at the Anglo-Chinese Described by Daniel H. Bays as the "most famous of all nine­ College, Liang emulatedMilne's missionaryexample. In 1819he teenth-century Christian tracts,"!' the pamphlet gives Chinese visited his village near Canton, where he married and baptized voice to evangelical faith. After realizing he is a sinner and his wife (the first known Chinese woman to be baptized a fearing eternal damnation, Zhang, the story's hero, tells his Protestant), preached, and published a tract denouncing his friend Yuanthathe has beenredeemedthroughrepentanceof his lineage's idolworship. Soon, however, local officials confiscated sinfulpastandbeliefin Jesus' "merit." Zhangclaims thatbecause the booklets, imprisoned Liang for defying the anti-Christian Jesus is both God and man and sacrificed his life to redeem the prohibition, and beat him on the soles of his feet with bamboo. world, he is superior to China's sages. And Zhang is grateful to The following year, Liangreturnedto Malaccato publishthe the Holy Spirit for improving his behavior and saving his soul. Morrison-Milne Bible. Sadly, his joyful anticipation of further Like other Chinese, Zhang asserts, he values human rela­ study with Milne was thwarted. In March 1819Milne's beloved tionships but worships the one true God instead of false gods. Rachel had succumbed to dysentery, becoming the first Protes­ Although ridiculed for being unfilial, Zhang is serene, knowing tant missionary wife to perish in Asia. Refusing to slow his work that Jesus' second coming will see the dead bodily resurrected, routine despite a worsening tuberculosis, Milne himself died on June 2,1822.Fromits OrphanFund,Malacca'sDutchcommunity supported Milne's daughter and three sons, including William Charles (1815-63) who later joined the LMS and collaborated Milne formed a bond with withJohnRobertMorrison (1814-43) in carryingon theirfathers' Liang Fa, whose efforts to Christianize China. background and spiritual crisis mirrored his own. Milne as Mission Pioneer William Milne exemplifies the first generation of British evan­ gelical missionaries,who,as Max Warrenhas noted,werebuoyed judged by Jesus, and sent to hell or heaven as God's kingdom by the democratic, moralistic values and social activism of their draws near. Meanwhile, the conversion process is ongoing, emerging "skilled mechanic" class in the early nineteenth cen­ Zhang insists. So the believer, cognizant of the reality of sin and tury." Artisans such as William Carey, Morrison, and Milne the last judgment, constantly repents, confesses, forgives, rejects were "inner-directed" improviserswho,withwhateverNoncon­ materialism, does not confuse transmigration of souls with res­ formist education they could acquire, mastered difficult lan­ urrection,reformsbehaviorby followingGod'scommandments, guagesto plantChristianity-despitedangerouscircumstances­ and reads the Bible and prays daily. God rewards prayer not into time-honored civilizations they came to admire. materially but with forgiveness, cleansing of heart, and eternal As Carey did in his educational, translation, and publishing salvation. Because Christian faith is nourished within commu­ enterprise at Serampore, Morrison and Milne developed a mis­ nity, Zhang believes, Chinese Christians are eager to share their sion strategy and infrastructure on China's gateway designed to faith with family and friends. extend evangelical missions into the rest of Asia. The preaching, BobWhytehas insightfullyobserved: "Too few missionaries education, tractwriting, and publicationto whichthey dedicated were concerned to establish lasting friendships with Chinese."ls themselves remain mainstays of Protestant missions today. Dur­ Milne was among that minority; he formed an enduring bond ing their remarkable nine-year partnership, Morrison and Milne with Liang Fa, the mission printer and contributor to the Indo­ approached mission through the prism of cultural interchange. Chinese Gleaner, whose personal background and spiritual crisis Mingling freely with the overseas Chinese, Milne studied their mirrored Milne's own." In fact, Liang had initially resisted religious life and their Confucianism; in their social ethics he Milne's invitations to mission worship, fearing that the Buddha found points of contactwith evangelicalmorality. Working hard would "soon bring punishment and death on such an opponent to find commonalities to win Chinese converts first to superior of the gods." But carving the woodblocks for Milne's LifeofJesus Western learning and then to Christianity, Milne's in 1814 and exposure to the missionary's pious demeanor coin­ accommodationist approach anticipates one of the most endur­ cided with Liang's growing guilt over his earlier "drunkenness ing aspects of Christian missions. and other kindred vices," including gambling, lust, cheating, Milne pioneered Protestant elementary education in Asia, and lying. Liang was not consoled by quiet sitting at home, which became coeducational soon after his death. By 1836, for sutra-reading at Malacca's Goddess of Mercy temple, or the example, 220boys and 120 girls were enrolled in Malacca's LMS resident monk's assurances of Western paradise because, Liang Chinese schools, with120boys and 60 girls in theMalayschools. concluded, Buddhist ritual and self-cultivation lacked In 1838 the LMS opened a school for adult Chinese women and Christianity's connection with God's moral commandments, in 1839 set up a boarding school for Chinese girls. Some gradu­ from which emerged the "virtuous act" needed to "obtain for- ates of Milne's schools would, he hoped, seek higher education,

176 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH convert, and become Christian pastors and teachers. Among the Kong, Legge hoped it would train Chinese Christianleaders able 70 Anglo-Chinese College students in 1836, 19 chose baptism. to plant Christianity throughout the treaty ports. But after real­ The alumni of the school included Chinese government inter­ izing that the college was falling shortin this effort, Legge closed preters, clerks, merchants, shopkeepers, shipcaptains, a medical it in 1856. Nevertheless, as Lindsay Ride, vice chancellor at the assistant, and a doctor of traditional medicine. By 1837 three University ofHong Kong, observed a century later, the college students at the college were preparing for the Protestant minis­ remains the "forerunner of all the British colleges and universi­ try.19 In Malacca alone, there were250 ChineseChristians inneed ties that exist in the Far East to-day.?" of such indigenous clergy." Legge had also brought four Chinese Christians with him By the time he died in 1822, Milne had trained ten LMS from Malacca, including Liang Fa and HoTsun-sheen (1817-71). missionaries in Chinese language and culture. In Malacca and While Legge and Ho wrote Bible commentaries and itinerated elsewhere in Southeast Asia, these colleagues continued Milne's around Canton, evangelical ideas had already begun to pen­ emphasis on preaching, teaching, and publishing. By the time of etrate China's heartland, thanks to Liang Fa. In 1823 Morrison Milne's death, they had produced no less than 49 pamphlets on fulfilled Milne's wish by ordaining Liang as the first Chinese ever-modern printing presses. By 1867, seven years after all of evangelist. Among the villages around Canton, Liang distrib­ China was opened to evangelism, Protestant missionaries had uted and preached on the Scriptures and Milne's Two Friends, published 787 religious and secular tracts." baptized dozens of Chinese, and even briefly established a The LMS giant James Legge (1815-97) carried Milne's inno­ Christian rural "charity school." As mission evangelism, educa­ vations into a second generation of evangelical missions. Raised tion, publication, and medicine continued to expand in Canton, in Milne's parish at Huntley, Legge had been led to missions Liang became a well-known pastor of several small congrega­ through evangelical revivals, studied Chinese in London with tions, two missionhospitals, and a chapel at his home in that city. LMS MalaccaveteranSamuelKidd (1799-1843), and was himself Liang is best remembered for authoring twenty-one Chi­ assigned to Malacca in 1840. Three years later Legge moved the nese-language tracts, the most celebrated of which is Good Words mission to Hong Kong, one of six coastal enclaves that the First to Admonish theAge(1832). In it, Liang sought to explain Milne's Opium War (1839-42) opened to global trade and Christianity. evangelicalfaith inChinese terms and advocated China's imme­ Convinced, like Milne, that "Confucianism is not antagonistic to diateconversionto missionaryChristianity,because,he thought, Christianity,"22Leggeestablishedcoeducationalboardingschools the kingdom of God was more imminent than even Milne had there to teach poor students the Confucian classics, knowledge, supposed. mathematics, and science. Having also moved the Anglo-Chi­ In 1837HongXiuquan (181~)read Good Words, identified nese College (of which he became principal in 1841) to Hong God as China's authentic ruler described in the pre-Confucian Noteworthy Personalia Calcutta. Anauthorityon Hindu-Christiandialogue,Samartha Tile Tienou, Chair of the Department of Mission and Evange­ wrote Between TwoCultures: Ecumenical Ministry in a Pluralist lism andProfessorofTheologyofMission, TrinityEvangelical World (1996). Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, has been appointed dean of the seminary. A contributing editor of the INTERNATIONAL Announcing BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, Tienou joined the Overseas In July 2001Trinity Theological College, Singapore, launched Ministries Study Center Board of Trustees last year. the Centrefor theStudyof Christianityin Asia to facilitate in­ Ron Flaming, Executive Secretary of the Commission on depth research on the identity and role of the church in the Overseas Mission, General Conference Mennonite Church, Asian context. The center focuses on clarifying the church's has been appointed Director of InternationalPrograms for the identity, mission priorities, methods, and strategies, and on Mennonite Central Committee, as of February 2002. leadership development. Hwa Yung, former principal of Darrell L. Whiteman, who joined the faculty of Asbury Seminari Theoloji, Malaysia, is the director. E-mail the center TheologicalSeminary, Wilmore, Kentucky, in 1984,was named at [email protected]. Dean of the E. Stanley Jones School of World Mission and A documentation and archives conference, sponsored by Evangelism, effective July 1,2001. He succeeded the retiring the International Association of Catholic Missiologists and dean George G. Hunter, III. Whiteman, who has been editor the International Association for Mission Studies, will be of Missiology: An International Review since 1989,will be suc­ heldat the Pontifical UrbanUniversity,Rome,September29to ceeded in that position by Terry Muck, in June 2002. Muck, October 6,2002.With "Rescuing the Memory of Our Peoples" former executive editor of Christianity Today, is Professor of as their theme, archivists and documentalists from around the Mission and World Religions at Asbury Seminary. world will share experiences, review the impact of changing Died. Stanley J. Samartha, 81, Indian theologian in the technology, and explore the effect of globalization on the Church of South India and first director of the World Council documentation of the story of the church. Particular attention of Churches' sub-unit on Dialogue with People of Living will be given to minority situationswhere the oral andwritten Faiths and Ideologies, in Bangalore, India, July 22, 2001. He history of the memory of the poor is at risk. Contact John was professor of history of religions and philosophy, United Roxborogh, Knox College, Dunedin, New Zealand, at Theological College, Bangalore, and principal of Karnataka [email protected],orvisitwww.missionstudies.org/ Theological College, Mangalore, and Serampore College, rescue.

October 2001 177 texts, and concluded that he himself was Jesus Christ's younger Chinese Christians alike condemned his "Sinified" faith. Al­ brother. Hong'smonotheismwasso literalthathe deniedChrist's though no trace of Taiping religion survived, Christian ideas (and his own) divinity, denigrated the Trinity, and misunder­ were linked with Chinese sectarianism well into the twentieth stood the soul and other evangelical concepts. But by embracing century.25 moral transformation and iconoclastic reform activism as the AftertheTaipings' defeat, evangelicalmissions continuedin antidote to the abuses of the imperial Confucian old order, Hong China for another eighty-five years. But missionaries split over unleashedthe TaipingRebellion (1851-64),the world'sbloodiest Milne's accommodationism. On one side was the "liberal evan­ civil war, in which 20 to 40 million Chinese perished. gelical tradition" carried on by Legge, who-having discovered In the mid-1850s Hong claimed that, under his authority as monotheism in pre-Confucian China-accommodated Chris­ God's vice-regent, his theocratic "New Jerusalem" at Nanjing tian belief to Chinese culture. On the other side were the was the center of a universal, millennial Taiping Tianguo (Heav­ nonaccommodationistswhosoughtmerelyto "transplantChris­ enly Kingdom of Great Peace). Hong engendered revolutionary tian civilization within China.":" Between these extremes, a discipline by superimposing the Ten Commandments and man­ Chinese Protestantism, independent of the missionaries, also dating gender equality, universal coeducation, social welfare, developed." Containing many core evangelical beliefs, indig­ and communal land holding." Despite Hong's embrace ofWest­ enous Chinese Christianity survives today, gathering more con­ ern Christians as his ''brothers and sisters," missionaries and verts than at any lime during the pre-1949 missionary period.

Notes------­ 1. Quoted in [EdwinStevens], "A Brief Sketchof the Life and Labors of Pa.: Morehouse Publishing, 1988), p. 97. the Late Rev. William Milne, D.D.," Chinese Repository 1 (December 16. For Liang Fa's spiritual transformation, see P. Richard Bohr, "Liang 1832):317-18. Fa's Quest for Moral Power," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity in 2. Quoted in Robert Philip, The Lifeand Opinions of the Rev. William China, pp. 35-46. Milne, D.O. (London: John Snow, 1840), p. 37. 17. Quoted in George Hunter McNeur, China's FirstPreacher: LiangA-fa, 3. For an overview of Morrison, see J. Barton Starr, "The Legacy of 1789-1855 (Shanghai: Kwang Hsueh Publishing House [1934?]),p. Robert Morrison," International BulletinofMissionary Research 22, no. 24. 2 (April 1998):73-76. For the first Protestant missionary generation 18. Max Warren, Social History and Christian Mission (London: SCM represented by Morrison and Milne, see Murray A. Rubenstein, The Press, 1967). Originsof the Anglo-American Missionary Enterprise in China, 1807­ 19. Harrison, Waitingfor China, chaps. 15-16. 1840 (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1996). 20. W. H. Medhurst, China. Its Stateand Prospects (London: John Snow, 4. Quoted in A. J. Broomhall, HudsonTaylor andChina's OpenCentury, 1838), pp. 320-21. book 1, Barbarians at the Gate (Sevenoaks: Hodder & Stoughton, 21. John K. Fairbank, "Introduction: The Place of Protestant Writings in 1989), p. 228. China's Cultural History," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity in 5. Quoted in Lindsay Ride, Robert Morrison: The Scholar and the Man China, p. 1. (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Univ. Press, 1957), p. 12. 22. Quoted in Harrison, WaitingforChina, p. 114. For a study of Legge, 6. For a biographical sketch of Rachel Milne, see Biographical Dictionary see Lauren F. Pfister, "The Legacy of James Legge," International ofChristian Missions, ed. Gerald H. Anderson (New York: Macmillan Bulletinof Missionary Research 22, no. 2 (April 1998): 77-82. For an Reference, 1998), p. 461. overview of the growth of the Hong Kong church, see Carl T. Smith, 7. The excerpts are taken from Milne's 1814 "Farewell Letter to the Chinese Christians: Elites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong Chinese of Java," quoted in Philip, Life, pp. 141-43,226. (Hong Kong: Oxford Univ. Press), 1985. 8. Ibid. 23. Ride, Robert Morrison, p. 22. 9. Ibid., pp. 225-26,229, 193. 24. P. Richard Bohr, "The Theologian as Revolutionary: Hung Hsiu­ 10. For a study of Milne's educational endeavors, see Brian Harrison, ch'iian's Religious Vision of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom," in Waitingfor China: The Anglo-Chinese College at Malacca, 1818-1843, Tradition and Metamorphosis in Modern Chinese History: Essays in and Early Nineteenth-Century Missions (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Honor of Professor Kwang-Ching Liu's Seventy-fifth Birthday, ed. Yen­ Univ. Press, 1979). p'ing Hao and Hsiu-mei Wei (Taipei: Institute of Modern History, 11. Philip, Life, p. 16. Academia Sinica, 1998), 2:907-53, and idem, "Christianity and 12. For a biographical sketch of Medhurst, see Biographical Dictionary, Rebellion in China: The Evangelical Roots of the Taiping Heavenly pp.451-52. Kingdom," in The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ, ed. Roman Malek, 13. In his English-language writings, Milne denounced the growth of S.V.D., 2 vols. (Sankt Augustin: Monumenta Serica Monograph Chinese opium addiction, which he attributed to the East India Series, 2001). Company'sincreasinginvolvementin opiumsmuggling. See Philip, 25. Daniel H. Bays, "Christianity and Chinese Sects: Religious Tracts in Life, pp. 428-35. the Late Nineteenth Century," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity 14. Daniel H. Bays, "ChristianTracts: TheTwoFriends," in Christianity in in China, pp. 121-34. China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings, ed. Suzanne Wilson 26. Pfister, "Legacy of James Legge," p. 81. Barnett and John King Fairbank (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. 27. Daniel H. Bays, ''The Growth of Independent Christianity in China, Press, 1985), p. 22. 1900-1937," in Barnett and Fairbank, Christianity in China, pp. 307­ 15. BobWhyte, Unfinished Encounter: China andChristianity (Harrisburg, 16. Selected Bibliography The London Missionary Society materials are located at the Library of Works About William Milne the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. Chu Yiu Kwong. "Between Unity and Diversity: The Role of William Milne in the Development of the Ultra-Ganges Missions." M.Phi!. Works by William Milne thesis, Hong Kong Baptist Univ., 1999. 1820 A Retrospect oftheFirstTen Years oftheProtestant Missionto China. Philip, Robert. The Life and Opinions of the Rev. William Milne, D.O. The Anglo-Chinese Press. London; John Snow, 1840. 1824 TheMemoirs oftheRev. William Milne.Edited by Robert Morrison. [Stevens, Edwin]. "A Brief Sketch of the Life and Labors of the Late Rev. Dublin, n.p. WilliamMilne, D.D." Chinese Repository 1 (December 1832):316-25.

178 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH