Fashion Marketing, Third Edition

Fashion Marketing This page intentionally left blank Fashion Marketing

Third Edition

Edited by Mike Easey

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition fi rst published 2009 © 2009 Mike Easey Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing programme has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientifi c, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered offi ce John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial offi ces 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, United Kingdom 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA

For details of our global editorial ofﬁ ces, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of the author to be identiﬁ ed as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo- copying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assist- ance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fashion marketing / edited by Mike Easey. — 3rd ed p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-3953-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Fashion merchandising. I. Easey, Mike. HD9940.A2F37 2009 391.0068Ј8–dc22 2008030014 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12.5 pt Avenir by Charon Tec Ltd (A Macmillan Company), Chennai, India (www.macmillansolutions.com) Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd 1 2009 Contents

List of Contributors ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xv

Part A: Understanding Fashion Marketing 1 1 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 3 Mike Easey 1.1 What is fashion? 3 1.2 What is marketing? 5 1.3 What is fashion marketing? 7 1.4 Fashion marketing in practice 7 1.5 How fashion marketing can help the fashion industry 11 1.6 What fashion marketers do: ﬁ ve examples 12 1.7 Ethical issues in fashion marketing 13 1.8 An overview of the fashion marketing process 15 1.9 Summary 16 Further reading 17

2 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 18 Christine Sorensen 2.1 Introduction 18 2.2 The development of the fashion market 18 2.3 The fashion market: size and structure 21 2.4 Marketing environment 26 2.5 Micro-marketing environment 26 2.6 Macro-marketing environment 34 2.7 Trends in the marketing environment 56 2.8 Summary 58 Further reading 59 Contents Part B: Understanding and Researching the Fashion Purchaser 61 3 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 63 Mike Easey 3.1 Introduction 63 3.2 Why study the fashion buyer? 64 3.3 Fashion consumer decision-making 68 3.4 Psychological processes 73 3.5 Sociological aspects of consumer behaviour 83 3.6 The organizational buyer 94 3.7 Summary 95 Further reading 96

4 Fashion Marketing Research 97 Patricia Gray 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2 The purpose of marketing research 97 4.3 An overview of the marketing research process 100 4.4 Problem deﬁ nition and setting research objectives 100 4.5 Research design 100 4.6 Data sources 101 4.7 Practical sampling methods 103 4.8 Primary data collection methods 108 4.9 Data collection methods 111 4.10 Questionnaire design 113 4.11 Attitude measurement and rating scales 117 4.12 The role of marketing research in new product development 119 4.13 Forecasting fashion 121 4.14 The Internet as a research tool 123 4.15 International marketing research 126 4.16 Summary 127 Further reading 128

Part C: Target Marketing and Managing the Fashion Marketing Mix 129 5 Segmentation and the Marketing Mix 131 Mike Easey and Christine Sorensen 5.1 Introduction and overview 131 5.2 Mass marketing and market segmentation 131 5.3 Segmentation: rationale, bases and strategy 134 vi This page intentionally left blank 5.4 Positioning and perceptual mapping 140 Contents 5.5 The fashion marketing mix 141 5.6 Summary 143 Further reading 144

6 Designing and Marketing Fashion Products 145 Sheila Atkinson and Mike Easey 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 The importance of fashion products 145 6.3 The nature of fashion products 147 6.4 The fashion industry and new product development 157 6.5 Retail buying sequence: autumn and winter season 161 6.6 The product mix and range planning 163 6.7 Fashion and related life cycles 169 6.8 Summary 176 Further reading 176

7 Pricing Garments and Fashion Services 177 Mike Easey 7.1 Introduction 177 7.2 Different views of price 177 7.3 The role of price decisions within marketing strategy 178 7.4 External factors inﬂ uencing price decisions 180 7.5 Internal factors inﬂ uencing price decisions 183 7.6 Main methods of setting prices 184 7.7 Pricing strategies in relation to new products 190 7.8 Pricing strategies to match the competition 191 7.9 Price changes 193 7.10 Summary 195 Further reading 195

8 Fashion Distribution 196 John Willans 8.1 Introduction 196 8.2 The importance of fashion retailing 196 8.3 Structural issues 198 8.4 The industry’s components 202 8.5 Trends in retailing 208

vii Contents 8.6 The Internet 213 8.7 The ‘grey market’ 215 8.8 Retail marketing effectiveness 215 8.9 Summary 216 Further reading 216

9 Fashion Marketing Communications 218 Gaynor Lea-Greenwood 9.1 Introduction 218 9.2 The marketing communications environment 219 9.3 The traditional approach to promotion 220 9.4 Fashion advertising 223 9.5 Sales promotion 225 9.6 Public relations 226 9.7 Celebrity endorsement and sponsorship 227 9.8 Personal selling 229 9.9 Visual merchandising to visual marketing 230 9.10 International marketing communications 232 9.11 Ethics in marketing communications 233 9.12 Evaluating the effectiveness of marketing communications 234 9.13 New directions in fashion marketing communications 235 9.14 Summary 236 Useful websites 236 Further reading 237

10 Fashion Marketing Planning 238 Mike Easey 10.1 Introduction 238 10.2 The planning process and objectives 238 10.3 Marketing audits and SWOT analysis 240 10.4 Marketing strategy 243 10.5 The fashion marketing plan 246 10.6 Implementation and organizational issues 247 10.7 Summary 250 Further reading 250 Glossary of Fashion Marketing Terms 251 Index 257

viii List of Contributors

Sheila Atkinson, MSc, MBA, PGCEd, AMCIM. Her working experience includes buying and merchandising for the Burton Group plc and management of design education in further education. Sheila has extensive teaching experience in UK and Chinese Universities and has training and consultancy experience in fashion marketing. Sheila Atkinson produced Chapter Six with Mike Easey, on the design and marketing of fashion products. Mike Easey, BA (Hons), DipM, MCIM, CertEd, is Director of Collaborative Ventures in Newcastle Business School at the University of Northumbria. He has worked for three multinationals in marketing research, promotion and marketing planning positions. He is an experienced Marketing Consultant and has undertaken an extensive range of consultancy work including marketing for fashion manufacturers and fashion retailers. He is also a university external examiner in fashion marketing, a QAA Specialist Subject Reviewer in Marketing and a member of the editorial board of the Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management. Mike Easey produced Chapters One, Three, Seven and Ten and co-wrote Chapter Five with Christine Sorensen and Chapter Six with Sheila Atkinson. Patricia Gray, MSc, Dip MRS, PGCEd, previously a Lecturer in Marketing Research in Newcastle Business School, is currently working as a Researcher with Newcastle University. Her experience includes numerous consultancy tasks and she has worked in publicity for the arts and for Millward Brown Market and Social Research. Patricia Gray produced Chapter Four on fashion marketing research. List of Contributors Gaynor Lea-Greenwood, MA, BA, is a Senior Lecturer in Fashion Marketing at Manchester Metropolitan University. She has worked at a senior level in the fashion industry including a major role with Miss Selfridge. Along with consultancy experience for fashion retailers, she has extensive knowledge of international sourcing and promotion. She is an active researcher, external examiner for UK Universities and Acting Editor of the editorial board of the Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management. Gaynor is currently working on a new textbook on Fashion Marketing Communications for Wiley-Blackwell. Gaynor Lea-Greenwood produced Chapter Nine on fashion marketing communications. Christine Sorensen, MA, PGDip, BA (Hons) PGCEd, DipM, is a Senior Lecturer in Marketing in Newcastle Business School. She has worked for three companies in marketing positions including the print industry and franchising. Christine has considerable experience of marketing training for small business and has appeared on radio to discuss developments in promotion. Christine Sorensen produced Chapter Two on the fashion marketing environment and co-wrote Chapter Five with Mike Easey. John Willans, MSc, DipM, CertEd, until his recent retirement, was a Senior Lecturer in Fashion Marketing and Retail Distribution in Newcastle Business School. His background includes work with the retail sector and with textile marketing in Huddersﬁ eld. John Willans wrote Chapter Eight on fashion distribution. John is currently working on a new textbook, with Ruth Marciniak, on Fashion Retailing for Wiley-Blackwell.

x Preface

If you are interested or involved in fashion you will already be aware that it is an exciting area of constant change, creativity and global commercial activity. However, skills in fashion are not enough to guarantee success, as even when those skills are exceptional there is still the constant risk of failure and bankruptcy. A knowledge of marketing is essential to help ensure success and lessen the possibility of failure. To paraphrase Armani, ‘Clothing that is not purchased or worn is not fashion.’ A good knowledge of fashion marketing can make the difference between a prototype that lingers in a dark storeroom and a garment that people really want to buy and wear. Over the last two decades fashion has become a truly global business. Designers no longer work necessarily within manufacturing facilities and, as part of the knowledge industry, they need to be mobile and have the ability to communicate across cultures and business disciplines. Many brands like Gap, Zara and H&M which were just national brands a few years ago are now internationally recognized. Another major force infl uencing the fashion business is the growth of the Internet. The Internet has infl uenced the fl ow of creative ideas, the search for product information, the transparency of pricing and the management of supply chains amongst as well as how and where customers buy garments. For the designer keen to start his or her own business, this book will offer a guide to most of the major decisions that will enable you to fulfi l your creative potential and be a fi nancial success. For the marketer who is interested in fashion, this book will help you understand the special way that marketing needs to be applied to the Preface world of fashion. Established fashion businesses also need to remain competitive by asking questions such as:

◆ What are the major trends we should be monitoring? ◆ How should we set our prices? ◆ What is the most effective way to get our message across about the new product range? ◆ Which colour wash will be the most popular with buyers?

Fashion marketing ﬁ nds answers to these and many other questions. This book has a number of special qualities that make it essential reading for anyone involved in fashion.

◆ It deals with contemporary issues in fashion marketing. ◆ It has up-to-date examples of good practice. Over the past 35 years, all other major texts on fashion marketing have been centred on US practice. Fashion is now a global business and that theme is evident in all chapters in this revised edition. ◆ This book is exclusively about fashion marketing. It is not a marketing book with a few fashion examples among the anec- dotes about motorcycles, industrial services and banking. It is all about fashion. ◆ There is a unique contribution on range planning which is a practical blend of sound design sense and commercial realism. ◆ There is a constant balance of theory and practice, with examples to illustrate key concepts. Where numerical concepts are included, there are clear worked examples to ensure that the ideas are easily understood and retained. ◆ Each chapter contains an introduction to set the scene and a summary of key points. There are over 50 diagrams to help to explain ideas and a glossary of the main fashion marketing terms is included. ◆ Included within each chapter is a guide to further reading. Keen fashion marketers will therefore be able to use this book as a foundation and springboard to becoming experts in specialist areas such as fashion marketing research or fashion public relations. ◆ A coherent approach to fashion marketing is developed, based on the research, consultancy, working and teaching experiences of a team from a major centre of excellence in fashion marketing in the UK. What you will get is a systematic approach to fashion marketing, not hyperbole or speculation. xii Preface How this book is organized

Part A looks at the nature and scope of fashion marketing. In Chapter One the special ingredients that make for good fashion design, care for customers and commercial success are explored. All fashion enthusiasts know of some of the links between fashion and broader social change and Chapter Two identifi es those links, showing how fashion marketers are able to anticipate and participate in the process. Part B is concerned with understanding and researching the consumer. In Chapter Three there is a detailed look at the consumer and what he or she wants from fashion, how ideas and brands are learned and how to paint a comprehensive and sound picture of the ‘muse’ for the fashion designer. Chapter Four deals with marketing research and shows how to investigate the preferences and behaviour of customers, distribution channels and competitors. Part C looks at target marketing and the fashion marketing mix. Chapter Five deals with choosing profi table markets to aim at and then gives an overview of possible action to meet customer requirements – the marketing mix. In Chapters Six to Nine, precise coverage is given to the design of marketing programmes to ensure that the right garments (Chapter Six) are correctly priced (Chapter Seven), available at the right time and place (Chapter Eight) and are properly commu- nicated (Chapter Nine). The fi nal chapter deals with planning and co-ordinating the whole fashion marketing process, and setting up a system that works for the consumer, offering good fashion design and delivering profi ts. If, like us, you believe that consumers deserve good fashion design and that profi ts should fl ow to those who act systematically to make that happen, then join us for the challenge that is fashion marketing.

The book’s website

On the book’s website, www.blackwellpublishing.com/easey, you will ﬁ nd invaluable on-line resources to support both teaching and learning – all downloadable free of charge. The website has the following features: ◆ For fashion marketing tutors, a full set of PowerPoint slides to accompany each chapter. ◆ Ideas and exercises for seminars. ◆ Access to sample assessment materials. ◆ Useful hyperlinks to relevant websites.

xiii This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgements

Fashion is a fascinating subject which stimulates a great many questions, an essential requirement for any academic endeavour. As mainstream marketing educators, the authors of this book brought a range of different expectations and experiences to the area of fashion. All of us have working, teaching, training or consultancy experience in the fi eld of fashion marketing and wanted to write a book that would address real issues and would contribute, in a small way, to make the fashion industry and fashion students more aware of how marketing can enable them to be more effective in their work. For several years the University of Northumbria has run an under- graduate course in fashion marketing. Our experiences of teaching on this course coupled with the paucity of UK texts on the subject convinced us of the need to write the book. Our research and experiences have led us to challenge the way we think about marketing and recognize the special role of design in the process. In many sectors with creative output, it has long been noted that designers need to know about marketing and marketers need to know about design. It is hoped that this book meets the needs of both groups, though in truth designers may learn more about marketing than vice versa. Many people have helped me with the second edition of this book via comments on the fi rst and second editions and stimulating con- versations and inspirations. The following people are sincerely thanked for their knowledge, help and friendship: Sheila Atkinson, Christine Sorensen, Patricia Gray, John Willans and Gaynor Lea-Greenwood. My co-authors have been very supportive over the years and have been good colleagues, Acknowledgements critics and sources of ideas. Richard Jones, Prof. Christopher Moore, Dr. Sandra Connor, Ruth Marciniak, Prof. Neville Harris, Alan Fyall, Fiona Raeside, Helen Carter and Julie O’Sullivan have all contrib- uted their ideas and friendship over the years. Madeleine Metcalfe at Wiley-Blackwell is due special thanks for her encouragement, patience and tenacity in helping me fi nish this third edition. Special thanks are also due to my wife Janice for great support. As usual there is a disclaimer: many people have helped me, but I accept total responsibility for all errors in the book. Mike Easey March 2008

xvi Part A Understanding Fashion Marketing This page intentionally left blank Chapter One An Introduction to Fashion Marketing

The global market for apparel, accessories and luxury goods was estimated to be worth US$1217 billion in 2006 and is expected to grow to approximately US$1800 billion by 2011. The company with the largest market share of this vast market is Christian Dior and, despite this great success, the company has approximately 1% of the global market. Global fashion remains one of the largest sectors of world trade that is truly competitive: 1.14 million people were employed in apparel manufacture in the European Union (EU) in 2004 and nearly one-third of all imported clothing bought in the EU in 2007 was manufactured in China. The UK fashion industry is estimated to be worth approximately £22 billion in retail sales value in 2008. Apparel manufacturing industry in the UK employed around 83 000 people in 2006, down from over 200 000 a decade earlier. The above statistics reveal that fashion is a large global business sector going through a period of great change. It is the application of marketing that plays a crucial role in managing this growth and change. This book shows how marketing can be applied to fashion products and services. This introduction looks at both fashion and marketing and how design and marketing work together in practice. An overview of the fashion marketing process covers the role of marketing in the fashion industry and the ethical issues raised by marketing in this context, with some practical examples of the work of fashion marketers.

1.1 What is fashion?

1.1.1 Fashion is to do with change Fashion essentially involves change, defi ned as a succession of short- term trends or fads. From this standpoint there can be fashions in Work/school Leisure Domestic Usage situations Outerwear Informal Ready made Men-made es some major categories of clothing along with Clothing and services. Fashion products Related fashion products Related fashion services Related fashion Underwear Formal Bespoke Natural Shoes Hats Hosiery Jewellery Belts Bags Scarves Cosmetics Cleaning products Fragrances Wigs Haberdashery Advice on garmentAdvice on co-ordination Cosmetic surgeryImage consultancy Tattoos Hairdressing Hair transplantsGarment services cleaning Clothing alterations/repairs Sun tanning Figure 1.1 identifi Figure sea- around The competitive ethos of the fashion industry revolves ned to the fashion industry, it occurs in several other manufactur- it the fashion industry, ned to Figure 1.1 Figure music. to popular medical treatments almost any human activity from the concept of fashion will be For the purpose of this book though, as and services products related taken to deal with the garments and 1.1. shown in Figure list is by no means exhaustive. their main usage situations, but this – fashion view of their domain Fashion marketers should take a broad is not only about clothes. in developing new prod- The industry has a vested interest sonality. ucts for the customer at the expense of existing items: this process is known as planned obsolescence. Planned obsolescence is not confi or automobile industries. While ing sectors such as the electronics several the concept of planned obsolescence can be criticized from the continual change in perspectives, many customers appreciate the rate and direction and services. Unfortunately, fashion products

Fashion Marketing 4 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 5 rm Marketing is a business philosophy or way of thinking about the fi 1.2 What is marketing? is 1.2 What from the perspective of the customer or the potential customer. Such perspective of the customer or the potential customer. the from a view has much merit as it focuses on the acid test for all business – if we do not meet the needs of our customers we will not survive, let rms depend upon customers making repeat alone thrive. Fashion fi and the key to such loyalty is the satisfaction of customers’ purchases com- for, stylish, durable, easy to care needs with garments which are value for money and all the other criteria deemed fortable, perceived 1.1.3 Fashion and marketing and 1.1.3 Fashion of creative involves the exercise The continual change, i.e. fashion, to the the basic that range from in products design skills which result part of the design personnel provide and elaborate. The creative rare for change. to the need responds mechanism by which the industry the customer that products At the same time the ability to identify can Marketing to the industry. needs and will buy is also essential and the skills needed to this additional knowledge help to provide advantage, allow- component is used to best that the creative ensure ing businesses to succeed and grow. In order for the change which is intrinsic to fashion to take place, the is intrinsic to fashion to take place, for the change which In order Used in another sense, products. new create industry must continually Fashion, there- means to construct, mould or make. the term fashion component. Design and design creative also involves a strong fore, the made-to- from can be seen in all products skill is essential and The level of on a cardigan. embroidery suit to the elaborate measure to the item such as a T-shirt a basic from design can vary considerably or, St Laurent Yves Chanel, Christian Dior, of Coco artistic creations some the design of fash- To times, Stella McCartney. recent in more art in its own right, though this is ion garments can be viewed as an as France and Italy than in countries such a notion supported more sold do not come into this cat- in Britain. The majority of garments of those garments but the inspiration for the design of many egory, works of art. may have come from 1.1.2 is about creating Fashion of change are usually slower and less predictable than the fashion than less predictable slower and usually are of change like. industry would t. table prospect ts. Clearly, this is ts. Clearly, rm’s ability to meet rm’s ection of the enormous t is not actively sought then the fi t is not actively The best marketing plans and activities can be easily and quickly The best marketing plans and activities Marketing comprises a range of techniques and activities, some a range of techniques and activities, Marketing comprises anticipating, concerned with Marketing is a management process rms when they embark upon marketing activities. 1.2.1 to all business problems? Is marketing a solution the it does. To many views of what marketing is and what are There and can for all business problems zealots, marketing is the panacea or falling profi failures for product remedies provide of the many busi- the interdependence naive and does not recognize view Nor does this functions within organizations. ness and creative all that confronts the wider marketing environment fully appreciate fi or in competitors’ actions. undermined by changes in the economy although a framework Such changes cannot always be anticipated, for monitoring and anticipating change is discussed in Chapter Two. which is highly competitive and is character- In the fashion industry, of good fortune cannot be easily discounted. ized by change, the role rate of new The fashion industry is well known for the high failure lines that on product price reductions businesses and the regular in part a refl are have not sold. Such failures also due to the inadequate or inappro- risk of fashion, but some are It is the contention of the priate application of the marketing process. applied, marketing will help to reduce authors that, when properly customers’ needs in the long term will be greatly diminished. in the long term will be greatly customers’ needs have to the general public. Most people highly familiar of which are have seen advertisements. and all market researchers encountered development and branding, aspects include product Other less public and distribution. forecasting selling, sales promotion, pricing, publicity, marketing activities is given later An overview of the range of fashion in this chapter. meet the long- to needs in order identifying and satisfying customer with the organiza- Whilst concerned term goals of the organization. with internal with customers it is also concerned relationship tion’s marketing goals. the achievement of factors that affect organizational relevant by the buyer. For this reason, fashion design personnel should design personnel fashion For this reason, by the buyer. relevant perspective. the customer’s to understand the need appreciate readily Fashion customer. of a typical picture have a mental Most designers ‘cus- and does the is that mental picture ask, how typical marketers of buyers that form a profi a group tomer’ belong to business from Notice that the notion of seeing the for the company? concern for profi the customer does not preclude the perspective of Indeed, if profi

Fashion Marketing 6 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 7 ourishes when there is freedom from structural factors. from is freedom ourishes when there At the centre of the debate over the role of fashion marketing of fashion marketing of the debate over the role At the centre within fi rms resides a tension between design and marketing impera- a tension rms resides within fi have had formal training in tives. Relatively few fashion designers business or marketing, although fortunately this situation is chang- the formal training of marketing person- ing in the EU. Similarly, of design in business. of the role nel can often lack an appreciation to be separate and this, when coupled with has tended Training views. causes divergent of the two areas, approaches the differing as problems traditionally taught to approach Design students were no constraints on time or cost so that creativ- were though there was that ourish. The assumption of much of this training ity might fl fl creativity 1.4 marketing in practice Fashion in the size and is enormous variation Within the fashion industry there a small customers. From of businesses serving the needs of structure knitwear designer to major business comprising a self-employed Liz Claiborne or Zara, diversity multinational corporations such as expansion of the With legislative changes and a key feature. remains on a global scale and the of trade barriers EU, the gradual removal global a is increasingly of the Internet, the fashion industry growth variation in the cultural, social and business. This implies considerable The consequence of these economic perspective of the participants. perspective is that the practice of variations in size, experience and a national level, let alone at an fashion marketing is not uniform at international one. Fashion marketing is the application of a range of techniques and a is the application of a range of Fashion marketing the customer and potential upon that centres business philosophy to services in order and products and related customer of clothing It is a major argument goals of the organization. meet the long-term other areas many from marketing is different of this book that fashion change is intrinsic, where of fashion, very nature of marketing. The the role activities. Furthermore, emphasis to marketing gives different consumer demand results ecting leading and refl of design in both explored which are to fashion marketing in a variety of approaches below. 1.3 marketing? What is fashion some uncertainty in the fashion industry and cut down the number of cut down the number industry and in the fashion some uncertainty failures. business tability. tability. Marketing centred Marketing Design should be based solely research on marketing Bland designs Stifles creativity are some values central to traditional design central to traditional some values are Fashion marketing is the is marketing Fashion same as promotion High failure rates High failure Relies on intuition Sell what we can makeSell what we Design centred can sell what we Make status quo views of fashion marketing. Two Marketing training, by contrast, embraces different values. Marketers values. embraces different training, by contrast, Marketing perspective between in concentrate on differences The above outlines the marketing person as one Starkly put, the designer may see Sample statements Assumption Orientation Alleged drawbacks Figure 1.2 Figure Spontaneity, eclecticism and the willingness to take risks in chal- to take and the willingness eclecticism Spontaneity, lenging the training. problems. and analytical in approaching taught to be systematic are of objectives a lot of marketing involves the setting The foundation of expenditure and outputs, such as advertising and quantifying inputs taught, comes from marketing students are Success, and market share. or ignoring market real- and planning, not spontaneity research careful of training, mar- price levels. Owing to a lack ities such as competitor dimension of aoften fail to understand the aesthetic keting personnel development. aspects of product design or many qualitative where areas are personnel but naturally there marketing and design and marketing personnel common values. Good designers they share and the exercise preparation the need for thorough both recognize importance of communi- skill, both understand the of professional the visual and process emphasis on cation, although with differing the functional about in agreement components, and both tend to be or a garment is waterproof aspects of clothing, such as whether machine washable. the marketer may see and imagination, while who constrains freedom oblivious to costs and profi the designer as undisciplined and experiences and by differing fostered stereotypes Such views are who do not understand often held by those training, and which are This differ- and the designer. the perspective of both the marketer of views about what fashion ence in perspective engenders a range shown in views of fashion marketing are marketing ought to be. Two and market- centred 1.2. These views can be labelled design Figure detailed below. and are ing centred,

Fashion Marketing 8 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 9 rms. t. It is argued that marketing constraints have strangled the creative strangled the creative that marketing constraints have It is argued Research within such a perspective is limited to monitoring the is limited to monitoring within such a perspective Research 1.4.3 The fashion marketing concept between marketing and another way to view the relationship is There design, and this is termed the fashion marketing concept. That good to succeed is a view cient promotion suffi fashion design only requires 1.4.2 prescription design as a research Marketing centred: the designer as someone marketing is dominant and it regards Here cations of customer requirements to the specifi who must respond may Detailed cost constraints as established by marketing research. for example, retail by, pretested be imposed and sample garments changes to meet their pre- selectors who may subsequently demand too far still operate systems not stores cise needs. Several major retail consid- and selectors exerting this, with merchandisers from removed is a to many, according The result, over the designer. erable control of garments available from certain blandness in the design content outlets. such retail of popularity, as a measure tability profi aspects of design. Taking for design seems to work for many fi prescription this restrictive Whether popular acceptance of fashion designs equates with good Whether popular acceptance of fashion designs equates with good design is another matter. others who are thought to be at the forefront of creative of creative activities of be at the forefront thought to others who are fashion great musicians, artists, etc. Many lm directors, change, i.e. fi have run successful businesses designers subscribe to this view and The principal weakness of this based upon the above assumptions. skill and intuition of the is that it depends ultimately on the approach customer needs and conse- designer in consistently meeting genuine quently earning profi 1.4.1 as promotion marketing fashion Design centred: with promo- seen as synonymous view marketing is to this According and force, real the designers are the view state that of tion. Adherents help to sell ideas to the public. Translated merely marketers should activity carried view tends to have all marketing into practice this agencies. or advertising departments or relations out by either public seen as people to be led or customers are Customers and potential At the extreme, promoted. styling that is favourably by creative inspired creative that the only people who can appreciate it is rationalized wealthy sections of society. the more sense, are nancial styling, in a fi cations. t by recogniz- High centred concept Fashion marketing Marketing t. Failure Design centred Concern for customers and profit Concern for customers Low

High Low

fashion design fashion Concern for Concern This occurs as a con- t and design leads to failure. marketing concept. The fashion The fashion marketing concept attempts to embrace the positive The fashion marketing concept attempts A simple model of the interrelationship of fashion design and mar- of fashion design A simple model of the interrelationship that low concern for 1.3 it can be seen In the matrix in Figure Marketing as applied to the fashion industry must appreciate the Marketing as applied to the fashion industry must appreciate such as Zara have developed Some major retailers of design. role information systems bringing designers, manufacturing teams and much closer together enabling customers to be staff sales retail ing the interdependence of marketing and design. If designers under- of marketing and ing the interdependence and marketing process the creative stand how marketing can enhance that within the fashion industry design can lead personnel appreciate can be made. progress to customer requirements, as well as respond can establish the sizing information customers Market researchers to several provisional want on garments and can also analyse reactions detailed styling specifi illustrations, but they cannot produce sequence of overestimating design ability while disregarding custom- disregarding design ability while sequence of overestimating and the need for profi ers’ preferences customers and profi aspects of high concern for design, Figure 1.3 Figure of businesses – usually those pro- applicable to a very limited number elite market. The alternative view ducing expensive garments for an recog- fails to marketing research of fashion design as a function of not know what they will like until nize either that many people do change over time. with choices, or that their preferences presented on the catwalk to hate a design seen For example, many who profess try the garment themselves or may later come to like it when they Good fashion design that others have signalled acceptance. realize that con- It should be recognized can challenge conventional views. styles and fashion have towards sumers vary in the conservatism they change their opinions. with which they also the speed and readiness keting can be seen above. customers, profi

Fashion Marketing 10 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 11 t. Thus the fashion marketing con- t. Thus How fashion marketing can help the How fashion marketing fashion industry The main concern of fashion marketers is therefore the design and the design is therefore The main concern of fashion marketers Many people in the fashion industry have aspirations to run their This section has discussed a number of approaches to fashion to fashion approaches a number of has discussed This section rms and regrettably many failures. This book embraces the fashion many failures. rms and regrettably For the new entrepre- nancial and legal aspects of new ventures. marketing needs of people starting their own business; it does not, marketing needs of people starting their own business; it does not, all the needs of small businesses, particularly the extend to however, fi a sound basis on will provide neur the chapter on marketing research The vast output and profi ts from the fashion industry come not from fashion industry come not from the ts from The vast output and profi items sold in catwalk but from the designer collections seen on the put the impact of designers in perspective, one To stores. high street Year Designer of the Awards’ only has to note that the British Fashion sales amount to less than a day’s will often have annual earnings that Even so, the designer group. in the Arcadia retailer for one large where the fashion press given extensive coverage in collections are within a matter reviewed than 250 collections are each season more suffused are of these collections of weeks. Reporting and promotion genuine enthusiasm by many who within hyperbole, excitement and viewed with a range of perceptions attend, the catwalk exhibitions being few people see to sheer entertainment. However, incredulity from commentators assert exists experienced link that some less the direct and ‘what we will all be between the garments on the catwalk wear- uence of the designer collections on everyday ing next season’. The infl in later chapters on is complex and will be considered purchases apparel design and fashion promotion. product the fashion consumer, the the public, for that reason, sale of garments to the majority of techniques described in this book will concentrate on high street fashion rather than haute couture. own business. Indeed, the industry is characterized by many small fi 1.5 marketing. Many companies have embraced the fashion marketing the fashion marketing have embraced Many companies marketing. customers demonstrated equal concern for design, concept and have of winners of major number years an increasing ts. In recent and profi of design success not only in terms have also achieved fashion awards of sales and profi but also in terms and this model, it does work in practice theoretical cept is not just a it further. book sets out to develop offered fast fashion at affordable prices and achieving good levels of achieving good prices and fast fashion at affordable offered the company. t for profi ect what people do. In ve examples erce competition. The design erce t from understanding the struc- understanding t from ve examples will be given. A key point to note ve examples will be Medium and large businesses are also catered for. The need for for. also catered businesses are and large Medium manager’s knowledge of the retailer’s customers and an awareness customers and an awareness knowledge of the retailer’s manager’s marketing of his or her own company costs will enable an effective function. is that job titles do not always accurately refl is that job titles do not always accurately managers, but many called fashion marketing fact, few people are e.g. those with job fashion marketing, carry out functions that are sales executive or public rela- merchandiser, titles such as selector, tions consultant. research marketing 1.6.1 Fashion of market shares may investigate the A fashion marketing researcher discussion a group Through in those shares. competitors and trends discover that a possible brand with potential consumers they may needs rethinking. name has negative connotations and management product 1.6.2 Fashion a range of with producing A design manager may be concerned with other gar- The shirts must co-ordinate shirts for a major retailer. and ties, all of which may be provided ments such as jackets, trousers The design manager must collect and pass by other manufacturers. adequately briefed. Later that designers are on information to ensure to sell the designs at a presentation the manager will be required usually in the face of fi to the retailer, tural aspects of the marketing of clothing and related products and products marketing of clothing and related tural aspects of the in detail as the principles and techniques described services. Many of example, to other markets. For transferable UK are applicable to the given in the chapter on fashion promotion, are UK mass media data also media are campaigns and selecting but criteria for designing transferable. readily are given; these criteria 1.6 fashion marketers do: fi What marketing give an overview of the sort of activities that fashion To personnel engage in, fi which to start building a business plan. The marketing component of marketing component plan. The start building a business which to book. last chapter of this in the plan is covered the business of dis- the various levels between and communication co-operation wholesaler, is so important that manufacturer, tribution in this sector will all benefi importer and exporter

Fashion Marketing 12 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 13 ed into two types, the micro-issues and the macro-issues. and the ed into two types, the micro-issues Micro-issues concern particular products and services where con- and services where concern particular products Micro-issues The practice of fashion marketing is often criticized. These criticismsThe practice of fashion marketing can be classifi or that they sumers may feel that they have not been fairly treated have been misled. Most customers have bought clothing that has for example, coming apart at the seams fallen below expectations by, may occur due to poor qual- or shrinking in the wash. These problems customers. Sadly, or at worst a callous attitude towards ity control punters to be exploited does exist in the view of customers as mere some parts of the fashion industry but it is a short-sighted attitude of mouth and negative word business, legal redress as lack of repeat 1.7 issues in fashion marketing Ethical A major retailer discovers that a competitor is selling imported silk lin- discovers that a competitor A major retailer 20% its own, but at prices that are gerie similar in design and quality to the position- A fashion marketing decision must be made about lower. consideration the strategic taking into ing and pricing of the product, price sensitivity of its customers. goals of the company as well as the 1.6.5 positioning and pricing Fashion product An owner of a retail outlet selling her own specially designed millinery selling her own specially designed outlet An owner of a retail few options including a She needs to research wishes to expand. concessions in selected depart- franchising her business, obtaining designer to pro- and linking with a leading womenswear ment stores each season. Marketing research duce new complementary ranges of along with the preparation and analysis of the status of the business activities the major fashion marketing marketing strategy are a future needed here. 1.6.4 Fashion distribution 1.6.4 Fashion 1.6.3 Fashion promotion 1.6.3 Fashion a range may have produced corporate workwear of A manufacturer restaurants. in small independent working suitable for staff of clothes that may decide and planning the manufacturer research After careful brief to The effort. promotional is needed as part of the a brochure for the visual and textual material preparing be given to the person needed the number of brochures will include an estimate of brochure fashion marketing tasks. – essential and a list of addresses rm or the customer –rm bres and recycled wool. and recycled bres table custom. dence in the fashion industry. dence in the fashion However, the charge of encouraging a throw-away society is a of encouraging a throw-away the charge However, models is the use of particular Another example of a macro-issue The quick and fair correction of genuine errors reinforces the mes- reinforces of genuine errors correction The quick and fair con- the conscious not from and emerge broader are Macro-issues that the bulk of the fash- The most obvious example is the criticism problem that is likely to recur with sharper and move vehement focus with sharper and move that is likely to recur problem campaigns to the various anti-fur The public response in the future. the mar- and others since the 1980s has reduced Lynx run by PETA, has transformed a status in many countries and ket for fur products in fashion issues derision. ‘Green’ symbol of the rich to an item of Two. examined further in Chapter marketing are to show garments in advertising material or on the catwalk. Critics supporting an image allege that this can cause damage ranging from sex objects to acting as a contributory factor in of women as mere of of adolescent females. The over-representation dietary problems young, tall and slim female models raises many issues, not least of of the to the responses which is the sensitivity of some promoters has banned models with a body audience. The Madrid Fashion Week as mass index (BMI) of below 18.5; this is a BMI that is regarded The use of wider ranges Health Organization. unhealthy by the World are all possible consequences. Given the number of items of cloth- the number Given all possible consequences. are the inevitable and are some errors however, each year, ing bought the complaint. the seller deals with how around revolves issue really be concerned concept we should fashion marketing to the According this is the key to building and as consumer welfare about long-term profi retaining long-term customer about cares that the retailer sage to the customer their where placed in positions are some staff Unfortunately, welfare. with those of the fi may not coincide own interests Such prac- a commission only basis, for example. those who work on of public as they lead to an undermining tices should be condemned confi but as unintended or of individuals spiracy of individuals or groups activities. unanticipated consequences of certain issues in that it to environmental ion industry is lacking in sensitivity and conspicuous consumption society, encourages a throw-away and Spencer plc can lay claim unnecessary use of packaging. Marks with concerns some environmental to a serious attempt to address is no A because there The Marks and Spencer ‘Plan their ‘Plan A’. to become carbon neutral Plan B’ involves a £200 million eco-plan and to set new fabric sourcing by 2012, to extend their sustainable con- such to address in ethical trading. Other attempts standards the so-called ‘envir- small scale, include cerns, although on a relatively fi onmentally friendly’ or ‘green’

Fashion Marketing 14 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 15 u- u- cant effects on Design research Customers Marketing mix Marketing Marketing environment Marketing Fashion marketing organization marketing Fashion Price Products and services Place Promotion research Marketing The fashion marketing process. Central to the concept of fashion marketing is the role of the cus- marketing is the role Central to the concept of fashion All fi rms operate within a wider commercial environment that infl environment a wider commercial rms operate within All fi Figure 1.4 Figure ences their activities. Changes in value added tax may inhibit demand ences their activities. Changes in value may stimulate a fall in unemployment for certain garments whereas illustrate how These two simple examples demand for workwear. can have signifi changes in the marketing environment how and rms. The marketing environment the operation of fashion fi in Chapter Two. covered to analyse it are with understanding and and Four deal tomer and Chapters Three the behaviour In Chapter Three the fashion purchaser. researching will be an examin- there particular, of consumers will be discussed. In garments: what infl why people buy particular ation of the reasons Clothing may be an expression ences them and what criteria they use. them, it may denote membership of how people wish others to see Fashion marketing can be viewed as a process and Figure 1.4 illus- and Figure can be viewed as a process Fashion marketing of this gives an indication of the structure It also trates that process. parts link together. book and how various 1.8 the fashion marketing process An overview of of body shapes and sizes has been effectively used by Dove in their used by Dove in has been effectively shapes and sizes of body to have of ‘We or excuse non-response The beauty. for real campaign fashion companies some does it’ from everyone else do it, because harmful less potentially other to research an unwillingness may reveal tal- industry with an abundance of creative In an ways of promotion. nd such pockets of conservatism. to fi ent, it is surprising t on each item, but a large t on each item, but a large nal chapter deals with fashion ned fashion and marketing, and ned fashion rm may decide to charge low prices and rm may decide to charge c groups of customers known as target markets. The selec- of customers known as target groups c emphasizes the importance of design; aims to meet customers’ needs; helps to achieve corporate goals. how fashion marketers work; the ethical issues. t in total. A consequence of charging low prices may be that in total. A consequence of charging t ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Chapter Four takes the understanding of customers’ behaviour one behaviour of customers’ Four takes the understanding Chapter com- mix is used to describe the 1.4 the term marketing In Figure an a variable may be adjusted using is an example of how Here mix together to achieve the Putting all aspects of the marketing There followed an examination of the practical side of fashion followed There marketing: 1.9 Summary and defi This chapter has introduced how fashion marketing: of a certain group or represent a particular lifestyle. To understand To a particular lifestyle. or represent group of a certain relevant clothing fully, expectations about aspirations and customers’ Three. in Chapter examined factors are and sociological psychological behaviour are at how data concerning this step further by looking involve can also This research marketing research. obtained, namely own market- and analysis of the company’s the study of competitors ing efforts. meet the needs used by the fashion marketer to bination of variables of specifi mix are the management of the marketing markets and tion of target of this book. Five to Ten discussed in Chapters example concerning price. A fi quantities making a small profi sell large profi image is compatible with selected because their certain outlets are marketing mix and target low prices. The concept of the marketing of the market- dealt with in Chapter Five. The actual components are as the four Ps, i.e. Price, known for the sake of simplicity ing mix are in Chapters Six covered and these are Place and Promotion, Product, design and integral to product of design research, to Nine. The role in Chapter Six. development, is covered marketing task. is the most important goals of the organization effect- and implemented Activities must be planned, co-ordinated The fi monitored. and the results ively, marketing planning.

Fashion Marketing 16 An Introduction to Fashion Marketing 17 marketing within it; marketing behaviour; marketing mix. place of fashion and the environment, the business examining and consumer ideas of marketing research the introducing and the fashion marketing outlining the concepts of target ◆ ◆ ◆ Edition, Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke. Edition, Palgrave Hall, London. Edition, Financial Times/Prentice London. Chicago, IL. Press, Oxford. Issues, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Publishing, Oxford. , Routledge, London. Meanings and the Packaging of Pleasure Zara, Kogan Page Ltd, London. Marketing Management and Strategy, 4th Revised M.J. (2007), Marketing Management Baker, Limited, New York. , Berg Barthes, R. (2006), The Language of Fashion S. (2006), Principles of Marketing, 4th and Pettitt, Brassington, F. , Batsford, Costantino, M. (1998), Fashion Files: Marketing and PR , University of Chicago and Identity (1994), Fashion, Culture Davis, F. and Bruce, M. (2006), Fashion Marketing: Contemporary Hines, T. Industry, 2nd Revised Edition, Blackwell Jones, R. (2006), The Apparel Oxford. , Phaidon Press, McDowell, C. (2003), Fashion Today Marketing A. (1990), Consumption Identity and Style: Tomlinson, Armani to M. (2005), Fashion Brands: Branding Style from Tungate, Further reading The chapter concluded by: The chapter Chapter Two The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment

2.1 Introduction

A market is a place for buying and selling, for exchanging goods and services, usually for money. The fashion market is unusual because until early in the twentieth century it was almost solely the domain of kings, queens, aristocrats and other important people. As will be seen, great changes, mainly due to technology and increasing globalization, mean that we now have a fashion marketplace open to everyone. Fashion can be a refl ection of the time, from the utilitarian clothing of the war years to the yuppie look of the buoyant 1980s. Fashion also can be a refl ection of individuals. Clothes are often chosen to refl ect among other factors our age, gender, lifestyle and personality. Because fashion is both a refl ective and yet creative discipline, it is necessary for fashion marketers to be aware of the factors surround- ing the market and develop a broad understanding of the issues that can affect the garments that are seen in any high street store.

2.2 The development of the fashion market

2.2.1 Origins of the modern fashion market Until relatively recently, fashion had always been élitist and was used by its adopters to show that they were above the common people. Even the inventions of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; the spinning jenny, the water frame and the sewing machine have not had as great an effect on the market as have cultural changes and the explosion of the media during the twentieth century. The end of World War I, in 1918, really marked the start of mass fash- The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment ion. Style began to be infl uenced by the fashion designers of Paris, Milan, New York and London. In the 1930s fi lm personalities and later pop stars all played their part in spreading or even starting fashion trends. Some fashion styles are more easily explained than others. World War II forced hemlines up because of a shortage of material. In the 1950s newer freer styles made corsets less and less necessary. However, other fashions are less easily explained and are regarded by some as merely a whim or the market just looking for a change. Technology played its part in advancing mass production methods, so that from the 1930s onwards ordinary people could buy copies of designer fashions from high street stores within weeks of the big fashion shows. The media started to become an important infl uence in the late 1970s. People became more selective in what suited them, and magazines and books advised them on creating their own style. Designers could no longer dictate the styles as they had up to the 1960s. ‘Street fashion’ styles, developed by young people themselves in towns and cities, also affected designer clothes. London was at the forefront of the fashion scene in the 1960s and early 1970s. Mary Quant was in her heyday and her clothing was famous the world over. It was the time of Carnaby Street, and Biba made famous by Barbara Hulanicki. The infl uence of royalty on fashion made a comeback with the Princess of Wales in the 1980s as many women copied the lace and ruffl es which she wore. While not the fi rst to introduce lifestyle segmentation to the market, George Davies, then chief executive of the Next chain, is undoubtedly the best known. His retailing phenomenon, targeting a particular age and lifestyle group, exploded onto the marketplace and had many other high street retailers following suit. Changes towards a healthier lifestyle advocated by the medical profession and the increase in leisure time have encouraged people to take up more sport, particularly jogging and aerobics. Membership of health clubs and gyms has increased in recent years. So the clothing from this and other activities has moved into everyday wear. The future for the fashion industry is mapped out, perhaps more than at any time in its history. Infl uences from the demographic structure, concern for the environment and further adoption of new technologies are all inevitable. These factors could stifl e designers if they are not careful or could offer them greater challenges than any they have had to face so far.

19 cations for rstly by the Previously the UK textile industry had a reputation for being industry had a reputation the UK textile Previously Bhs, (such as of the multiple retailers Since then the market share 2.2.2 fashion market in the Recent developments and discern- fragmented is now more demand for clothing Consumer major demo- high levels of stock, wary of carrying are ing. Retailers styles and fabrics and many different occurring, are graphic changes mass market for cloth- in the all resulted available. These have are advantages of long-run the eroding and are ing being fragmented manufacture. of the the nature on choice. This was blamed on dictatorial and short Clothing retail- manufacturers. and between retailers relationship enormous exercised who groups by a few large ing was dominated fabrics. Retailers market for garments and power in the wholesale content, and garments with very little fashion emphasized basic very detailed speciﬁ Marks and Spencer in particular set and such as Courtaulds Manufacturers fabrics, making-up and quality. volumes of basic to large their production geared Carrington Viyella It became uneconomic to deal fabrics for a few major customers. much design detail. small or required that either were with orders the price and quality of chains was over Competition among retail garments. ﬁ has been affected Debenhams and Marks and Spencer) Next) then gro- of smaller specialist chains (Benetton, emergence Mintel 2005 esti- at Asda and Tesco). cery supermarkets (‘George’ £1.07 billion were VAT) sales in 2004 (excluding mates that ‘George’ in enjoyed an increase of this type and that non-specialist retailers continuing. rising trend 2003 to 2004, with this sales of 13% from gained market (Zara, H&M) have also retailers Further European avoid compet- To in the UK by importing low-cost garments. share have imports, the big retailers ing with the abundance of low-cost fash- introduce the speed with which they by increasing responded to manufac- suppliers has forced ion and style changes. This, in turn, and fashion content. shorter runs of garments with higher design ture shift in retail has been a distinct In some parts of the market there an emphasis on garment price to non-price competition away from this non-price factors, such as design, quality and fashion. However, competition has had only a limited success with even Marks and ‘British Made’ slogan, turning to importing Spencer and its strong such as Matalan, Primark retailers overseas. Value from cheaply more price conscious shopper, and TK Maxx, who have attracted the more have enjoyed considerable success in other sectors of the market 2.1). (Table

Fashion Marketing 20 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 21 8 864 up Trickle 8 155 7 628 mass markets Haute couture Haute Designer wear 11.1 4.5 6.9 8.9 7 300 Street fashion or Street fashion 2001 20026 568 2003 2004 2005 down Trickle Levels of fashion. world, run by recognized, internationally famous designers. world, run by recognized, They show their collections at least twice a year and sell individual garments for thousands of pounds. For many designers for the essentially a publicity exercise the catwalk shows are sold under their name such as perfume many goods that are and accessories. the major fashion houses of the houses are Haute couture % change year on year copyright material is reproduced © Crown : HM Customs and Excise. Source Printer for of HMSO (and the Queen’s the Controller with the permission of Scotland). Imports ExportsBalance of trade 160 9 592 2 806 9 506 2 341 10 713 2 884 10 7292 543 11 679 2 Table 2.1 Table (£ million), 2001–2005 UK trade in clothing ◆ Figure 2.1 Figure 2.3.1 of the fashion market Structure why fashion is now available another reason technology, Apart from fashion clothing several levels at which are to the masses is that there 2.1: functions, as shown in Figure 2.3 size and structure The fashion market: ts but cult to iden- ow of goods rst century celebrity fashion rst century ts with some designer pieces ts with some designer bre and fabric industry that, after all, and fabric industry that, after all, bre uent will buy several haute couture outfi uent will buy several haute couture ow chart in Figure 2.2 illustrates the fl ow chart in Figure people buy their clothes. New fashions can be in the high clothes. New fashions can be in people buy their the customers lose quickly and what extremely stores street This is can make up for in value for money. in exclusivity they many changes and of the market that is undergoing one area affected. this chapter will look at how it is being to-wear clothing by designers meant that they could offer they could offer meant that clothing by designers to-wear a wider audience. high quality to designs and their stylish of although in hundreds still highly priced, are The garments to be found than thousands. They are pounds sterling rather and some of the shops, independent stores in the designers’ unique, not are Designs stores. exclusive department more and, although some in limited numbers still produced but are quality is very strict there abroad, produced garments are control. in which most area fashion is the market Mass market or street into ready- The move à porter. at pret wear is shown Designer ◆ ◆ The fashion fl The more affl The more tify the origin of our clothing and to decide who has the power in tify the origin of our clothing and the marketplace. Is it the fi 2.3.2 Size of the fashion market in domestic levels of the market have shown some growth All three of the total UK market for years. Growth clothing demand in recent turn to designer wear for every day. Women who mostly buy designer who Women turn to designer wear for every day. dress out on a couture may occasionally splash ready-to-wear who generally only buy mass mar- for a very special occasion. Those if only from wear occasionally, ket clothing may still buy designer the discounted rail. In the early twenty-fi At times it is diffi stores. high street and some from Is it the designers? Or perhaps make the cloth for the garments? it should the power base in the market? Ultimately are the retailers has been one but traditionally the fashion market be the customer, along followed so merely the customer was dictated to and where almost blindly. This three-tier view of the market is perhaps oversimplistic as there oversimplistic as there view of the market is perhaps This three-tier ones mentioned. Many many strata and price levels between the are when buying their clothes. customers do not stick to any one level outfi icons have moved to mixing their between the various participants in the marketplace. Later it will be the goods choice in deciding where is even more seen that there (see Section 2.5.2). will be manufactured

Fashion Marketing 22 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 23 Selling agents Retailers: Shops Mail order Catalogues Party plan Manufacturers Designers centres Fashion Wholesalers Fibre industry material suppliers Raw facilities Research companies Fibre marketing etc. Fibre mills, Ultimate customer ow chart. Fashion fl Fashion Support services: forecasting Fashion consultants Advertising, promotion relations and public agencies UK imports now greatly exceed exports, having increased from from having increased exceed exports, UK imports now greatly gures become more complex as UK manufacturers are developing are complex as UK manufacturers become more gures Figure 2.2 Figure their own production facilities overseas to take advantage of lower their own production 2.3). costs (Table wages and production £9.1 billion to £11.5 billion from 2001 to 2005 with the main trad- £9.1 billion to £11.5 billion from 2.1). UK exports (see Table ers being Hong Kong, China and Turkey steady at about £2.5 billion per annum over the same have remained coun- period with about 73% of this output going to other European sold in the home market clothes are tries. As less UK manufactured The of goods being exported is actually increasing. the proportion fi clothing has grown by over 16% from 1994 to 2004 and retail sales and retail 1994 to 2004 by over 16% from clothing has grown 2.2). to be nearly 50 billion (Table predicted for 2006 are 2.2 4.0 uencing uence ux of cheap 5.3 6.2 powerful popular clothing garments mass media infl designer label goods shopping clothing manufactured foreign 3.8 6.3 Consumer Expenditure at Current Prices in £ Million at Current Consumer Expenditure 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 in fashion Some major developments Consumer spending on clothes Consumption, The Blue Book 2006. Table 2.2 Table centuryPre-nineteenth 1918 onwards1930s the rich and Fashions only for Start of mass fashion infl Film personalities 1990s in branded and Increase 1939–19451950s and 1960s1970s to 1990s2000 onwards styles, fewer control Freer II – raised hemlines War World 2002 onwards of multi-nationals and Growth of electronic Growth infl Increasing Table 2.3 Table ClothingFootwearTotal 31 048431% change on 4 32 103719 year 4 165 33 927 5 466 5 35 479 35 689680 5 36 822 37 112661 5 39 092 38 067 41 155 42 792 43 728 Source: Source: The far more important factor has been the stiff level of cheap important factor has been the stiff The far more rms have had to make savage cuts in their labour force and investment rms have had to make savage cuts in their labour force plans as the alternative to going out of business. In the late 1990s plans as the alternative to going out of business. In the late 1990s as their customers suffered many major UK clothing manufacturers 2.3.3 fashion sector Employment in the of clothing textiles and leather Employment in the manufacturing 24th out of the 25 cat- in the UK has now fallen to rank production Two by the Government. recorded egories of manufacturing industry in the sector in the numbers employed main factors have reduced 2.4). New technologies 000 in 2006 (Table years to only 132 recent particularly in the more the need for many workers, have reduced of pattern cutting as much of this can be computerized. skilled areas The computer systems still need to be manned by a skilled workforce, will be redundancies. has to be done and still there but retraining With an inability to raise prices in the face abroad. competition from debts, many domestic market and crippled by large of a depressed fi

Fashion Marketing 24 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 25 nancial backing of the French nancial backing of the French 2001103.2 2002108.1 100.0 2003 100.0 100.1 2004 98.1 101.9 2005 87.0 101.3 83.2 2000122.4 2001: ONS. Source 107.2 2002 99.7 2003 100 2004 98.1 2005 2006 90 89 Table 2.6 Table in UK, 2000–2006 (index of textile and textile products Production 2003 100) Table 2.4 Table and footwear in textile clothing gures in employment fi Recent decline year) ‘000s, in June each industries (in 1998331 1999 2000: ONS. Source 304 2001 273 2002 230 2003 2004 205 2005 169 2006 149 136 132 Total manufacturing Total industries leather and Textiles, clothing : Monthly Digest of Statistics. Source Table 2.5 Table and textiles, indices of total manufacturing industries output Production in the UK (index 2002 100, 2001, 2005) leather and clothing industries Chambre Syndicale (the French organization that decides which fash- organization Syndicale (the French Chambre ion houses may join the ranks of the haute couturiers), the number of exhibitions has declined. With it no longer being a requirement Fashion centres of the world have always included London, even Fashion centres design- and Mary Quant, but recently era of Carnaby Street the before ers have been choosing not to show in London. Now that London no longer has the fi Fashion Week 2.3.4 of London in the fashion business role The current chose to source garments from cheaper overseas suppliers. The UK cheaper overseas garments from chose to source manufac- medium and large clothing industry is made up of small, companies by the larger feed off The smaller manufacturers turers. turn to retailers As the larger nishing services. specialist fi offering so the vulnerable smaller com- overseas manufacturing or supplying, 2.5 shows the fortunes of the fashion industry in Table panies suffer. 2.6). (Table the context of the decline in manufacturing uences t and Evans), ve UK retailers account account ve UK retailers This shift away from London is of concern to the industry, paris of concern to the industry, London This shift away from 2.5 Micro-marketing environment 2.5 Micro-marketing or to a greater are within companies’ control Factors which ideally are lesser extent their suppliers, marketing intermediaries (which help to the factory to the consumer) and the consumers get the goods from of fashion may seem to have themselves. For customers the providers for instance the designer who has the idea for a variety of sources, 2.4 Marketing environment 2.4 Marketing fash- new are Every season there Fashion is ultimately about change. of these clothes. Many last year’s ions that lead to obsolescence of some- to create about by designers trying brought changes are of infl because others are thing new to satisfy customers, but all gath- These are of designers or manufacturers. beyond the control shown as environment, together in what is called the marketing ered while others can affect 2.3. Some changes occur very slowly in Figure control company’s within a quickly; some are the market much more way beyond it. and others are 2.3.5 British High Street The UK has a much of Europe, and most of the rest In contrast to Italy the big sector with only a few players as consolidated market more the top fi earners. Mintel (2005) stated that of the big players makes it hard Matalan and Bhs. This dominance into the marketplace. It is to get a foothold for independent stores cheap and high rents to compete on price when dealing with hard imported clothes. to show in London, designers have taken the opportunity to save the opportunity to have taken the in London, designers to show week, instead concentrat- another fashion of showing at yet expense best and prestigious feel will be most ones which they ing on the by the media. covered from that it will have on everything effect ticularly for the knock-on role prominent taking a more Cities which are employment to tourism. Shanghai. and, new to the list, Tokyo York, New are in the fashion year players by turnover being Marks for almost 45% of sales. The leading Shop, Etam, (comprising Top Group Next, Arcadia and Spencer, Outfi Perkins, Burton, Miss Selfridge, Dorothy Wallis,

Fashion Marketing 26 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 27 Legal Cultural , 8th edn., Political Environmental Publics Competitors Micro-environment Macro-environment Economic Technology Social Suppliers Manufacturers Intermediaries Consumers (1994), Marketing P. Kotler, Adapted from The marketing environment. Demographics Prentice Hall International, Jersey. New Marketing Management Marketing (1994), P. Adapted from Kotler, Paris is historically seen as the fashion capital and has the edge Paris is historically seen as the fashion and Italians have Milan is the other fashion capital of Europe, on many other cities as its fashion industry is taken very seriously on many other cities as its fashion designers are The haute couture by government and citizens alike. codes Syndicale, which has strict Chambre by the French protected to style him- or herself as an of practice for any designer wishing St Laurent, Yves designers are house. The main French haute couture Cardin, Pierre Christian Dior, Chanel (now run by Karl Lagerfeld), The British are Sonia Rykiel and Christian Lacroix. Jean Paul Gaultier, also making an impact in France, with Julian MacDonald and John fashion houses. in French Galliano securing senior designing roles fewer well- probably are There always taken fashion very seriously. Armani, Franco Moschino, Muicca known designers, such as Giorgio now headed by Donatella, sis- and Versace, Prada, Emanuel Ungaro in 1997, but ter to the founder Gianni who was tragically murdered set-up, with many more Italy is a country whose people and retail for young designers. is a successful environment independent stores, While Paris is often thought of as the fashion capital of the world in While Paris is often thought of as the ve main cities supplying designs and new ideas to fi are fact there international market. 2.5.1 Designers the style, the manufacturer who makes up the garment or the retailer or the retailer who makes up the garment the style, the manufacturer the garment. to whom the consumer goes to buy Figure 2.3 Figure , 8th Edition, Prentice Hall International, NJ. Management, 8th Edition, Prentice nally succumbed uential designers. ned to the home market, although all the to the home market, although all the ned sh by international standards but others have standards by international sh cant and exports are actually growing in contrast to inter- in contrast to actually growing and exports are cant eld, Jasper Conran, Matthew Williamson, Alexander McQueen, Conran, Matthew Williamson, Alexander eld, Jasper Tokyo, the centre of the Japanese clothing market, has a reputa- of the Japanese clothing market, has a the centre Tokyo, terminus of the sixth fashion The Middle East is now considered that designers either make forThe overall market pattern now is In America the major centre is New York. To a considerable extent To York. is New centre In America the major London is no longer the focal point of fashion that it once was, that it once focal point of fashion no longer the London is 2.5.2 International sourcing 2.5.2 International The UK clothing industry is being squeezed further between the low- highly price-sensitive volume market which gets its supplies from wage economies and the quality end of the market which is increas- the The level of imports to the UK from Europe. ingly supplied from on the continent has fi high-cost producers relatively of the world and is decreasing. other parts from to pressure big names are known and bought internationally. American designers bought internationally. known and big names are Jacobs, de la Renta, Marc Calvin Klein, Oscar include Ralph Lauren, and Donna Karan. Wang Vera been has There a lack of colour. tion for a distinct style and for almost of the Japanese years at the top end in recent considerable growth since 1981 when Comme clothing market by designers, especially is a fashion took Paris by storm. This des Garçons and Yamamoto as Yohji with such designers grow city that is destined to continue to Issey Miyake, Comme des Garçons (Miss Rei Kawakubo), Yamamoto, and Kenzo. Junya Wantanabe it is but because here come from the world, not because any designs Much clothing 11% of the fashion industry goes. the submerged where such places while on holiday from is bought by women either within or Kuwait, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. as Dubai, the United Arab Emirates, Likewise or overseas manufacturers. themselves or subcontract to British them up in their own facto- have their own designers and make retailers home or overseas manufacturers, ries, subcontract their own designs to up by other companies. or buy garments designed and made Many are quite small fi quite small Many are world. all over the from rich and famous bought by the their designs the UK clothing industry is no longer a major centre, Although London is still signifi as Bruce many successful designers such also retains nal sales. The city Oldfi Joseph Paul Smith, Katharine Hamnett, Westwood, Dame Vivienne Jackson and Caroline Betty Amanda Wakely, Ettedgui, Rifat Ozbek, Charles. confi are American fashions though it still produces many internationally infl many internationally still produces though it

Fashion Marketing 28 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 29 Eire, Turkey and more recently Romania) making up about 20% making up about Romania) recently and more Turkey Eire, the major Italy has traditionally been of UK clothing imports. and France in close second place. with Germany player here here and Mauritius). The two major players Malaysia, Indonesia to They contribute, almost equally, Hong Kong and China. are the Far East. entering the UK from the 30% of clothing 12% of UK clothing and accessory than more ers contribute to of quotas for Chinese the reduction that imports. Predictions do a negative impact on these countries goods would have held true so far. not seem to have 1. Portugal, France, Italy, (Germany, and just beyond UK, Europe 2. Taiwan, Thailand, South Korea, The Far East (Hong Kong, China, 3. play- main three and Sri Lanka). These Asia (India, Bangladesh There has been a reduction in the clothing manufacturing indus- been a reduction has There Supplies come from three main sources: three come from Supplies Romania have countries such as eastern European Imports from used to boast that its gar- The days when Marks and Spencer try in the UK and many foreign companies have changed from both companies have changed from try in the UK and many foreign cut, make and trim designing and manufacturing to one of merely designs. Other parts of this chapter look at (CMT) for other people’s is undoubt- There for the UK manufacturing industry. the way forward market if it that it can play in the international sourcing edly a role exibility and quality and moves away from of fl exploits the strengths 2.5.3 Manufacturers painted as a was a gloomy picture In the late 1990s and early 2000s clothing com- Several larger global sourcing. of the move towards result others such as Dewhurst Ltd closed factories and panies such as J. Baird on a few major customers such in the north-east of England who relied this loss of business. from as Marks and Spencer have suffered The greatest increase in supply has come from China and this is in supply has come from increase The greatest quotas have been all but further now that only expected to increase this of the world. However to the UK and most of the rest dropped dif- are there UK exports suggesting does not seem to have affected rainwear and being trade such as knitwear, ranges of products ferent items. high-quality tailored by access preferential from ted been seen to rise, as they have benefi restructuring to aid their economic Union (EU) in order the European quotas. (MFA) Agreement prior to the abandonment of Multi-Fibre gone and they in the UK, have long almost all produced ments were in discussed later criticism by some of the groups from have suffered Section 2.5.9. ed since ed culties from which from culties t, had sales, estimated by t, had uence on the clothing mar- rms. In 2004 the Arcadia group (formerly group In 2004 the Arcadia rms. retailers, agents, distributors, wholesalers, agencies, advertising agencies. market research ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ On the whole, competition, particularly on price, has intensifi On the whole, competition, particularly Companies have had to rationalize and restructure to combat Companies have had to rationalize and restructure of how demographic factors can Retailers always need to be aware The intermediary having the greatest infl The intermediary having the greatest competing on price alone. It is in these areas that the UK is still that the UK areas It is in these on price alone. competing changing for- 2.5 illustrates the Table its fashions, although exporting Clothing manufacturers of clothing. the import and export tunes in has been There methods. their manufacturing to improve have had empha- an increased coupled with areas cost cutting in some severe in other areas. sis on good design intermediaries 2.5.4 Marketing the from that help to get the goods the main channels These are of marketing A detailed consideration to the consumer. manufacturer can be many and in Chapter Eight. Their roles intermediaries is given are: varied. The main ones that 70% is unique in British clothes retailing group. ket is the retailer chains chains. The larger only 17 retail of garment sales come from at the clothing market of the growing share have taken an increasing expense of the smaller fi Man, Miss Shop, Top Perkins, Top Burton), which included Dorothy Evans, Burtons and Outfi Selfridge, Wallis, more their clothing outlets numbering Mintel, of £1527 million from of the share in the an increase than 2000. Supermarkets have had still goes to Marks market share the largest clothing market; however, diffi recent and Spencer despite the company’s 2006 seemed to be a turning point. In Italy, by comparison, 95% of by comparison, In Italy, 2006 seemed to be a turning point. sold by single shops. clothes are the 1990s. Customers are increasingly looking for value for money; but looking for value for money; increasingly the 1990s. Customers are driven by price; they also want good design, comfort not totally are and quality. competition, cheaper imports and changing customer increasing expectations. In consequence, many womenswear multiples have been their customers making effectively, segment markets more to forced This has for. being catered of the markets that are aware much more ranges. of product lead to a narrowing led and will increasingly customer and adjust their offering 15- to 29-year-old core their affect

Fashion Marketing 30 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 31 nal Consumers of all descriptions are more fashion educated and con- more Consumers of all descriptions are Companies such as the Paris-based organizations Peclers and organizations Companies such as the Paris-based alike to buyers and retail help manufacturers These predictions sequently more fashion conscious. They are demanding products that demanding products fashion conscious. They are sequently more their to perform in special ways. Most want to express designed are Once fashion was dictated to consumers and there was little choice Once fashion was dictated to consumers and there beginning to turn The tables are but to accept what was on offer. fashions. power to accept or reject and the consumer has more the market more researching are Recognizing this, clothing producers with goods lling the stores fi to see what will be acceptable before that just end up being discounted at sale time. 2.5.6 Consumers For the consumer it must be quite baffl ing to understand how each baffl For the consumer it must be quite what all seem to know and retailers year designers, manufacturers since the 1970s is that The reality styles and colours will be in fashion. and in fashion prediction have been companies who specialize there fashion world. parties in the act as consultants to interested Global Style Network France, and London-based Worth Promostyl, and the market for the on styles, colour (WGSN) sell their predictions for up to 18 months. There coming season or even further in advance world, although of this type in the at least 10 main organizations are Their pre- such as childrenswear. c markets some specialize in specifi usually many similari- are not all identical, although there dictions are ties between them. and colours that will be ‘the fash- make and stock the fashions; styles fi at the end of the day the ion’ for a coming season. However, whether to buy or not. with the customer in deciding decision rests 2.5.5 Fashion predictors 2.5.5 Fashion accordingly. Demographic changes often force retailers to reposition to reposition retailers often force Demographic changes accordingly. when a few years ago as was seen in the marketplace themselves of 15–20 year in the number a reduction from suffering Shop, Top upward. customer of their target the age to increase olds, decided as important, in terms of age and, often certain groups Targeting into market trends Research crucial. ever more lifestyle will become can help retailers. groups with chosen target and close co-operation continue their market of women in their forties As the ‘middle youth’ for some retailers opportunities are there in fashion, youthful interest such as H&M, have Others, loyal for longer. to try to keep customers market in of too wide a target presence concern that the professed customers. younger their core could alienate their stores rms models. This nd what they want. The bres, fabrics and uses for fabrics bres, rst imagined. Elle McPherson’s modelling career saw no sign modelling career rst imagined. Elle McPherson’s uenced and directed by the interests and needs of the young interests by the uenced and directed However, much of the major competition happens at the sourcing major competition happens at the sourcing much of the However, However, there are other changes in the marketplace affecting affecting other changes in the marketplace are there However, all were styles, types of garments and advertising In the past, fashion 2.5.7 the fashion market Competition within array of choice, with a bewildering presented Consumers today are than any other that the in the clothing market more yet it is probably consumer complains that he or she cannot fi this, but to correct working hard are and retailers clothing producers have made many fi competition and very small margins increasing wary of too much investment and experimentation. The high street at tempting consumers and at had to work much harder have stores their only weapon. times it seemed as if price cuts were 2.4. It as summarized in Figure of goods rather than in the stores, personalities through their appearance and therefore their choice of their choice and therefore their appearance through personalities want garments of working women numbers The increasing clothing. cycles understand fashion needs. They for their particular designed must Manufacturers tired. has become know when a style and they new fi and develop constantly research level of ability to select higher with the consumer’s these to keep up the vast choices on offer. from some suffering values and priorities. They are consumers’ attitudes, is more to acquire For some the desire of fashion fatigue. degree fashion clothing than spending their income on muted and rather services wider range of products, a much to choose from they prefer pursuits. and leisure deeply infl are numbers of older consumers Now that the increasing consumer. or oppor- with, things must change becoming a market to be reckoned to please more people dressing is towards tunities will be lost. The trend and self-reliant more are be dictated to. People themselves. They won’t empha- putting more They are for their individuality. cautious and careful consumer may mean that thesis on self. Recognition of the new fashion the opportunity of a longer careerfashion models of today will have than they fi her model- who started her forties and Twiggy of ending as she entered of Marks and with the turn around in the 1960s is still popular, ling career a in their advertising. To attributed to using her Spencer being largely is showing signs of change the shape of the fashion model small degree using size 16 features magazines producing with more trend probably started with the then somewhat voluptuous Sophie Dahl started with the then somewhat voluptuous probably trend and on posters, although in fashion magazines being heavily featured herself. trend now at a size 10 she has ditched the

Fashion Marketing 32 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 33 Multi-fibre agreement Low cost Low Eastern European producers More competition in sourcing at the retailer level Single market Globalization Low transportLow costs Shorter lead times in fashion sourcing. Competitive forces Since the opening of the single European market, competition market, European Since the opening of the single low-cost competition from also concerns about increased are There 2.5.8 competition for fashion products and indirect Direct choice consumers have that with increased Marketers have to realize In the western world peo- ways to spend their money. many different A woman does necessity. need to buy clothes out of pure ple rarely and another; she also may choose between one dress not merely or hiring one, or making one or even to choose between a new dress like a handbag spend her money on something completely different Figure 2.4 Figure wherever from and sourcing has been mentioned that globalization among particularly becoming the trend, cheapest is increasingly to keep overall costs competitors. This is enabling them European quality. of good design and merchandise down, while offering partly further, has increased continental clothing producers from shorter lead times. With a sin- because of lower transport costs and and accessible quota for the EU, the highly concentrated gle MFA it was than of a target even more British clothing market has become previously. of for special treatment countries whose pleas some eastern European that Poland, showing sings of success. Now their exports to the EU are joined the EU, they too haveHungary and the Czech Republic have which is a candidate access to this vital market as will Turkey gained free in conjunction with The clothing industries in these countries, country. and re-equipping. major restructuring EU companies, have undergone competition. some formidable This has enabled them to present . Elle and Vogue l similar needs, like the woman choos- nancial institutions, unions and pressure groups to name groups institutions, unions and pressure nancial uence on the market. Whether true or not, much time and effort or not, much time and effort uence on the market. Whether true Another force which seems to be having an impact is the pressure impact is the pressure which seems to be having an Another force When consumers have to choose between similar goods such as similar goods such choose between have to When consumers mar- the fashion to affect groups Perhaps one of the most powerful pages, the fashion have strong While many national newspapers 2.6 Macro-marketing environment 2.6 Macro-marketing not only the affect within the macro-environment Factors considered namely but all the other members of its micro-environment, company, Both are seen as essential reading for the woman or man who wants to for the woman or seen as essential reading Both are in the fashion world. Powerfulknow the important people and events importance neither has the overwhelming as these magazines are, for the daily newspaper publication and premier of the 92-year-old Daily, Wear industry in the USA as Women’s fashion and retail women’s guru. as a fashion has long been regarded whose editor John Fairchild and unethical practices. concerned with the use of cheap labour groups, the Label, in particular Labour Behind Anti-sweatshop campaign groups, production whose have criticized manufactures No Sweat and Tearfund deemed unethical. Their concerns have been taken up bypractices are into now taking a much closer interest are the media and many retailers being made. the conditions under which their garments are There are many groups of publics that can affect a company’s success, company’s a affect of publics that can many groups are There notably the fi or entertainment. A man may choose between one jacket and another, another, one jacket and choose between A man may or entertainment. new golf clubs. a jacket and some choose between or he may can be or manufacturers stores the garments, or another, one shirt the goods when competition. However, in direct described as being but perhaps fulfi different, are and manufac- then the stores and hiring a dress, ing between buying competition. deemed to be in indirect are turers 2.5.9 Publics fur- marketing publics is developed The concept of fashion but a few. of fashion promotion. ther in Chapter Eight within the context a designer shows after in the fashion press ket is the media. A report that some It is for this reason results. a collection can have disastrous for having too much power andfashion editors have been criticized infl designer to try to maintain goodis spent between fashion editor and in a courting may result between the two. It is hoped that this relations favourable article at a critical time. UK are fashion magazines in the two most recognized

Fashion Marketing 34 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 35 Legal uenced more Cultural Political Environmental Micro-environment Macro-environment Technology Economic The macro-environment. The Demographics Social uence and their effects become apparent more slowly than factors slowly than factors more become apparent and their effects uence The inter-relationship of macro-environmental factors is most eas- of macro-environmental The inter-relationship Figure 2.5 Figure The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the Multi-Fibre Multi-Fibre and the and Trade on Tariffs The General Agreement Agreement popu- in Textile, International Trade The Arrangement Regarding that regulated is an international agreement larly known as the MFA, into western industrialized imports of textile and clothing products low cost, mainly developing countries. Operating countries from and Trade on Tariffs under the auspices of the General Agreement the EU counting as has 43 signatories, currently the MFA (GATT), 2.6.1 Political and legal and 2.6.1 Political but both fashion away from Politics and law might seem a world With such glo- for manufacturers. can have extensive consequences events can aid or ham- of suppliers, world political balized sourcing in the be it legal requirement, per the acquisition of supplies. A new break can have a make or or the methods of manufacture, product for some companies. effect ily discerned in matters of world tension. Political, legal, social and ily discerned in matters of world impact upon to exert a great economic matters become entwined dence was thought confi general levels of consumption. Consumer although now in 1991, which, War to have been dented by the Gulf activi- uenced consumer thinking. The war and terrorist has infl over, stayed away the market as tourists ties in London have also affected infl action, which has particularly for fear of terrorist and Austin Reed. such as Jaeger upmarket brands and retailers its suppliers, consumers, etc. These generally have a much wider etc. These generally have its suppliers, consumers, infl cul- are within the macro-environment Factors within the company. demographic, technological and tural and social, political and legal, 2.5). (Figure environmental ux re’. While manufac- re’. Hoods on children’s coats and jackets can no longer be drawn by a Hoods on children’s Originally signed in 1973, the MFA has been renewed on several renewed has been in 1973, the MFA Originally signed turers had two years to comply completely with this standard, some with this standard, had two years to comply completely turers still taken unawares. were fear of strangulation or being caught in something such as a for cord in the child being dragged could result which roundabout, fairground along by the cord. Minimum wage of the minimum wage in 1995 undoubtedly affected The introduction Labour costs in North Africa and the Far UK clothing manufacturers. one. Until January 2005, under the system most imports of textiles most imports of under the system January 2005, one. Until quan- to detailed subject countries were into developed and clothing and of import a combination through implemented titative ceilings, regu- unique in international was therefore The MFA export licences. in that it was a formal departure industrial products lation of trade in is no regu- as there Especially trade principles of GATT. the free from countries to low-cost producers industrialized from lation on exports EU and USA. between the no regulations are and there was an agreement 1994 in Uruguay where in occasions, most recently which ended on the quotas over a 10-year period made to phase out decades dismantling of three gradual regulated, 1 January 2005. This had a textile and clothing industries has for western of protection so than even more UK clothing market, probably huge impact on the from countries for whom imports for some of its other EU partner’s However to them would grow. developing countries as well as exports 100% for than by more China quickly grew during 2005 imports from the infl own quotas to control many items and so the EU set up its for In a hurry to beat the deadline of Chinese clothing and footwear. and quickly speeded up imports new quotas, Chinese manufacturers Consequently 75 million items ofexceeded their full years’ quota. until a ports held in European clothing were Chinese manufactured many in August 2005. Whilst, was reached for their release resolution for sales prior by retailers school uniform required of the items were under- amount of was also a large to the autumn school term, there These new called the ‘Bra Wars’. wear leading to the dispute being quotas will last until 2007. agreed nightwear and other safety considerations Legal aspects: children’s gowns, including threads and dressing nightdresses All children’s BS 5722. Those British Standard and trimmings, have to comply with fi away from which do not must be labelled ‘keep

Fashion Marketing 36 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 37 at- Stealing designs Stealing garments Copying garments Copying on sale Copying of logosCopying of design Copying Copying of fashion. There are essentially two types of copying, either of a logo or essentially two types are There Mickey of the Lacoste crocodile, Logo copying might be imitations the rst, before of two ways: fi Design copying can happen in one quality to the original usually cheaper and of inferior Copies are eld mainly to China. British and European manufacturers also have manufacturers and European to China. British eld mainly Figure 2.6 Figure tery, but it is unlikely that any designers who have had their creations designers who have had their creations but it is unlikely that any tery, copied would agree. and very frustrating 2.6. Both are of a design, as shown in Figure about it when, or if, the copying is often it is too late to do anything discovered. such as design feature or the copy of a registered Mouse T-shirts of an infringement are stitching marks. Copies of this type the Levi’s be sued. trademark and the perpetrator can sketch designs at a fash- the thief can garment is on general release, tapes or discs from or steal the design sketches, computer ion show, actual garments. This place of work, or even steal the the designer’s the shops at the same time as or can mean that the copies get into once they designs can be copied the original. Secondly, even before in the stores. already are they will lose First, many problems. and can give the original designer may not seem rst sight the copies sales to the cheaper versions. At fi Copyright and work of the designer – it is an original creative Any design is the form of fl can be said to be the highest priced as such. Imitation to conform to a more stringent set of legal obligations and working set of legal obligations and stringent to conform to a more countries. than many other standards East showed a widening gap from UK labour costs and many British costs and many UK labour from a widening gap East showed initially favour- own units abroad, set up their manufacturers clothing moving further recently more and Sri Lanka, and Tunisia ing Morocco, afi ’ Style magazine’s ’ Style magazine’s Sunday Times culties of time and cost in pursuing legal cult to decide at what point these items are blatant copies cult to decide at what point these items are Retailers could be criticized for encouraging this practice. Now that criticized for encouraging this practice. Retailers could be In 1975 the Fashion Design Protection Copying of designs is not new. con- is to monitor the market outlets One solution, used by Levi’s, that in November 1999 the Consumer Affairs Such is the problem any different to the unsuspecting buyer who usually would go for who usually would buyer to the unsuspecting any different wearing the garment it is only after version. Frequently the cheaper become the quality differences washing it that particularly or more seams will not clean as well and do not wash or Fabrics apparent. the original designer can lead quality differences hold as well. These the consumers who think among poor reputation to get an unjustly labels. buying original that they are pride them- stores high street very quickly, goods can be produced their stores high fashion ‘copies’ available within selves on having Fashion maga- have been seen on the catwalks. only days after they such as the zines often have features, how to get a designer showing their readers ‘skinted and minted’, It is stores. high street of the price by buying from look at a fraction very diffi following a fashion trend. or merely of Ariella Fashion afterAssociation was set up by Achilleas Constantinou company had that he knew his he saw many of his designs in stores taken up by the British Clothingnot supplied. This was subsequently to get the Department ofIndustry Association (BCIA) who lobbied and Patents Act and Industry to bring out the Copyright Designs Trade without restricting creativity in 1988. The aim of this Act is ‘to protect of their encouraged to claim copyright competition’. Designers are designs original drawings. However, designs by signing and dating their without the designer ever often copied and sold in other countries are sales and rep- might be felt in decreased knowing, although the effect solved the problem. have not really utation. So these laudable efforts the practical diffi Aside from when of deciding is still the problem actions against the suppliers, there and when it is breaking following a trend a fashion house is merely the law. may not be for the counterfeiters. This to make life harder stantly, has especially when any monitoring possible for a smaller company, to made abroad, Most of the copies are to be done internationally. and avoid copyright laws. Another tac- enable cheaper manufacture label the distribution of their red is to tightly control tic used by Levi’s tag stitched into all their jeans. They count out an exact number for exactly that number of pairs of jeans and require their manufacturers producing from the manufacturer them, so preventing back from overruns and selling them as originals. attended the Sports Industries Federation Dr Kim Howells, Minister,

Fashion Marketing 38 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 39 t rst real bre bre that ts as improved appearance, t fashion separates such as leggings and t fashion separates such as leggings t from associations with a consumer recognizable brand in pre- consumer recognizable associations with a t from Other innovations in fabric technology are in the introduction of a in the introduction are Other innovations in fabric technology with dancewear, has become a household name associated Lycra that swimwear on Lycra reliance Such is the swimwear market’s is now being mixed with woven fabrics for outerwear and tai- Lycra Fibres and fabrics Fibres the of is the property is not a fabric. The trademark Lycra Lycra and is an Elastane fi US-based chemical company Du Pont variety of different properties in fabrics. Available in stores is heat- in stores in fabrics. Available properties variety of different moisturizing warm or cold; sensitive hosiery to keep the wearer fragrance capable of surviving hosiery and underwear with a built-in up to 40 washes. an is therefore mixed with. Lycra lends itself to whichever fabric it is textiles the quality of lasting additive that gives knitted and woven and its fi rst developed in 1959 It was fi and recovery. stretch trousers. cord ski wear and men’s use in garments was in the 1960s in in knitted garments. off not until the 1980s that it took It was really cling-to-fi hosiery, swimwear, of fi problems overcomes in fact anything knitted. Lycra vest dresses, obviously and movement for body-hugging designs. Manufacturers benefi mium, superior quality garments and fabrics. Du designers do not design their collections until they have received own fashion forecasts. Pont’s loring to take advantage of such benefi 2.6.2 Technological to inroads new technology is making great of industry As in all areas of manufacture. speed and quality quality of life and increase improve have been many inventions. of fashion and clothing there In the area others whereas on the market, Some have had only minor effects them. about to revolutionize have or are ‘War on Counterfeiting’ conference in London. He pledged to ‘Crack pledged to ‘Crack in London. He conference on Counterfeiting’ ‘War sportswear peddle counterfeit a Gangsters” who the “Mafi down on to know need of pounds. Consumers economy billions costing the as long last and rarely and damaging dangerous goods are that fake trying to do this crack- Many companies are as the genuine article’. of original producer Street the Bond Mulberry, down themselves. against retailers designs, took out 17 legal actions leather handbag court as the other 16 designs; only one reached for copying their com- In all cases Mulberry won, either all settled out of court. were of stock. the withdrawal and destruction pensation or at least Sale Point of Point Electronic Body design eld there have been huge developments eld there scanners Computers for Computer-aided fashion marketing fashion nishes for fabrics using Lycra such as bubble, such using Lycra nishes for fabrics tted with the latest electronic controls is help- controls tted with the latest electronic nish or printed. oor is quite phenomenal. It also has great impli- oor is quite phenomenal. It also has great reality Virtual Computers in fashion marketing. scanners a piece of cloth. This can then be viewed on the computera piece of cloth. This can then be draped fabric. to see how the design will look on the screen designs a motif. The programmer to any size, and duplicated to cover The motif can be enlarged ◆ ◆ The development of Lycra into other clothing, notably sportswear, into other clothing, notably sportswear, of Lycra The development intensive, but installation labour is extremely The clothing industry clothing fi In the sportswear A CAD system can perform a wide variety of tasks: A CAD system can perform a wide Figure 2.7 Figure better drape and less wrinkling. There is more development into add- development is more There and less wrinkling. better drape This has diversity of fabrics. a wide cloth to create to other ing Lycra of fi in all kinds resulted matt, satin fi shiny, cire, and sales in sportswear for profes- interest of has led to the increase purposes. leisure sional, hobby and fi of modern machinery productivity. ing to improve in energy transfer fabrics which transfer heat away from the body so which transfer heat away from transfer fabrics in energy cool during their activity. and -women to remain allowing sportsmen Computers has not passed by in the use of computers The dramatic increase main uses of 2.7. One of the the fashion world, as shown in Figure The impli- design (CAD). computer systems is that of computer-aided of transition of goods from cation that this can have on the speed design to the shop fl cations for the employment sector in this industry. It may be the sav- It may in this industry. cations for the employment sector is accepted quickly enough. iour of the UK clothing industry if it

Fashion Marketing 40 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 41 uence. optimum use of the fabric. optimum use of the ric using a bubble jet printer, or for larger lengths of fabric a lengths or for larger a bubble jet printer, ric using can be produced. printing layout yoke, length, etc. sleeves, collar, by selecting different given. measurements pattern pieces to achieve the It can also plan a layout for the fab- onto the directly then be printed either The fabric can a garment, perhaps a blouse, The operator can then design any basic then print out a paper pattern to will The software colourways. be tried in different The fabric can ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ These programmes can dramatically speed up the time it takes for a can dramatically speed These programmes using this sys- like to deal with designers retailers Some high street Made-to-measure has been used as a means of producing garments of producing has been used as a means Made-to-measure A further development in technology for the clothing market is for could transform the fashion business. virtual reality In the future, garment to get into the stores. They are also very cost effective both also very cost effective They are garment to get into the stores. fabric wastage. Perhaps thein terms of time saved and in minimizing pattern of area is in the can offer biggest saving that these systems making and grading. to be made without delay- tem as they can easily ask for adjustments buyer quickly and the made more ing delivery time. So decisions are choice and infl has more There is no reason why all these tasks cannot be performed by one tasks cannot be performed by one why all these is no reason There today must be the question operator; however, skilled computer Although to train designers or computer operators. whether we need using companies in the UK were in 1992 only 150 out of 9000 fashion dra- this number has increased these systems to design garments, exible and prices fl particularly as the systems become more matically, reduced. are since the inception of clothing. Since the industrial revolution, stand- the industrial revolution, since the inception of clothing. Since garments as it brings affordable sizing has gained prominence ardized need the populations comes diversity, to many markets. With growing for all, not justtting clothes for better fi exibility and the desire for fl measurements it. CAD can take a customer’s those who can afford garments, designs or patterns for many different and reproduce sizes. for different It also can grade patterns quickly and accurately. a system like a body scan- market, where use in the made-to-measure body size and shape within seconds to ner can be used to measure tailoring. electronic provide be no need for supermodels or scrambles to get the would There Designers could have the model they at the fashion show. row front their salons, while clients could view whole wanted parading around collections in the comfort of their own homes. couture t the consumer beforet der processing and improving the accuracy of transactions. the and improving der processing Another major computerized invention for the retailer is EPoS the retailer invention for major computerized Another in importance, speed- growing with suppliers are Computerized links (Electronic Point of Sale). This is very familiar in our supermarketsvery familiar in our of Sale). This is Point (Electronic can also The bar codes to give the price. scanned are bar codes where colour and as size of garment, such information retailer tell the clothing go into a cen- in stock. This information can then how long it has been rapidly reorder. and can, if necessary, stock, tral system that controls ing up or in retail and EPoS has become very important The use of computers the mer- the point of sale, management of at success in data capture who have invested with suppliers. Those retailers chandise and links in the future. best fare in these systems will Internet Internet access in 2006, clothesWith 86% of all homes in the UK having the from to continue to increase shopping via the web is predicted Mintel (2005). sales estimated by estimated 4.1 billion or 1.8% of retail websites, but there now have established While most fashion retailers The tactile dimension mixed fortunes in terms of online purchases. are matching with skin tones the salience of colour of clothing purchases, inhibit the use all factors that continue to and the variability in sizing are In addition, many consumers stillof the Internet by some customers. over details card credit concerns about the security of passing express above could be used to seethe Internet. The body scanner mentioned will fi whether the clothes available via a website a purchase is made. Companies that have been most successful such as is made. Companies that have been a purchase website. Other catalogue and Next use a multi-channel format of store, who specialize in selling online suchsuccesses have been amongst those with lingerie. fashions or Figleaves as Asos with their celebrity inspired shopping Television the from direct shopping via interactive television Still in its infancy, to change how we buy clothing. armchair has a similar potential by the same inhibitors as is limited of this area growth However, Mintel (2003) from those connected with Internet shopping. Figures of estimate sales to be worth £395 million and only take a 2.7% share the total home-shopping market. Body scanners a way of collecting 3D data about a consumer’s Body scanners are body shape and size. By standing, fully clothed, in a booth or pod, up

Fashion Marketing 42 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 43 tting nding t. There t the average consumer, the greater the greater the average consumer, t ts will be made by the made-to-measure market for which made-to-measure ts will be made by the ts are in clothing purchased online. Internet sales still suffer from from Internet sales still suffer online. in clothing purchased ts are ts. Clearly this is more fun than accurate but as a tool for getting the ts. Clearly this is more Customer size being forced changing shape and businesses are As a nation we are Adult obesity rates have almost customer. to cope with the larger obese, quadrupled in the past 25 years and now 22% of Britons are classed as having a body mass index of over 30, and three-quarters obvious The implications for the fashion industry are overweight. are This is the study of changes in the size and make-up of the popula- This is the study of changes in the well in and can be predicted tion. While these changes occur slowly they might the effect ignores advance, only the foolish manufacturer a quite radical to undergo have on business. The UK has begun and many of these changes change in the make-up of its population on the fashion clothing market. repercussions will have strong 2.6.3 Demographics uses for this technology. Selfridges, on Oxford Street, London, offer London, offer Street, on Oxford Selfridges, uses for this technology. The customer cant jeans. custom-fi produce to order body scanning in of a perfect fi rise and leg style and be assured choose the fabric, can use the body scanner consumers Gap stores pair of jeans. In some the best fi sizes will offer nd which brands and to help them fi could eliminate the need for that body scanners even predictions are most ben- could reap they market where The one changing rooms. efi do t and consumers frequently fi consumer dissatisfaction due to poor bother shop- t, they just don’t fi goods that don’t not bother to return time consumers could have theirping with that company again. In they could ‘try on’ clothes from own body scan on their computer made have been in this area Early efforts participating online retailers. Model™’. ‘My Virtual offer such as Landsend to by some organization a customer’s to assume An attractive mannequin can be programmed can try and customers features, shape, skin tone, hairstyle and facial out- of different t and co-ordination clothes on their model to check fi fi it is very effective. customer involved with the merchandise benefi also fi and accurate. Retailers are is both quick measurement to 3000 body measurements can be taken in a matter of seconds by taken in a matter can be measurements to 3000 body 3D body true to scale later an accurate and lasers. Minutes cameras being put to a is already This technology be produced. model can can now ensure companies production uses. Whilst mass variety of fi closely more that their garments nancially indulgent . There are also more also more are . There nd anything to wear. 7 nancially stable, to get further on in nancially uctuated around the 1.8 mark. Couples are are the 1.8 mark. Couples uctuated around Many clothing manufacturers are offering goods in a wider range goods in offering are Many clothing manufacturers have a spe- of sizes, some stores a wider range offering Apart from and starting a second family in their people remarrying With more An ironic contrast, however, is the concern for people, particularly is the concern for people, particularly contrast, however, An ironic in terms of sizes, stock levels and styling. Not only are people heavier people heavier only are and styling. Not of sizes, stock levels in terms by women has increased both men and height for but the average such of goods and services for all sorts This has implications mm. 10 and clothing. furniture as transport, to although some have pandered cut, generous of sizes or a more Marks in size, vanity and disguised the increase their customers’ the 1980s is not admitted that a size 12 made in and Spencer have Even high fashion retail- as the equivalent size now. exactly the same need to cater the realizing consumer are the younger ers targeting of their a selection Shop now offers Top range of sizes. for a broader availability is 16 and Next up to size 22, although clothing up to size online or in the directory. greater range BiB. range ‘Extra’, and H&M’s e.g. Bhs’s cial own range in store, also have petite ranges including Marks and Spencer, Many stores, over 5 and New Look has a range for women the This gives them family later. tending to marry later and start a fi opportunity to become more parents. is a need for maternity wear for late thirties and early forties, there who may also be working at the expectant mother, mature the more caters quite well for the younger mother time. Whilst the high street retailers catering solely for the larger customer. High and Mighty, as High and Mighty, customer. catering solely for the larger retailers has an French chain for men. Dawn the name suggests, is a growing 16 in London for women sized in South Molton Street upmarket store when it is the continues the time may come If the trend and upwards. fi complaining that they cannot size 10s who are For disorders. thin or have eating women, who try to stay extremely sometimes even stocking jeans in sizes 6, 4 and are them, stores smaller. Changes in the family has changed. with 2.4 children The much quoted statistic of the family years it has fl In recent to spend on their disposable income and to have more their careers clothing exclusive children’s some of it on clothing. More children, of the during the recession shops have, like many others, suffered is still a substantial designer market for there early 1990s. However, gener- bought as gifts from whether the garments are childrenswear fi clothing by more or as regular ous grandparents

Fashion Marketing 44 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 45 uent 2.27 0.64 2.15 3.34 6.25 1.60 6.88 9.79 7.70 9.33 6.91 8.33 8.10 12.15 15.68 2.34 2.15 3.27 6.36 1.94 7.75 7.52 9.34 0.65 4.29 7.56 1.86 10.77 20.58 16.87 2.25 3.48 6.39 0.72 9.14 7.88 9.36 0.84 5.57 7.37 2.19 5.41 5.08 % Change 11.39 12.98 Total : Adapted from Government Actuary. : Adapted from Source Table 2.7 Table Britain Great (male and female), Population trends (in ‘000s) Age range0–4 2000–2005 2005–2010 2010–2015 5–9 10–14 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–59 60–64 65–74 75–84 85 within high street stores such as New Look and H&M, there are several are and H&M, there as New Look such stores street within high JoJo, or online. sell mainly via catalogue companies who successful ranges with a upmarket more Oliver offer Bebe and Isabella Maman, affl more and mature for the more element to cater high design Children uctuations in the size of the have been fl Over the past 15 years there it is estimated age bands. However, children’s population in different older when they for women to be trend that, despite the increasing Age changes in the population Age changes in the rise by less than 2% between to is forecast The British population the clothing sector is cant impact on the signifi 2005 and 2010, but Not withstand- of the population. structure changes to the the large long-term decline in the number of 15– uctuations, the ing minor fl clothing, continues, albeit slowly. 24 year olds, high spenders on age ranges will be affected. 2.7 illustrates how different Table mother to be. These mothers will also want to keep a youthful appear- mothers will also want to keep a mother to be. These other market are so there their young children ance consistent with of about the role post-natal ranges. Further details opportunities for given in Chapter Three. are behaviour the family in purchasing nances with cult sector at which to win. The tters that are best satisfying this group. that are tters rst child or even the move towards having a ‘second fam- having a ‘second even the move towards rst child or However, changes in the children’s market can still present many still present market can in the children’s changes However, underdeveloped market remains age children’s The 10–14 years of Traditional core market aged 15–34 core Traditional that of men and market for clothing suppliers, The traditional core and 34, declined rapidly between women between the ages of 15 of this market for whom the lower end 1990 and 2000 when stores as they saw their customer such as Miss Selfridge, suffered was key, fairly has remained group by about a twelfth. This age base drop spending 15–34 year olds will con- steady since then. Whilst the high will be until 2010, there steady in numbers as a group tinue to remain may of this market. There in the 30 year olds at the top end a drop will grow group the 20-year-old be some consolation in the fact that on their fi although they also have most demands slightly, starting to have families. mortgages and many are market The mature aged 35 years In 2005 almost 56% of all inhabitants in Britain were number of 45–54 year olds is expected to rise By 2010 the or older. people of this age Previously than any other age group. rapidly more together with older consumers who tradi- would have been grouped tionally spend less on clothing, particularly men, than consumers in increasing interest in sportswear and sportswear labels would sug- in sportswear and sportswear interest increasing gest that it is the sports outfi have their fi have their in the children’s little growth will be there a new partner, ily’ with market. for infants. Many clothing and footwear demand opportunities for the market is very competitive. this and have recognized retailers good styles and designs with compete by offering Retailers can best market shows room end of the The premium good value for money. such as Miniman only label with many children’s for some expansion children’s diffusion labels offering plus many adult designer and Oilily, Baker and DKNY. Moschino, Armani, Ted Dior, ranges such as Baby Spencer have all but withdrawn Marks and terms at present. in retail better but sell most to teenagers. Next fare their attempt to appeal one The via the Next Directory. of the teen boys range online or Girl a younger was Tammy success with stand-alone stores apparent of Philip Green, under the control extension of the Etam range. Now would appear to have and Bhs, Tammy group owner of the Arcadia reinforc- within the Bhs stores, been demoted and is now only offered ing the opinion that this is a very diffi

Fashion Marketing 46 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 47 uence and are more aware of different styles. This is mainly due to of different aware more uence and are Leisure wear, particularly in the guise of sportswear, has become a has become particularly in the guise of sportswear, wear, Leisure Going against this tradition of being the lowest spenders on cloth- tradition of being the lowest spenders Going against this the higher end of the age towards particularly Most older groups, Leisure activities Leisure in a resulted activity have leisure Changes in the amount and types of styling. casual to much more formal codes of dress move away from have, due to time that many people amount of leisure The increased help in the home and conven- electronic shorter working hours, more clothing to wear in these ience foods, has led to a need for more hours. leisure style to wear during the whole day for most ages and socio-economic be it T-shirts, everyone wears some form of sportswear, Nearly groups. and trainers are sweatshirts, jogger bottoms or polo shirts. Tracksuits almost a social uniform, in some parts of the market, for many daily dog activities such as shopping, housework, looking after children, walking and of course sports activities themselves. 2.6.4 environments The social and cultural the society- basically but are These can cover a wide range of issues, the market. uences, values and changes that can affect wide infl ing, in recent years, the spending of the 55–64 year olds has risen spending of the 55–64 year olds years, the ing, in recent is expected to of women. This increase particularly that dramatically, older relatives. inheritance money from t from continue as they benefi as in comfort and quality of in fashion not as interested bracket, are younger people. fewer and lower priced items than clothes. They buy cant and service levels are signifi price is now becoming less However, magazines aimed at now more are importance. There of increasing shops. in the choice of merchandise them and a somewhat improved in their fashion attitudes by their growing uenced infl Such people are affl years. Retailers aim- up in the post-war boom having been brought classic with updated responding ing to serve this older market are still an opportunity is, however, ranges, particularly for women. There consumers by updating menswear sales to older to stimulate more presentation. ranges and retail their late teens, twenties and thirties. They bought fewer garments bought fewer garments and thirties. They teens, twenties their late people. But emerging than younger spent less per garment and often some- market as they are ‘middle youth’ is the new this group from and in health, fashion interest a greater to, who have times referred a poten- are members, particularly the women, shopping, and whose the right formula. who can offer for the retailer tially lucrative market nances of many of its uences both his or her nancial status, results in more in more nancial status, results The past 20 years has seen a gradual increase of working women has seen a gradual increase The past 20 years Women in supervisory jobs tend to spend well above the national in supervisory jobs Women well below average on clothingEconomically inactive women spend blue-collar shift from has been a long-term For working men there The role of work The role in terms is very different and womenswear for menswear The market ward- far as the ‘working of consumers. As status of the occupational occupation infl is concerned a wearer’s robe’ Changes over how much they can actually spend. garment needs and can therefore that comprise the labour market time in the occupations domes- overall size and composition of the on the have a major effect of the between the structure The relationship tic clothing market. is developed and purchasing groups labour market, socio-economic Three. further in Chapter time, more Less free over 70% of the workforce. to now make up just all have implica- and a need for clothing for work disposable income many of these women work tions for the clothing market. Although working women have less free part time, it is still be the case that to The desire disposable income. time in which to shop, but more for fi along with the desire smartly, dress spending on clothes for different occasions. spending on clothes for different in still very few women are While there average on their wardrobe. do tend to spend more and higher managerial jobs, they professional a average for women and are on their outerwear than the national small and highly lucrative market. reasons power and spectrum of ages, purchasing but cover a broad be students, pensioners, unem- for not working, for instance they may have well-paid jobs. ployed or women whose husbands think would stimulate consump- to white-collar work, which one might levels of employment and thetion. Now that the UK is enjoying high sales of for- is over, the recession steep rise in unemployment during This is partly levels. to their previous mal workwear have not returned on the fi due to fashion changes, but pressure contributory factor. customers can also be a strong core Seasonal factors have always found that demand for and retailers Clothing producers their goods is subject to the vagaries of the weather and the seasons. at certain times of the year in the expec- introduced New ranges are tation that the weather will be as normal. In the past few years the weather has been quite ‘unseasonal’ on many occasions. Summers have either arrived early and lasted longer than expected or even appear not to have arrived at all. Winters have been milder and suppliers have

Fashion Marketing 48 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 49 To satisfy the environmentally conscious consumer the pace of conscious consumer the pace satisfy the environmentally To and anticipate con- Since successful companies need to recognize Aligned to the concern of fabrics themselves is a concern over Clothing sales are generally very low in January and February with very low in January and February generally Clothing sales are December with 17% of amount of clothing is bought in The largest 2.6.5 and ethical issues ‘Green’ conserving and accepting the concept of As many consumers are so they paper, such as washing powders and in other areas recycling and replace- for constant renewal may soon be questioning the need an indus- the environmentalist To ment of clothing to follow fashion. obsolescence inbuilt and ensures try that advocates continual change attractive. is far from in its products The emphasis needs to shift from fashion changes must slow down. innova- comfort, quality and real short-term fads to durable styles, pres- is already garments. There tions in fabrics and style that add to cotton organic fabrics’ with demand for more to develop ‘green sure to clothing’ is also likely use of hemp but ‘green and an increased will be a need for important issue. There become an increasingly of biodegradable and fabrics, and production bres of fi the recycling clothing. development into these envi- and research sumer needs and desires, issues should be happening now. ronmental manufacturing conditions now that so many garments come from low and working conditions can be bad. wages are countries where only around 6% of the total annual consumer sales. Childrenswear is annual consumer sales. Childrenswear 6% of the total only around September sales of school clothing in whereas here, particularly weak period for child- the second most important sales make this month for menswear important than September June is far more renswear. of summer and the holiday This is the beginning and womenswear. of womenswear is bought, with menswear 10% season when around sales just slightly lower. sales is for part of these A large total annual spending taking place. for menswear as men very oftengifts. This month is especially important of sales in the January clothing as gifts. Even the high volume receive Christmas. sales period before sales in no way matches the bumper often found themselves with the wrong stock for the weather. This for the weather. stock the wrong themselves with often found shortages lost sales due to through ts either a loss of profi has led to of leftover end-of- to get rid heavy discounting or through of clothing look at it is necessary to seasonally, gures fi When viewing season stock. vagaries of the to avoid the bias of the extreme several years together and less heavy overcoats buying we are as a trend weather although summer wear. more le cant. bre manufacturer, was the manufacturer, bre ttings in store design; in store ttings cate under EMAS, the European cate under EMAS, the European cient transport, etc. cant impact. At the retail end of the busi- end retail cant impact. At the returning them to the clothing manufacturer to use again; to manufacturer them to the clothing returning when a far cry from extra packaging for most of its garments, and cellophane; all packed in cardboard jumpers were paper for till rolls; use of recycled the garment overbags; actually recycling plastic and using recycled but them to the customer, hangers and not offering recycling using less packaging: Marks and Spencer now use virtually no for fi using fewer hardwoods effi energy using more bre company to gain a certifi bre ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Marks and Spencer, in particular, are taking environmental concerns taking environmental are in particular, Marks and Spencer, Environmental efforts include: efforts Environmental Hoechst, a European polyester and fi Hoechst, a European rst fi Eco-Management and Audit Scheme. The review of its environmental environmental of its The review Eco-Management and Audit Scheme. con- and water on energy report practices led to a comprehensive emissions and recycling. sumption, production issues and take of such aiming to keep abreast into account. They are buying decisions and operational them into consideration in their areas. Second-hand clothing seem to be almost charity shops shopping centres In some high street in the number The huge increase as common as new clothing shops. outlets can be explained in many of these and second-hand clothing new clothing the second-hand clothing ways. As people buy more an obvious place for them to dispose of their unwanted shops are could lead us to assume last season. Economic reasons fashions from that lack of money means that the only clothing some people can envi- market. Or it could be that more the second-hand is from afford to buy second hand and preferring conscious people are ronmentally look of The retro clothing rather than always buying new. so recycling a good the late 1990s meant that second-hand clothes shops were desirable genuinely fashionable items. of source fi ness, the major chain stores are examining how they can run their are stores ness, the major chain of their efforts Most way. friendly environmentally in a more stores be quite signifi but in total they could may appear minor, Green issues: the response of retailers response issues: the Green clothing to launch environmental several attempts have been There but the high-profi and Claus Steilmann, labels such as Esprit ranges by become greener parts of the fashion industry to attempts by some any signifi have yet to have

Fashion Marketing 50 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 51 bres bres bre bre fabrics It is not only the manufacture of the fabrics that is of concern, but of the fabrics that is of It is not only the manufacture While the textile industry is usually blamed for the unfriendly emis- Whilst the consumer does not often consider the manufactur- New legislation covers, among other things, the wet processing things, the wet processing New legislation covers, among other that natural fi is much misinformation in the media There One ‘new’ trend for the 2000s, partly fuelled by its popularity at red at red fuelled by its popularity the 2000s, partly for trend One ‘new’ are best, leading many people to think that natural fi bres are good are bres natural fi best, leading many people to think that are of automatically bad. Most and synthetics are for the environment chemical indus- of the perceptions this thinking is based on negative some give off easily, biodegrade more bres Although natural fi try. synthetic fi for making toxic gases as they do so. Some processes nat- than those for making actually friendlier to the environment are taken into and water usage are especially when energy bres, ural fi consideration. clothing pro- leading Germany’s how they biodegrade after disposal. of biodegradable garments. ducers have been working on a range and that the clothing manufacturers sions and wastage, it is arguable the ones who be blamed. They are fashion designers should really products or non-crease required dyed fabrics are dictate that strong of synthet- the thermoplastic properties that need to be made from ics. The clothing and textile industries need to integrate their efforts for the future. popular among food products, for organic the desire ing processes, activities such as dyeing and fi nishing. Already, many fi rms are spend- rms are many fi nishing. Already, activities such as dyeing and fi and their processes gaseous emissions from sums to reduce ing large chemicals and other dyestuffs investing in systems for recycling are and even water. Environmentally friendly fabrics Environmentally was a sudden focus on environ- when there During the late 1980s, its processes to improve forced mental issues, the textile industry was evident that envi- legislation. It had become of increased as a result and liquid emissions damage was being caused by gaseous ronmental including textiles. of many producers, the industrial processes from carpet events such as the Oscars, is vintage clothing. Be it a 1950s Dior Be it a 1950s is vintage clothing. such as the Oscars, carpet events well- pieces by period T-shirt, Westwood Vivienne or a 1970s dress Shop on Oxford Top sought after. becoming much are known designers and sev- oor devoted to vintage clothing fl London, has a whole Street, good such as Portobello Road are famous markets eral of London’s clothes. Many new for second-hand/recycled/vintage hunting grounds and selling of gar- launched devoted to the buying websites have been exclusively selling clothing and whilst not another era. Ebay, ments from fashion. for recycled a big part in this desire accessories, plays tted in nicely as a contrast to the nishing by using pumice stone to achieve a nish. These new fabrics and processes will cost will nish. These new fabrics and processes ls the needs of those with sensitive skin who react skin who react with sensitive the needs of those ls ict of interest. Consumers and retailers seem to want Consumers and retailers ict of interest. bres bres fulfi The controversy over who is to blame for the less environmen- The controversy Some smaller organizations use overseas labour not for their low use overseas Some smaller organizations natural look’. Fabrics were In the late 1980s we also had the ‘ecology stuffs, has also moved into clothing. The use of organically grown grown organically The use of into clothing. has also moved stuffs, natural fi fashion. silhouettes and wide shoulders of the previous structured has not gone tally friendly fabrics, designer or textile manufacturer have replaced unnoticed by some designers. Most denim producers traditional chemical fi stonewashed fabric fi friendly products As with many environmentally the consumer more. a confl is there to chemicals and those with a greater environmental conscience. environmental a greater and those with to chemicals Fair trade overseas, clothing imported from of proportion With such a large within facto- the working conditions regarding growing concerns are such as Marks and organizations countries. Large ries in some Asian to factories have been accused of outsourcing Spencer and Nike employing children, Often ‘sweatshop’ labour. using the so-called conditions in potentially unsafe and uncomfortable long working days need to be able Companies pay. for very low demanded in return are ethically manufactured goods are their customers that to reassure factories that supply them. and fairly by closely monitoring the skills that peo- but for the special wages and ability to mass produce, in hand-made garments. ple can offer fashions ‘Green’ ways. On a simple fashion can be viewed in several different Green and conspicuous movement against labels is a growing level there and are dressiness shying away from consumption. Some people are work- usually part of traditional to basic clothing. Basics are returning simply cut and and are of functionality, wear – they have a high degree items of cloth- denim jeans are built to last. Doctor Marten boots and of less ethos to be following the green ing that could be considered will not date and will only classic items that consumption as they are Some of these views are when they have worn out. need replacing 2.8. shown in Figure the designer shop to the available from T-shirts in both feel and colour. Coming messages. adorned with environmental were local chain store enough of overt consumerism andat a time when consumers had had look, the ecology look fi the Yuppie

Fashion Marketing 52 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 53 nd- Major green Recycling of Recycling clothing Buying second hand Buying higher quality Buying less Unbleached fabrics Environmentally friendly technological processes you be in fashion? can How ‘green’ Minor Recycled carrier bags green Friends of the Earth have produced ranges of ‘green’ fashions fashions ranges of ‘green’ Friends of the Earth have produced to now take these issues onThe next logical stage is for designers a platform rst ‘Ethical Fashion Show’ in 2004 offering Paris held the fi concern for consumers is the risk of skin Another environmental Figure 2.8 Figure 2.6.6 Economy General economic factors such as income, employment and home on the clothing industry as an effect ownership have just as great using unbleached, undyed cotton. This satisfi ed the ecology issue This satisfi using unbleached, undyed cotton. have been rather limited. They but not the fashion issue, and sales fi rather than avoiding the issue by not using any processes were used for fashion items. solutions to enable fabrics to be ing ‘green’ concerned about the fab- such as Katharine Hamnett, are Many, board. fabrics. friendly environmentally developing more rics they use and are down’ to appear in the garmentsIt has taken time for these to ‘trickle do not constitute a large shops and they still stocked in high street and Alison Edun, set up by Bono One company, part of what we buy. with a social conscience. a clothing line for people Hewson aims to offer friendly factories fabrics, made up in environmentally They use organic with ethical working conditions. world to showcase the designers around for ethical and environmental an annual event, up to 50 design- their clothing and accessories. Now who want to sell number of distributors ers show to the increasing friendly. and environmentally ethically produced designs that are to cancer that depletion of the ozone layer and excessive exposure the sun may bring about. New ranges of beach and swimwear offer- being seen at holiday resorts, of up to 97% are ing UV protection opportunity for Lycra. even more offering new, environmentally sustaining products but are reluctant to pay for to pay reluctant but are sustaining products environmentally new, the additional cost involved. gure gure ever uence the uenced by unemployment, ation, sales growth in volume in volume ation, sales growth ation rates, easily available credit and ation rates, easily available credit gure can be accounted for by the ability can be accounted for by the ability gure t of low infl dence that their standard of living will stay the same that their standard dence ation experienced in the market, more items purchased items purchased ation experienced in the market, more uenced by some economic factors mentioned above while life- by some economic factors mentioned uenced By the late 1990s there was discussion in the media of a ‘feel good was discussion in the By the late 1990s there which varies considerably from region to region within the UK. The to region region which varies considerably from of a of whole towns can be devastated by the closure sector retail employer. local large on other product groups. Consumer expenditure on new clothing is on new clothing Consumer expenditure groups. product on other by economy measured state of the on the general very dependent and their status (GNP), their employment product national the gross infl other factors that many are income. There disposable Consumer spending for clothing and footwear. shape of the market is infl having children, such as getting married, occur, style changes that requirements people’s all alter retirement, leaving home and children where is one area Clothing clothing and footwear. and aspirations for defl has been price years there in recent less clothes buying by value, people aren’t growth is exceeding sales 1960, households spent In the cheaper. becoming but the clothes are fell to less than of their income on clothing. This on average 10.3% or less stayed at that fi and have more 6% in the late 1990s low fi since. This relatively the world and around from to source and retailers of manufacturers on prices. to competitive pressure constantly respond Recession versus ‘feel good factor’ the early 1990s the UK was in aIn the late 1980s and continuing into unem- the world. Increasing throughout that was mirrored recession to be wary of spend- rates led consumers ployment and high interest frugal spending This in turn led to more than was necessary. ing more a total new of fashions that require on clothing and a partial rejection beyond classic styles that will last more look, causing a move towards the next season. the cloth- reach but this did not necessarily factor’ in the economy, posi- and their direction many of which had somewhat lost ing stores, In the new millennium people tioning in terms of consumer needs. may feel the benefi a consumer confi and spending but with clothing, This can lead to more or get better. the price defl spending overall. to more do not necessarily relate Unemployment infl Local spending power can be greatly

Fashion Marketing 54 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 55 dence rst time 156.1 190.3 230.9 239.2 261.5 100.0 105.4 119.9 123.9 133.1 68 042 68 704 71 595 81 293 84 590 90 106 195 129 450 157 091 162 783 177 962 Standard Price Standard Index 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 1997 2003 2004 2005 2006 Price Halifax UK House : Adapted from Source Index. Table 2.8 Table 1997–2006 House price increases, 100) (index 1997 Year Credit cards Credit concern that consumers and their willingness to take out is There will follow the pattern of the 1980s. At that personal loans and credit when their homes rose willing to borrow more time consumers were their personal loans in the dent to extend confi in value and were in value faster than the appreciating knowledge that their assets were rates caused depres- as the rise in interest ation. However, rate of infl fell, the sion of the housing market, and the value of some properties Spending on credit. banks, so willing to lend in the 1980s, restricted over four times the amount spent 10 years has increased plastic cards Home ownership end of World steadily since the Home ownership has been increasing the cost of mortgages greatly rates rose, as interest II. However, War households. on owner-occupied for a time, putting pressure increased caution and the switch toEven as rates began to fall again, consumer in spend- increase in the anticipated cash may not result saving spare two and a half than risen more ing. With average house prices having have gained in confi times over the past 10 years, homeowners 2.8). Coupled house rise (Table as they have seen the price of their been able to rates homeowners have low interest with relatively the equity willing to access more on themselves. They are spend more high house prices mean Conversely in their homes by remortgaging. ladder for fi to get a foothold onto the property that it is hard and then take out for a deposit having to save hard buyers. They are property. mortgages to buy even the most modest large ve economic tests set out by the Maastricht Treaty, by the Maastricht Treaty, ve economic tests set out ls the fi The rest of Europe does not have the same love of credit cards cards the same love of credit does not have of Europe The rest 2.7.1 Styles and consumer preferences in high interested will always be people who are probably While there status and image has been a noticeable move away from fashion there 2.7 in the marketing environment Trends slow-moving changes in the marketplace that relatively are Trends them at ignore and businesses can occur for a variety of reasons, sometimes con- business led and are their peril. Sometimes trends General fashions can change very quickly and sumers lead the way. in clothing fashion trends to another whereas one extreme go from what tend to be slower and build upon themselves rather than ignore went before. ago, although this does include debit as well as credit cards. Usage of cards. as credit debit as well this does include ago, although being rates the high interest have realized as consumers cards store likes Marks cards, credit into store converted are or as they charged a using in other stores can be made purchases where and Spencer, card. credit/store Marks and Spencer a much greater go into debt as the British, having and willingness to high levels of debt as seen in the UK. to take on the reluctance Monetary Union European time joined the 11 of the 15 EU members at that In January 1999, – (EMU) and now have a single currency Monetary Union European not feel that the econ- the UK Government does Currently, the Euro. omy fulfi The likely addition of the UK and so UK membership is still on hold. will trade in will mean that stores to the EMU in the next few years easily in a more will gain the chance to trade UK retailers the Euro. competi- also mean more market although this will wider European to easily buy throughout tion. It will be possible for EU consumers and the world via the Internet. Europe Exchange rates of the by the strength affected greatly Both exports and imports are mak- was particularly strong, pound. Since the late 1990s sterling hampering clothing exports by ing imported clothing cheaper and markets. their costs in foreign increasing

Fashion Marketing 56 The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment 57 Too many manufacturers have also been taking a back seat and many manufacturers Too Changing work and lifestyles, with more time for leisure pursuits, for leisure time with more work and lifestyles, Changing by a sportswear sales has been accompanied The explosion in health of the is as crucial as ever to the Demand for womenswear encouraging pattern are These changes and the long-term weather 2.7.3 Trends in fi bres and fabrics bres 2.7.3 in fi Trends important. becoming increasingly Performance and versatility are high-tech, beginning to seek out specially engineered Customers are relying on retailers to keep them in touch with customers’ demands. retailers on relying will be those who the most successful manufacturers In the future design and technology. invest in market research, Retailers are increasingly under pressure to carry less stock in the to carry less stock in the under pressure increasingly Retailers are choice, more the customer and to offer ciency, effi of greater interests to deliver shorter required often. This means that suppliers are more than in the past. frequently more runs of merchandise 2.7.2 Manufacturing are speeding the change from formal wear to a more casual look and casual look and to a more formal wear change from speeding the are between active blur of divisions is an increasing There sportswear. and boutique seem to Sometimes the sports store wear and fashion. the same merchandise. be carrying almost of conventional for other casual garments. Sales sharp rise in demand as casual contraction a severe suffered have jumpers and cardigans in popularity. grown and sweatshirts have knitwear such as T-shirts been already market. Demographic changes have domestic clothing markets. First, the the relevant will quickly affect mentioned and these Secondly, market should be considered. upper end of the children’s opportunity. a great fties represent customers in their late forties and fi many peo- clothes, where lighter weight clothing and trans-seasonal same but use the wardrobe, ple no longer have a winter and summer two distinct shifts in clothes labelling. are There clothes year-round. under or source continuing to manufacture are Many manufacturers Millen. Karen Perkins, Next or their own brand, such as Dorothy them- the clothing designers using and promoting are Other stores of particularly in the area brand names, selves or bringing in strong concerning taste preferences sports clothing. Some of these issues Six in the con- developed further in Chapter and seasonal aspects are development. text of product dressing. Consumers still demand fashion, but they are requiring more more requiring are fashion, but they still demand Consumers dressing. and practicality. comfort realism, styles that combine understated Fashion Marketing high-performance fi bres and fabrics such as Lycra and the tactile fabrics and ask for them by name. They are looking for fabrics to fulfi l not only a fashion or style function, but also a clearly defi ned performance need. Polyester and cotton are still the most widely used fi bres, either on their own or as the dominant (50% or more) fi bre in a blend; however, natural fi bres are still more popular, and it is expected that their use, often for reasons of cost and handling properties, will rise further. Polyester is gradually losing ground and more cotton-rich blends are being used. Wool is still popular but for cost reasons it is again bought more as a blend than a pure fabric. The main area of development in fabrics is still in blending stretch Elastane yarns. They are being applied to a much wider range of fabrics either for fashion effect in body-hugging styling or for comfort and recovery in outerwear and tailoring. Microfi bres such as superfi ne polyesters and polyamides in new forms and applications, especially in blends with other fi bres and knitwear, are likely to remain the main area of interest for some time to come.

Changes in the pattern of shopping Despite current government policy to limit the increase in out-of- town developments, the trend is towards large drive to shopping malls and complexes. This shopping trend is supplemented by the growth in catalogues and may be joined by a move towards electronic shopping.

2.8 Summary

◆ This is a time of change for the clothing market. The companies who survive will be the ones who initiate change and adapt. There is not much scope for those who are slow and lag behind. In the medium term there seems little prospect of a return to the high rates of growth in clothing sales seen during much of the 1980s. ◆ Unless they can offer the discounted prices and high value that customers are looking for, many companies will ﬁ nd that they can only survive by moving away from these price-sensitive parts of the market into segments where quality, design, variety and quick response to changes in fashion and consumer tastes matter more than price. Although now with an expectation of low prices, it will be hard for customers to accept much in the way of price increases as spare income has already been allocated to other things. If anything they are

58 moving the other way, demanding more quality and styling The Fashion Market and the Marketing Environment from retailers whilst still keeping prices low. ◆ In terms of clothing people are growing older later and there will be opportunities for producers and retailers who can meet the demand from older and more discerning customers who are looking for the current fashion styling in their clothing but adapted more closely to their needs such as better quality, more comfortable styling and well-informed friendly service. ◆ The market is not changing very much in overall size but there will be major demographic growth in certain areas. Age bands offering signiﬁ cant scope for sales are among the young adults (20–24) and 45–54 year olds. ◆ There is an increasing interest in designer labels resulting in more diffused lines and more mixing of labels and clothing at very different price points. ◆ Garments manufactured overseas are dominating the UK High Street. To compete the UK has to offer a quick response, meaning low stock levels for the retailer, especially as the seasons become less distinct and retailers want to offer more fre- quent seasonal ranges. ◆ Customers are choosing to buy their clothes from wherever suits them best, be it high street stores, out of town shopping malls, supermarkets, catalogues or via the Internet. ◆ Fashion is moving into an era where marketing techniques will be more inﬂ uential than ever before. Clothing producers need to be far more aware of consumer needs. To a large extent fashion still leads, but consumers are beginning to exert more leverage in the issue. No longer will they merely wear what is dictated to them. The customer is becoming king.

Further reading

Blythe, J. (2006), Principles and Practice of Marketing, Thomson, London. Brassington, F. and Pettitt, S. (2005), Essentials of Marketing, Prentice Hall, Harlow. Hines, T. and Bruce, M. (2001), Fashion Marketing: Contemporary Issues, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Mintel Reports: Value Clothing Retailing (May 2005); Clothing Retailing (July 2005); Keynote Reports: Clothing Manufacturing (May 2006); Clothing and Footwear Industry (March 2006). Oldroyd, M. (2003/2004), CIM Coursebook Marketing Environment, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

59 This page intentionally left blank Part B Understanding and Researching the Fashion Purchaser This page intentionally left blank Chapter Three The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer

3.1 Introduction

This chapter is concerned with the behaviour of fashion consumers and organizations that purchase fashion products and services. The relevance of fashion buyer behaviour is examined and links with marketing research, market segmentation and the marketing mix are established. An outline of consumers’ decision-making is given. The types of decision made by consumers are described and the stages in the decision process are discussed. From the perspective of the buyer as a problem solver the chapter then focuses on the consumer as an individual. The main psychological variables relevant to fashion consumption are identifi ed and outlined. For example, an understanding of the perceptual process allows us to comprehend more easily why some fashion promotional messages are more effective than others. Fashion goods enable people to show identifi cation with, or sep- aration from, certain social groups. Clothing can be a symbol of belonging or alienation. To understand the fashion consumer, the broader social forces that help to shape individual buying behaviour are assessed. These social dimensions include the family, social stratifi cation, opinion leadership and cultural factors. Some people are more ready to adopt new fashions than others, and the study of diffusion and opinion leadership helps us to understand why this occurs and what may be done to facilitate the process. Fashion fi rms not only sell to fashion consumers, they also sell to other fi rms in the industry. An obvious form of organizational buying is sales within the fashion distribution channel and this is described in Chapter Eight. Another area of organizational buying of relevance is that of the corporate consumer, for instance the purchase of uniforms ection ts are that concepts from con- that concepts from ts are nition of fashion marketing is satis- nition of fashion tably. To achieve that it is necessary to achieve that it is necessary to To tably. ‘Do many people share this view?’ ‘Do many people share ‘How many?’ held?’ strongly more ‘Do they have any other views that are Everyone interested in fashion marketing brings a particular quality marketing brings a particular in fashion Everyone interested As will be seen when looking at social processes in consumer social processes As will be seen when looking at trust sound to is a good reason Each consumer is unique and that and distinctive clothing as part of a company’s image. The nature of image. The nature part of a company’s clothing as and distinctive and similarities and differences will be outlined, buying organizational will be highlighted. with consumers 3.2 fashion buyer? Why study the of the defi A central component needs profi fying customers’ understand consumers, their needs and wants, and how they will their needs and wants, and understand consumers, efforts. to various marketing respond That expe- their experiences as a fashion consumer. to their studies, i.e. blessing. The benefi rience is a mixed sumer behaviour can be understood and readily applied to one’s own to one’s applied and readily sumer behaviour can be understood temptation to generalize The main drawback is the clothing purchases. consumers behave as we do. Theand assume that all other fashion of fashion marketing will probably unfortunate fact is that the study the expert fashion marketer atypical.change buying behaviour and make coupled processes and promotional knowledge of products Greater typi- from is a dislocation there with enthusiasm for fashion mean that companies many serious market research cal consumers. Interestingly, of their because respondents exclude marketing personnel as survey tendency to be atypical. social networks. people tend to live within fairly narrow behaviour, social status and sets of interests. They interact with others of similar social net- is that these narrow For fashion marketers, the danger fashion and this ‘world views’ of what is good about works reinforce all consumers want. The key point becomes the explanation of what without question and that is that opinions should never be accepted be based on evidence about the fashion marketing decisions should market, and not just on introspection. the extrapola- rather than hunches based on marketing research tion of personal motives. As a starting point for marketing research as ideas to be tested. regarded useful when they are hunches are we can ask: Therefore by the refl For example, a fashion designer may be inspired that business travel for the female executive would be enhanced by a

Fashion Marketing 64 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 65 Measurement Marketing research methods Consumer behaviour Aims Fashion consumers Fashion markets Target channels Fashion mixes Marketing of consumer behaviour in fashion marketing. The role Describing Understanding Predicting Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2.1 consumer behaviour in marketing of role The fashion a range of concepts to help provides Consumer behaviour provides research their customers, and marketing marketers think about concepts. Consumer behaviour those measure the techniques to marketing, with all other aspects of fashion is also closely integrated and the markets of target but most notably with the selection 3.1. overview is given in Figure development of marketing mixes. An small range of light fl exible garments that do not crease. This inspir- that do not crease. exible garments of light fl small range The his or her friends. or from the designer come from ation may many women how via marketing research, is to determine next stage the cur- many feel that and of those, how business travel engage in requirements. not meet their precise clothing market does rent tech- coverage of marketing research detailed Chapter Four provides behaviour of the fashion consumer. the niques used to measure - ed in Chapter cation of suitable products. ed and then supplied with similar rms. rst century must meet these needs in a way that engages rst century must meet these needs in a way that Changes in social structure, or demographics, as identifi or demographics, Changes in social structure, If the total market for clothing is considered it can easily be seen for clothing is considered If the total market Two, cause new market threats and opportunities and therefore therefore and opportunities and cause new market threats Two, inter- For example, the increasing imperatives. targeting different issues has been accompanied by a whole range est in environmental advocates to strident opponents. Numerous ardent of views from studies undertaken between the late 1980s and 2007 have research concerned about demonstrated that the majority of consumers are differences also large are there issues. However, environmental prepared in terms of how much extra they are among social groups in support of those beliefs. Within the fashion to pay for products to attitudes held on market, consumers can be categorized according 3.2.2 marketing behaviour and target Consumer tailor- Besides bespoke consumer is unique. earlier each As mentioned with the marketing is concerned most fashion items, ing and couture of con- aimed at particular groups garments of standardized provision but, and other consumers, from different are sumers. All consumers to some other consumers. similar are they this is not contradictory, of consumers volume clothing demands that groups The marketing of be identifi with similar needs for but further, marketing target of the nature Chapter Five considers with buyer behaviour will be noted. the moment the links special- smaller segments, each with comprises many that it really age, gender bases for the segments include ized needs. Obvious may be segments based and income. Less obvious, but as important, to signifi common that are on psychological or social characteristics in their consumers differ cant numbers of consumers. For example, see between they relationship levels of aspiration and also in the the Throughout social mobility. clothing and the achievement of consumption times when conspicuous were twentieth century there for emphasizing new distinctions became a widely used mechanism structure. changes in wealth and occupational from that emerged was followed phase of the 1980s For example, the power dressing and was succeeded Friday’ phase of the 1990s by the ‘dress-down in the codes for work smart dress by some companies reintroducing to sup- will often seek clothing early 2000s. Socially aspirant groups designer of the their changing status. The fashion port and reinforce twenty-fi values con- to the prevailing these social aspirations, yet is sensitive social distinction. It is the under- cerning overt displays of wealth and needs that is the essence of standing of these types of consumer identifi consumer behaviour and the subsequent markets for fashion fi target

Fashion Marketing 66 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 67 The marketing mix is the combination of elements that a fash- The marketing mix is the combination Investigation of consumer behaviour is sometimes designed specif- behaviour is sometimes designed Investigation of consumer bres and in long-lasting clothing that is manufactured and can be and can be that is manufactured clothing and in long-lasting bres Consumer behaviour and products These needs may bought because they meet needs. are Products or may for warmth requirement be mainly physiological such as the attract- to be thought sexually include social needs such as the desire vanity and self- to may relate ive. A psychological need, for example, or oneself as smaller to perceive image and be manifest in a desire garments that emphasize Styling skill can create than reality. larger a limited amount of ‘psy- the aspect size as wished, but or reduce For example, a well-known bra chological sizing’ also can play a part. one size its leading brand with labels that are produces manufacturer The assumption is that some consumers derive satisfaction larger. atters aspirations or a particu- a size label that fl dence from and confi lar self-image. A similar situation exists with the sizing of boxer shorts is well known that very few men want the label small when it where to percep- Another example relates underwear. buying or receiving to see them- some women desire tions and garment sizing where by accordingly respond selves as a smaller size and manufacturers as a 16. a size 18 dress classifying what is really ion marketer offers to a target market. It comprises decisions made market. It comprises to a target ion marketer offers that are services and distribution prices, promotion, about products, to offering rm’s the fi assembled to represent manner in a coherent mix is given in A detailed discussion of the marketing the consumer. consumer a consideration of links between Chapter Five. For the present marketing mix will be given. behaviour and some elements of the The study of consumer behaviour not only provides a framework for behaviour not only provides The study of consumer markets, but it also enables needs and target identifying consumer action. When to marketing the anticipation of consumer responses what is lies not only in describing studying the consumer the interest behaviour. future the case, but also in predicting 3.2.3 mix behaviour and the marketing Consumer ically to identify particular groups of consumer with fashion interests consumer with fashion interests of groups ically to identify particular on lifestyles will in common. The later section and buying behaviour to market segmentation. outline one such approach environmental matters. Clearly, if signifi cant numbers with purchasing with purchasing cant numbers if signifi Clearly, matters. environmental then they prob- issues, supporters of environmental active power are fabrics and or recyclable recycled in be most interested ably would fi manner. friendly for in an environmentally cared uence consumers cation. Further consideration of the use of especially for the untrained. Therefore cult to judge, identify with ect a particular lifestyle that the consumer can rms to reach certain target audiences and infl certain target rms to reach It is not the contention of this book that such examples are to be to examples are this book that such the contention of It is not 3.3 Fashion consumer decision-making consumer 3.3 Fashion One main way of examining consumer behaviour is to take the view for clothing, The requirement solver. of the consumer as a problem via the process of identifi via the process Chapter Nine. is given in celebrities in fashion promotion Consumer behaviour and price and design Style of quality. Price for many people is a major indicator sometimes diffi are and in par- indicators of quality some consumers take surrogate how and process the perceptual ticular price. An understanding of value is helpful in constructing a consumers learn about prices and pricing policy. Consumer behaviour and distribution elem- distribution channel and designing The choice of an appropriate based on an understanding of theents within that channel should be wish to and how consumers Knowing when, where fashion consumer. fairly obvious applications. Understanding and matching self- buy are atmospheres particular store images and creating images and store consumer and ideas from to encourage certain moods need research behaviour. advocated. Indeed, we would argue that much time and effort is time and effort that much argue Indeed, we would advocated. the consumer upon the net effect level and that the retail wasted at claim that researchers When market counterproductive. is probably their own bra women do not accurately know the majority of British by the whether this ignorance is not perpetuated size, one wonders on sizing. standard absence of an industry and promotion Consumer behaviour of con- an understanding items requires of fashion The promotion media can be chosen. so that the correct sumers’ media habits of appropri- behaviour enables the selection Understanding consumer often For example, fashion photography messages. ate promotional seeks to refl attainment of that as a vehicle to the the product and then perceive advertisements also enables fash- lifestyle. The use of celebrities in ion fi

Fashion Marketing 68 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 69 rm. purchase? how to arrange delivery? If buying online or mail order, an out of stock size or colour option? Whether to order for help? Which sales assistant to approach to the cant others is unsatisfactory? What to do if the product of signifi What will be the reaction online or mail order? Whether or not to purchase Which bills to pay promptly? When to buy? How many items to buy? Will any accessories need to be purchased? Whether to shop alone or accompanied? Whether to try the garment on? new styles? nd out about How to fi What style, colour and size to buy? to buy from? Where How to pay? ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ If fashion marketers see consumer decisions as a series of smaller If fashion marketers see consumer of another customer may dislike the whole process Alternatively, related problems to be solved, then the benefi t comes in terms of to be solved, then the benefi problems related that the consumer is helped when help is planning activities to ensure about trying needed. For example, a consumer may not be bothered a blouse on if she knows she can easily exchange it later for another size if needed. speedy service with advice and shopping for clothes and appreciate is neces- nearby displays of matching accessories. Marketing research important to the particular tar- sary to determine which decisions are get market of the fashion fi It is tempting to see the purchase of a garment as just one deci- see the purchase It is tempting to the break it can be useful to However, to buy. sion, to buy or not several separate decisions that collectively decision down into larger consumers must or no buy decision. For instance, comprise the buy decide the following matters: 3.3.1 of consumer decision Types however it is driven, is seen as a problem for the consumer to solve, the consumer to for as a problem it is driven, is seen however The problem-solving with a seller. exchanging money usually by con- they be addressed; that will raises many questions perspective the vari- must make, fashion consumers types of decision cern the and through progress consumers decision process ous stages of the uence those decisions. infl major factors that nd out the level of nd out the level of recognition y outlined. First, problem ects different theoretical paradigms, cations in terms of colour, size and construc- in terms of colour, cations cant attempts at synthesis have emerged over emerged cant attempts at synthesis have cation, in part, refl The various phases will be briefl The level of involvement depends on the person, the purchase object purchase depends on the person, the The level of involvement is to fi The implication for fashion marketers ed consumer decisions is into high- and low-involvement purchases. is into high- and low-involvement purchases. ed consumer decisions 3.3.3 The decision process decision 3.3.3 The be seen as the consumer decision to buy may As shown earlier, a series of smaller decisions. It also can be shown as consumer pro- stages. Most models of con- a number of discrete through gression sumer behaviour use the stages or near equivalents as shown in 3.2. Figure that a need for clothing occurs when a consumer becomes aware by garments wearing out, comments arises. This may be triggered a change about how unfashionable existing garments are, others from or a change in or facilitating purchase of social status prompting 3.3.2 Consumer involvement 3.3.2 Consumer is the level of involvement decisions way to look at consumer Another in considerably differ decision. Consumers has in the the consumer very are fashion. Even those people who in terms of their interest in some types of gar- interested be more in fashion may interested have classi- A common way consumer theorists ment than in others. fi This classifi although some signifi years. recent the purchase For one consumer, place of purchase. and the time and and visiting may involve considerable deliberation of a pair of socks that to obtain a product to make comparisons in order several stores specifi meets fairly precise to of socks may be relegated the purchase tion. For another consumer, thinking undertaken with little conscious a simple commodity purchase other low-involvement and they may be selected along with through in a supermarket. purchases and design the marketing market or markets involvement of the target of marketing informa- A central issue is the provision mix accordingly. not want or use it. A connection tion to consumers who may or may impulse buying can be shown between low-level involvement and of the promotional proportion and this has a bearing on the relative If rather than on advertising. promotions budget that goes on in-store to information about pay much attention consumers do not really decisions in the store, but simply make some fashion products, efforts to concentrate promotional productive it would be more in-store.

Fashion Marketing 70 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 71 ercely debated. ercely Purchase Information search Information Problem recognition Problem Evaluation of alternatives Evaluation Post-purchase evaluation Post-purchase (2006) argue that marketers do not create needs, that marketers do not create et al. (2006) argue decision process. The consumer Having become aware of a need, the consumer refl ects on the situa- refl of a need, the consumer Having become aware Whether marketers create needs is the question often asked. needs is the Whether marketers create cant or cannot be solved. In deciding to proceed, the consumer cant or cannot be solved. In deciding to proceed, rst place. Many powerful social forces operate in society of which operate in society of which rst place. Many powerful social forces tion and can decide to proceed with the purchase process and collect process with the purchase tion and can decide to proceed is insign or conclude that the problem information, defer the purchase ifi This includes knowledge held in memory. already information reviews solutions may be found. Inexperience where of brands and stores may cause external information or unsatisfactory prior purchases include personal sources to be consulted. External sources sources on such as a television programme such as friends, neutral sources such as a window display marketing sources or fashion eveningwear, main external types of informa- or a poster advertisement. These three credibility of degrees with different usually regarded are tion sources by the consumer. sumption. If it were truly able to create needs and exert such a pow- needs and truly able to create sumption. If it were in the world of an outstanding failure uence then it has been erful infl fashion. Figure 3.2 Figure advertising is only one and one not often held in very high regard. often held in very high regard. advertising is only one and one not con- uences societal values towards ects and infl Advertising both refl aspirations or taste. The extent to which fashion marketers are able which fashion marketers are aspirations or taste. The extent to is fi recognition uence problem to infl Blackwell needs. of satisfying pre-existing they show consumers better ways ed by any number of be satisfi For example, high-status needs can advertiser or activities. The fact that a fashion purchases different purchases and secures the imagination of some consumers captures those needs and to do with the understanding of has more probably in the of the needs design of a message than the creation careful fi ciency as a con- ed customer may lead to ed customers are likely to ed customers are cant. uence purchase is covered in Chapter Nine. is covered purchase uence cient information is held by the consumer about pos- about is held by the consumer information cient The above discussion of the decision process has shown the The above discussion of the decision process When suffi of evalu- in a process consumers may engage After a purchase in this post-purchase Fashion marketers should be interested can lead to the early cor- monitoring of customer complaints Careful rm. The law of effect in psychology states simply that behaviour that rm. The law of effect many more with negative attitudes towards the store or brand. the store with negative attitudes towards many more need to consider factors beyond the immediate concerns of the the behaviour consumer when trying to understand and predict may be The factors to be considered of the fashion consumer. sible solutions then evaluations take place and a choice is made. The a choice is made. take place and then evaluations sible solutions Some individual to individual. varies from of the evaluations nature whereas of buying criteria, repertoires have extensive consumers for making deci- and often vague mechanisms others have limited mental an evaluation may involve the of making sions. The process items that fail of alternatives or simply eliminating ranking or rating what is At times consumers can suffer threshold. to meet a certain too many possi- are there overload where described as information An awareness information has been presented. bilities or too much of information in an needs and the provision of consumer information or brochures sales staff and advice from manner via facts appropriate made by a to make a choice. The decisions can help the consumer been mentioned earlier and have time of purchase consumer at the to infl the sales effort own effi and to an extent their ation of the product items are Systematic evaluation is most unlikely except where sumer. characteristics, such as hiking bought primarily for their functional scrutinized. The and durability may be closely protection boots where the to how socially conspicuous extent of evaluation seems related the consumer, is to the self-image of item is, how central the product price. and also to the purchase the particular consumer orientation can involve seeking comments For most consumers, the evaluation to be signifi others perceived from the level of purchases, to repeat directly behaviour as it can relate about the communications customer complaints and word-of-mouth fi Satisfi is likely to be repeated. is rewarded marketing is to move customers. The goal of fashion become regular insist- to the the promiscuous customers along the continuum from 3.3. ent, as shown in Figure complaints. Sensitive of faults and avoidance of some future rection goodwill and avoid handling of genuine complaints can also help retain indicates that communication. As research negative word-of-mouth likely to pass on negative rather than positive more consumers are onae dissatisfi information about products,

Fashion Marketing 72 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 73 uence. Sociological factors Groups The family Opinion leaders Diffusion Social stratification Culture The decision process recognition Problem search Information of alternatives Evaluation Purchase evaluation Post-purchase Promiscuous – the best deal for will shop around Occasional –Loyal us from buy will sometimes Insistent – – from us only buy will from us will usually buy Psychological factors Perception Learning Motivation Attitudes Personality Lifestyles A model of consumer behaviour. of customer. Types Figure 3.4 Figure Figure 3.3 Figure Figure 3.4 illustrates the main explanatory variables related to the variables related 3.4 illustrates the main explanatory Figure decision process. and inter- buyers select, organize whereby is the process Perception of the picture stimuli into a meaningful and coherent simple pret a distinction between sensation further, explain this process world. To of to the responses must be made. Sensation refers and perception 3.4 Psychological processes 3.4 Psychological 3.4.1 process perceptual The buyer’s grouped under the broad headings of psychological and sociological headings of psychological under the broad grouped the study of individual taken from factors. Psychological factors are understand- based on the are behaviour while sociological factors takes place as part of a group ing that much consumer behaviour patterns of infl and involves social interaction and process ltering and distilling marketing A stitch in time time saves nine selective exposure; selective attention; selective distortion; selective retention. selective ltering and distilling process are: ltering and distilling process ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ For the fashion consumer, the stimuli presented in a busy fashion in a busy the stimuli presented For the fashion consumer, Figure 3.5 Figure Selective exposure to constraints on the exposure Age or income can impose some by the deliberate choice or media, as can the more certain stores of the opportuni- is a narrowing there where This process, consumer. of marketing stimuli, is known ties for experience of the total range stimuli subject to selec- Examples of marketing as selective exposure. advertise- the fashion page in a daily newspaper, are tive exposure fashion window displays. The task for and store ments, brochures location for retail media and that the correct marketers is to ensure for selective selected to maximize the opportunities outlets are exposure. Selective attention and the range of possibilities is Selective attention is the next stage, only to some mar- when the consumer pays attention further narrowed factors that determine con- keting stimuli and not to others. Consumer existing attitudes, attention sumer attention to marketing stimuli are The last point is illus- span, emotional states, motives and expectancy. 3.5): trated by the following well-known saying (Figure our sense organs to simple stimuli, whereas perception is the psycho- is the perception whereas to simple stimuli, organs our sense a would be to compare An analogy of sensation. logical consequence whereas is the ‘reality’, the photograph with a painting: photograph view of ‘reality’. is a very personal the painting that must be made sense a bewildering array of sensations are store of stages in the perceptual a number goes through of. The consumer as steps in fi that can be seen process in this percep- marketing experience. The stages stimuli into a unique tual fi

Fashion Marketing 74 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 75 u- lter for Many people will have ‘read’ the above statement and not have above statement the will have ‘read’ Many people fashion marketer can infl of the the control Some factors under noticed the double use of the word ‘time’; they will have perceived will have perceived ‘time’; they the word double use of noticed the attitudes Existing reality. rather than the expected to see what they mes- marketing how we perceive uence infl similarly and prejudice as designer label or sale items promoted are sages. Items which out by the consumer or may even be screened may attract attention of determining attitudes. Thus the importance depending on prior designing before via marketing research, consumer predispositions, is underlined. marketing messages Selective distortion fi attention the next perceptual Having gained the consumer’s Selective retention to the This refers lter is selective retention. fi nal perceptual The fi information about fashion phenomenon of consumers remembering An important in a highly subjective way. marketers and their products ence whether the marketing message gains the attention of the marketing message gains the ence whether the a message (i.e. very loud) plus The size and intensity of consumer. can all enhance the chances and movement contrast, repetition novelty, rst 10% of a maga- Thus advertisements in the fi of gaining attention. than zine such as Company or GQ have a higher potential readership and white a black Similarly, the latter part of the same magazine. by colour which is surrounded advertisement in a glossy magazine, of gaining attention because advertisements, stands a good chance of the contrast. distortion. Consumers interpret the marketer to penetrate is selective with existing attitudes. The per- stimuli in a manner that is consistent to enable and maintain a operates in such a way as ceptual process to existing views view of the world; too many contradictions coherent life irksome. That is not to say make the management of everyday just that before is impossible, that changing consumers’ perceptions need to discover the starting points embarking upon change marketers held. An example are with which existing views and the strength noted is easily process of the perceptual of the distorting effect to bear in judging brought that are when considering the stereotypes labels most British consumers the garments by country of origin. To Italy’ have connotations of higher ‘Made in France’ or ‘Designed in design content and quality than an item made in a developing country. and uence that they may, These connotations can have such an infl in a blind test. often do, override the judgements that would emerge nds that it meets cient to explain all learn- cient to ed as association learning or Many explanations of consumer learning are given in the marketing given in the are Many explanations of consumer learning cognitive learning. Although the two main types of theory compete cognitive learning. Although the two neither category is suffi to explain behaviour, of both aspects presents ing that occurs. The following discussion approaches. Association learning a marketing stimulus and the con- Association learning occurs when Much low-level learning such paired. repeatedly are sumer response as brand names occurs at this level. A key explanatory theory for When behaviour this type of learning is known as the law of effect. and when it is punished or it will tend to be repeated is rewarded, we have Therefore it will tend to diminish in frequency. not rewarded, The con- buying and brand loyalty. a simple explanation for repeat sumer who buys a particular brand of shirt and fi 3.4.2 Learning a knowledge of fashion brands,The fashion consumer is not born with or prices, a knowledge of stores of criteria for judging garments, for how to care for certain styles or fabrics or even preferences to be learned. Consumer learning garments. All this information has behaviour that is a result permanent change in buying is any relatively for consumer learn- main sources of practice or experience. Two much learning occurs However, the family and peer groups. ing are marketers, their products consumer experience with fashion through methods. and promotional most of which can be classifi literature, his criteria in terms of being stylish, comfortable, durable and value for money will tend to buy the same brand again. The main lesson aspect of perception is that the consumer interprets information in interprets is that the consumer perception aspect of extent that the to such an priorities and concerns current terms of The main driving history. their personal rewrites in effect individual and, need for consistent is a selective retention behind this force past behaviour. explanations for our feelings and sometimes, easy become bad aspects of some items may good and In this process so-called golden for example, nostalgia for some exaggerated with, skill in tailoring, unlike pride and was ‘real there age of fashion when between blue associations that many people have today’. The close by the jeans manufacturers have been recognized jeans and youth suitable consumers with the use of of middle-aged in the targeting to evoke the nostalgia. music in advertisements

Fashion Marketing 76 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 77 ed. nds that the skirt she purchased three weeks ago is start- weeks three the skirt she purchased nds that uence consumers and help them learn more complex forms of complex forms and help them learn more uence consumers Shaping behaviour, when effectively planned, permits the fashion planned, permits the fashion when effectively Shaping behaviour, An interesting aspect of association learning is the notion of association learning is the notion aspect of An interesting Cognitive learning learn- of consumer the problem Cognitive learning theories approach ect upon the relationship and refl ing by assuming consumers reason Clearly all con- between marketing stimuli and consumer response. in detail and may engage in sumers do think about some purchases pur- conclusion before a reasoned to try to reach mental processes dissatisfaction, expense and high- chasing. Inexperience, previous most usually linked with cognitive involvement clothing items are concentrates on the thinking learning. The cognitive approach cation of the decision and the identifi courses of different through criteria and rules used by consumers. Knowing how consumers make In the section in Chapter Seven on pricing the link between sales dis- Seven on pricing the link between In the section in Chapter described. Some consumers learn, counts and consumer behaviour is until sale time, action, to defer purchase retailer because of regular by lower prices. rewarded as they are intro- the retailer to alter behaviour in other ways. Suppose retailer the goal is to with Lycra, duces a new range of cotton underwear range launch the pairs. To encourage the consumer to buy several a cou- risk and maximum reward and encourage a trial with minimum The consumer who buys the a discount may be offered. pon offering of lower value another coupon as well, this time receives product coupon should induce another than the initial coupon. The second If the product cost, but without coupon support. at reduced purchase the beginning of brand loyalty performance meets expectations, then should reward that the main has been shaped. It should be stressed the consumer and not the coupon, otherwise the product come from when an incentive the retailer from learns something else, only to buy is offered. behaviour. By selectively rewarding closer and closer approximations approximations closer and closer By selectively rewarding behaviour. learning is modifi consumer sought by the marketer, nal goal to the fi ing to come apart at the seams will probably avoid buying another avoid buying another seams will probably apart at the ing to come to avoid another customer may learn Yet, that supplier. skirt from by commis- as the sales assistants, paid primarily certain shoe shops allow adequate to serve the customer and do not sion, all compete time for browsing. marketers the opportunity to This notion allows shaping behaviour. infl for fashion marketers is to identify the relevant buying criteria of the buying criteria identify the relevant marketers is to for fashion con- criteria. Another to meet those products and produce consumer fi sumer who Awareness Knowledge Liking Preference Conviction Purchase es matters somewhat as it is argued matters somewhat as it is argued es Cognitive Affective Conative Attitude components and buying behaviour. ed time. Thus a consumer may know of a new range from ed time. Thus a consumer may know of a new range from Fashion marketers are interested in consumer attitudes as they are as they are in consumer attitudes interested Fashion marketers are The model below oversimplifi Figure 3.6 Figure connections between product features and their buying criteria and their features between product connections the to provide order in marketing staff helpful for is obviously infor- on the time. The concentration at the right right information further in will be developed aspect of learning mation processing Section 3.4.3. attitudes 3.4.3 Consumer to a given situ- or predisposition a learned orientation Attitudes are in a tendency to respond or idea resulting ation, person, object to an main components three are There favourably or unfavourably. conative. The cognitive dimen- and affective attitude: the cognitive, fashion or information possessed about the to knowledge sion refers prices; the knowledge possessed or store service, image, product, or complete, but it is what is by the consumer may not be accurate dimension is The affective believed to be the truth by the consumer. about fashion marketing offerings concerned with consumer feelings dislike or good and bad. in terms such as like and and is measured aspect of attitudes and the behavioural The conative aspect provides or not, to buy within in terms of an intention, is usually expressed a specifi and sizes available; the consumer Missonia and of the colours, prices a new intends to purchase may like the new range and moreover sweater within the next seven days. link A simple model of the seen to be closely linked to behaviour. 3.6. is shown in Figure between attitudes and buying behaviour after purchase. or become manifest that sometimes attitudes emerge in certain knowledge precede Other writers contend that liking may

Fashion Marketing 78 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 79 cation of normative beliefs. For example, of normative beliefs. For example, cation reassurance of the wisdom of the choice made); reassurance same item). in case a lower price is seen for the colour); thought); not as good as previously the decision (e.g. asking for a refund); revoking (e.g. asking a friend for seeking extra consonant information dissonant information (e.g. not visiting other shops avoiding changing behaviour (e.g. exchanging the garment for another that the brand is perhaps changing attitudes (e.g. deciding ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ When considering the point that attitudes emerge and/or change and/or emerge When considering the point that attitudes 3.4.4 Consumer motivation 3.4.4 Consumer consumers that drives and energizes Motivation is the inner force causing the goals. Motivation incorporates need arousal, towards the drive. drive that leads instrumental behaviour to reduce A considerable amount of the early research on attitudes was con- on attitudes was research A considerable amount of the early of and Columbia. Much of Yale ducted in the USA at the Universities a useful framework for the practising fash- still provides this research useful in the design of advertising ndings are fi and its ion marketer, of this work has been incorporated in Chapter Nine. Some efforts. a consumer may like the designs of Jean Paul Gaultier and have like the designs of Jean Paul Gaultier a consumer may and cut of the garments. the designs towards very positive attitudes buy because of negative atti- the same consumer may not However, may a belief that his or her close friends the price or tudes towards described measuring attitudes are for Techniques not like the styling. in Chapter Four. with experience it should be noted that post-purchase after purchase, both positive and negative. garments can lead to attitude change, seek consonance is a tendency to that there Festinger (1957) proposed doubt Post-purchase behaviour. or harmony of thoughts, feelings and then becomes a motivating state over a new garment or dissonance dissonance. Dissonance and the consumer acts to reduce of affairs in a number of ways, including: can be reduced circumstances. Several attitude theories offer competing explanations competing offer attitude theories Several circumstances. from behaviour It is clear that predicting phenomenon. for the same is a problematic components of attitudinal simple measurements positive have shown that studies Numerous area. and contentious in higher sales. do not always result products fashion attitudes towards the crucial factors and Fishbein (1980) suggests that The work of Ajzen the act of of the attitude towards the measurement to consider are and the identifi purchase nd expres- nd personality to an ict could be a person nd non-fashion products or activities to nd non-fashion products ict. An example of motive confl Consumer motivation is a complex matter to understand for many to understand for complex matter motivation is a Consumer fi concept as similar motives may Motivation is a complex Motives may change over time with, for example, a change in social Motives may change over time with, There are several ways of classifying motives and these are described are several ways of classifying motives and these are There reasons. First, motives are inferred, a consumer motive cannot be motive cannot be a consumer inferred, are First, motives reasons. and then an assumption noted is behaviour what is seen or observed; An important distinction is made. underlying behaviour about the behaviour and explaining describing merely should be made between a customer buys low-cut tops, Saying, for example, that behaviour. her cleavage is sort of person who likes to reveal because she is the of a a particular purchaser for example, description, whereas, mere especially if be said to be satisfying status needs, Prada jacket may shown on the garment. prominently the brand name is a status- Just as in the example above, behaviour. sion in different people will seek bought a Prada jacket, other seeking consumer brands or may fi different satisfy status needs. Furthermore, people may buy the same product, same product, people may buy the satisfy status needs. Furthermore, may of a Prada jacket motives. Another purchaser but for different motive) (a physiological do so primarily for warmth and protection of by a particular group or for social motives, e.g. to be accepted friends. accompanied by a change in status. The arrival of a child is often Another con- for most women. clothing purchases motivation towards purchasing simultaneously affect sideration is that many motives may the consumer Sometimes the motives operate to make behaviour. can times there at other the clothing item, whereas positive towards be motive confl attracted to the purchase of a coat that will satisfy status needs, but of a coat that will attracted to the purchase not be warm enough to as the coat may at the same time repelled satisfy a physiological need. to rational from Motives can be placed along a continuum below. rational element; hat clearly has a strong emotional. Buying a waterproof pounds that will be worn costing several thousand an evening dress end of the continuum. Anotheronly once is obviously near the other consumer is conscious of all thequestion to consider is whether the theory likens themotives impelling choice. Freudian of their motives. Many only partly aware people are where iceberg of or unwilling to admit to some of consumers may be unaware the motives that cause them to buy or avoid certain garments. It is easier for many people to assert that an item was bought because others. it looks nice than to admit that it was bought to impress and of consumer motivation is problematic The measurement outlined in some qualitative techniques for measuring motives are Chapter Four.

Fashion Marketing 80 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 81 ts related to motives is a key ts related c benefi ed certain types of consumer, buyer ed certain types of consumer, Social needs Esteem needs Self-actualization Physiological needs Physiological Safety and security needs Safety of needs. hierarchy Maslow’s Earlier approaches to consumer behaviour concentrated on con- Earlier approaches A widely cited classifi cation system for motivation was developedcation A widely cited classifi income will be concerned with Thus the consumer on a limited Figure 3.7 Figure sumer personality traits and tried to discover consumer types. The hope was that having identifi could be produced and fashion products behaviour could be predicted between the correlation Unfortunately, accordingly. and promoted Personality is the particular confi guration of qualities that make a per- Personality is the particular confi to personality will be considered, main approaches son unique. Two psychographics and the self-concept. 3.4.5 Consumer personality 3.4.5 Consumer by Abraham Maslow. Maslow, a psychologist, stated that motives a psychologist, Maslow, by Abraham Maslow. needs and that only when lower-level in a hierarchy organized were 3.7). needs become important (Figure ed did higher-level satisfi were as warmth, of low-cost clothing perhaps the functional aspects, such importance. Social needs matters of social acceptance assume before accepted by others. Esteem needs include the need to belong and be of themselves and have the need for the consumer to think well are Self-actualization, for Maslow, others hold a high opinion of them. and creativity psychologically and it embraces to grow was the desire needles and some wool may achievement. For one person knitting in the for another the participation enable self-actualization, whereas aspects of a garment by suggesting colours or styling design process satisfy needs may purchases enables self-actualization. Some clothing jacket may satisfy the than one level, e.g. a Barbour waxed at more enab- the elements as well as from need for warmth and protection The translation similarly dressed. who are ling acceptance by a group into specifi features of product selling task and this is described in more detail in Chapter Nine. detail in Chapter more selling task and this is described in c). c questions relating to AIOs. Examples to AIOs. c questions relating see him or herself; uence of culture means lifestyle marketing is perhaps not eas- means uence of culture c products and related areas such as health, beauty and fashion. areas and related c products the self-image, which is how the person sees him- or herself; the ideal self-image, which is how the person would like to ◆ ◆ These lifestyle groups are given names and can be the basis of given are These lifestyle groups Analysis of the self-concept is another major strand of research The answers to these questions are then analysed together with demo- then questions are The answers to these distinct data about consumers to derive and media graphic, purchasing anal- AIOs in common. Some interesting or types who have groupings, with geo- groups linking clothing lifestyle yses have been undertaken this chapter. this work will be discussed later in demographics and advertising copy or used as a platform for marketing efforts target to lifestyle analysis is the design. The major drawback design or store or validity of reliability underpinning or measures lack of theoretical suggests that general life- of much of the work undertaken. Evidence into is best conducted research style analysis is less useful and that specifi plainly insulting to consumers, are Some labels given to the groups pro- than more little at worst are such as apathetics or dowdies, and trying to sell their services to motional aids for advertising agencies and TGI on fash- Recent work by Mintel and manufacturers. retailers of eight lifestyle cat- examined the incidence ion lifestyles in Europe Stylish, Fashion Dressed, Well egories (Big Spenders, Label Admirers, four EU and Practical) across Conscious, Shopaholics, Individualists were differences France and Spain). Marked countries (UK, Germany, Germans for instance where found between Germany and France, whereas as Big Spenders and Label Admirers, over-represented were as stylish and fashion over-represented consumers were French is that for retailers this research conscious. The clear implication of the infl systematically, national boundaries. When done across ily transferred but there insights into buying behaviour, real lifestyle analysis can offer is no consensus on methodologies and the technique is expensive and needs to be undertaken continuously. of consumer personality studies. The dimensions of the area the from self-concept include: of such questions are ‘I believe regular exercise is essential for good exercise regular ‘I believe are of such questions a week’ (specifi ‘I go swimming at least once health’ (general) and personality type and buying behaviour was very small and thiswas very small behaviour type and buying personality not on traits, based consumers by one which was succeeded approach is known as psy- (AIOs). This and opinions interests but on activities, number asked a large are consumers or lifestyles. Typically chographics in Chapter based on a Likert scale, as described of questions, usually of general and specifi Four,

Fashion Marketing 82 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 83 others to see him or her. others to see him or her; see him or would like is how the person self-image, which the ideal social others person thinks which is how the social self-image, the ◆ ◆ In addition, the self-concept is infl uenced by situational factors self-concept is infl In addition, the a promising represents the self-concept For the fashion marketer, A group may be defi ned as two or more people who bear a psycho- ned as two or more may be defi A group to a to one another and who interact in relation logical relationship they form groups common purpose. People do not just form groups, and such as to satisfy social needs, for mutual protection for reasons The price of enhancement or to check attitudes and perceptions. is conformity to norms, a norm being a shared membership group as they essential to groups are Norms expectation of behaviour. 3.5.1 Social groups 3.5.1 Social 3.5 aspects of consumer behaviour Sociological and interact in rela- who form groups social creatures, Consumers are a sociological when viewed from tion to goals. Consumer behaviour acts, for of individual than a simple aggregation perspective is more acts and wider social of both individual the patterns and processes Several in their impact on fashion marketing. profound changes are will be examined and these social dimensions of consumer behaviour the uence over choice and to of infl particularly to the process relate basis for segmenting markets. such as who the ‘others’ are and the context of buying. Thus there context of buying. Thus there and the ‘others’ are such as who the an enduring sense of continuity is although there seem many ‘selves’, is for the consumer and this coherence provides and sameness that be noted that consumers do not always It should known as identity. of others towards or the reactions themselves accurately perceive is the semantic for measuring the self-concept them. The main tool in Chapter Four. scale and that is described differential a consumer may express as clothing is an obvious way in which area would like others to judge them. him- or herself and show how they and to enhance the self, Consumers buy clothes both to maintain of the self versus ideal self- depending on the ascendency or salience but most notably by many factors, affected image. Self-images are the lack of opportunities and/or by age and social class. Perceived the uence not only images of the self, but also opportunities can infl self-esteem. value placed upon the self, namely c store. The young man whose store. Escada store. Escada For many aspects of life there is uncertainty and groups provide a provide is uncertainty and groups For many aspects of life there for compli- rewards The mechanisms of maintaining conformity are enable stability and provide a framework within which identities may a framework within enable stability and provide and common goals can be pursued. be expressed is appar- This checking function mechanism to check that uncertainty. of friends is the advice and support where ent in clothing purchases of styling the appropriateness sought to check, among other things, money. good value for represent of garments and whether the items but for specifi identically, members do not usually dress Group the range of gar- norms or unwritten rules about are occasions there acceptable. For example, that would be considered ments and stores 3.8), but not (Figure store of friends may all visit an Escada a group necessarily buy the same items within that turn up to meet his friends usually wear blue denim clothes doesn’t friends wearing a suit without the anticipation of a little teasing. is exercised ance and punishments for deviance. Much of the control by non-verbal means or joking and teasing. These methods allow risk dignity and comply without the great to retain members group are blunt verbal demands. Norms for dress that would follow from the expectations may be most explicit for formal occasions where codes, although printed on invitations. Many workplaces have dress Figure 3.8 Figure

Fashion Marketing 84 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 85 uence t. Similarly, parents parents Similarly, t. cant others. Opinion uence exerted where uence exerted where attered by short skirts, but if one attered uence may be a young man not buying uence is important not only for styles of fash- uence is The anticipation of the reactions of others can be a key factor in of others can be of the reactions The anticipation not face to face; that are to many groups Consumers also belong groups known as reference that individuals identify with are Groups of others is accepted under certain circumstances. When little informa- of others is accepted under certain circumstances. is possessed or when the information is tion about garments or stores also others. Opinions are out of date, consumers seek information from highly visible such as outerwear or where are products sought where the garment involves risk because it may be expensive, go quickly out unpopular with signifi of fashion or simply prove 3.5.2 Opinion leadership 3.5.2 Opinion of infl to the degree Opinion leadership refers a consumer is faced with a choice. Many people discuss clothing and fashion advertising as a normal part of social interaction. The infl the choice of clothing. Consumers may not accurately anticipate Consumers may not accurately the choice of clothing. upon friends to dence and rely lack confi or may those reactions in differs them on shopping trips. Everybody advise and accompany will tend to con- and those with the highest needs their social needs on face-to-face discussion so far has concentrated form the most. The conformity is often greater. where groups and still further wish to certain groups to belong they also may aspire automatic others. Everyone belongs to from to distance themselves and with mem- etc. race, religion, gender, by virtue of age, groups Two of how one ought to dress. bership come sets of expectations fl women may both have legs that are twenties, the socialfties and the other in her early woman is in her fi to conform may be markedly different. uences and pressures infl or aspirational. An example and as noted they can be positive, negative infl group of negative reference worn by he thinks they are a well-known brand of boot because is most uence infl group reference skinheads and racists. Aspirational – for instance when people apply to join new organizations apparent outfi over their job interview most people take care to dress time will make an effort rst to school for the fi sending children him or her to be accepted quickly. their child in a way that will enable infl group Reference of particular rejections but also for endorsements and ion products, uenced by what brands infl of trainers are purchases brands. Teenage ‘out’ by the reference as ‘in’ and what is considered regarded are group. these vary in specifi city from the rigidly prescriptive uniform through through uniform rigidly prescriptive the from city in specifi these vary to related dress vague hints about exclusions to the list of the broad the organization. status within uence uencer uence and To reduce To post-purchase doubts uence others about Self-involvement; trying enhance to self-worth Genuine concernGenuine other people for Some reasons why people try people why to Some reasons influence others’ fashion choices fashion influence others’ uence. Further examples of celebrity infl uence. Further examples of celebrity when the celebrity uence shows that it is most powerful is a particular type of opinion leadership. Evidence uence Fascination with Fascination design, fabrics or fibres ed and targeted with promotional efforts, then the hope efforts, with promotional ed and targeted Opinion leadership. Opinion Interest in the fashion promotion There are many reasons why people try to infl many reasons are There Fashion marketers often hope to use opinion leadership as a way of Celebrity infl Figure 3.9 Figure their use in fashion promotion are discussed further in Chapter Nine. discussed further are their use in fashion promotion may be 3.9. There Figure and services, as shown in fashion products of a friend and advice is given on genuine concern for the well-being The infl particular stores. obtaining value for money by visiting he or she because products or opinion leader may talk about fashion used. Sometimes a fashion mes- is fascinated by the design or fabrics and discussion may prompt sage via advertising or public relations Puma, Dolce & Gabbana, Sisley, generate much media coverage. have all used advertisements at times Benetton and Wonderbra At other times opinion public reactions. strong that have provoked leaders may talk about clothing as a way of establishing self-worth by claims to superior knowledge or taste. In addition, the opinion his or her leader may discuss an item of clothing as a way of reducing dissonance (see earlier). range. If opinion leaders can of a product encouraging the diffusion be identifi leaders exist in all groups and indeed the role may change according may change according and indeed the role leaders exist in all groups may exert much infl one person to the issue facing the group; over the choice of where to dine, whereas another group member may another group to dine, whereas over the choice of where to visit. the best clothing stores have sway over which are on celebrity infl is likeable. is attractive, is trustworthy and selected has credibility, leading fashion houses with cloth- The enduring involvement of many in the is testimony to their belief ing celebrities at the Oscar Awards power of such infl

Fashion Marketing 86 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 87 cant ealized that nite fi nancial resources nite fi anticipation of the reaction of other family members. Paying of other family reaction anticipation of the Families, as defi persons related are ned by government statisticians, Families, as defi to the classify people according The family life cycle is an attempt to time via the family life of people through Modelling the progress attention to the role of the family is important when it is r of the family attention to the role and media exposure, and they make some purchases either collect- either some purchases they make and and media exposure, ively or in For may not be the wearer. the person buying the item of clothing in the UK and a signifi example, about half of all male underwear by women. purchased of knitwear for men are proportion It is tempting together. reside by blood, marriage or adoption who when newspaper headlines about to view the family as in decline a strong the family remains However, considered. rates are divorce the majority most people get married and institution in British society, is a factor Over the long term, divorce of those do not get divorced. uence upon the lives of many people and that has had a major infl or capacity for either purchasing is often accompanied by a reduced both former marriage partners. status, and the age and numberage of the head of household, marital and Gubar, cycle, by Wells Early models of the family life of children. that eve- and made the assumption of divorce omitted the occurrence single, birth to old age, namely from ryone followed the same route Later models of etc. married with children, married without children, is but there of divorce, the role the family life cycle have recognized of cohabitation, the number ofstill a need to account for the extent single all their lives and alternative lifestyles. people who remain People at the same stage of cycle is useful for two major reasons. because of similar demands upon income, consti- the life cycle may, Next grew markets for companies. The fashion retailer tute target to and responding dramatically during the early 1980s by recognizing a demographic change connected with the family life cycle. Further, at a certain stage in the life cycle knowledge of how many people are demand. For instance, knowing the for future enables predictions The family is the basic social group and the main mechanism by which and social group The family is the basic The family is important transmitted. to are social values and aspirations fi because families share the fashion marketer 3.5.3 The family 3.5.3 The is that the message will be distributed via word-of-mouth communi- word-of-mouth distributed via message will be is that the in the an important role perform Fashion media personnel cations. at them directed efforts the marketing and process word-of-mouth to public with regard Nine, particularly in Chapter will be discussed trade fairs and exhibitions. relations, u- uence uence within cation refers to div- cation refers uence and a shared decision and a shared uence ed. Stratifi ed according to the degree of infl degree to the ed according uence is not always accurately discerned uencing clothing purchases. Changes in the purchases. uencing clothing cult to undertake. cation Family decision-making is important for fashion marketers, for it is is important for fashion marketers, Family decision-making Family decisions can be classifi in particular into research, more Family decision-making requires 3.5.4 Social stratifi 3.5.4 Social stratifi All known human societies are isions of people according to their economic position in society, whether to their economic position in society, isions of people according marriage rate and the fertility rate, some fairly accurate estimates can accurate estimates rate, some fairly rate and the fertility marriage This the next few years. of births over about the number be made such clothes and stores of baby is vital for manufacturers information and Gapkids. as babyGAP made and who exerts infl how decisions are important to know stages of the pur- decisions made by families. Three over the clothing and pur- search initiation, information relevant: are chasing process notices that anmay be within a family that the female chase decision. It she also may collect information and replacing, item of clothing needs the choice. In catalogues to narrow magazines or clothing via reading and he may be male may be the sole wage earner the same family the If such a pattern of decision-mak- the purchase. the person sanctioning would be clear impli- then there market, typical for the target ing were used for advertising. cations about which media should be choices. Four for given product ence that husbands and wives exert wife-dominated, joint husband-dominated, types can be considered: to equal infl and autonomic. Joint refers together to purchase For example a couple may shop and purchase. number of to an equal refers a new suit for the husband. Autonomic Autonomic made separately. are decisions made, but those decisions a where gift purchases, perhaps best illustrated by decisions are other items but also receives female may buy some jewellery herself, to joint decision- related by her husband. The factors purchased the couple is younger. items and where higher-priced making are egalitarian or simply less knowledg- more Whether young couples are by needs is a matter to be determined eable about one another’s longitudinal research. in infl of children the role market by married women and level of participation in the labour is continuous research earnings of males and females mean relative level of infl Discovering the actual necessary in this area. families is problematic as infl families is problematic The gen- to market researchers. by the participants or even revealed and vanity of the other party, the presence der of the interviewer, to make this important both partners can conspire and modesty from task very diffi research

Fashion Marketing 88 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 89 cation professional managerial, clerical or junior Supervisory, or professional administrative Skilled manual workers workers Semi-skilled and unskilled manual the unemployed Includes most pensioners and administrative and professional Higher managerial, administrative and Intermediate managerial, Socio-economic groups 3.1 Socio-economic Table C1 class C2 29.0 Working D 16.2 Lower middle class 20.7 E Skilled working class to December 2006. : National Readership Survey (NRS Ltd), January Source 8.1 subsistence Those at the lowest level of A 4.0 Upper middle class middle Upper 4.0 class % Class Description A Middle B 21.9 This system is not the only system nor is the basis of classifi This system is not the only system The links between clothing purchases and social class are less clear and social class are The links between clothing purchases they are aware of that position or not. In the UK the main method of of that position or not. In the UK the aware they are cation or social class is based on occupation. determining social stratifi fashion market is the National The most widely used system in the a brief 3.1 gives C2, D and E. Table Readership Survey using A, B, C1, outline of this system. uncontradicted, but it is the most widely used system and can be uncontradicted, but it is the most found in fashion purchasing. useful in explaining some of the vagaries of social class is exposition and critique of theories A thorough its impact is undeniably however, beyond the scope of this book; uence of social class is that a infl pervasive. A simple model of the as determined by occupa- position in the social structure, person’s sets of aspirations and power, tion, is associated with purchasing lead to pat- all of which groups, constraints and membership of social as how some- is not only one way, terns of consumption. The process to some of the causal factors. income is spent can be relevant body’s though how particular Savings can be one factor in social mobility, both less uence social class is in themselves, infl clothing purchases, clear and less powerful. that the 1920s and 1930s reveal than in the past. Photographs from were clothing was an easy way to depict class. Hats, in particular, markers of social status. Nowadays, because of the fragmentation of styles, the range of choice available and the change in classes themselves, clothing is no longer an unambiguous guide to class. nity rst century are not the same as the not the same rst century are cant discriminator of consumer behaviour. discriminator of consumer behaviour. cant gure was around 3 million. The provision of better of better 3 million. The provision was around gure Class remains a signifi Class remains peak early in their earnings Many working-class people may reach 3.5.5 Geodemographics Related to social class is a newer system of classifying consumers systems they live. A small number of proprietary based upon where exist based upon the census and categories of neighbourhoods. Socio-economic groups have all changed, partly on account of the account of the partly on have all changed, groups Socio-economic work- – while far fewer of the country occupational structure changing service operations, the manufacturing in large-scale employed ers are over example, in 1907 give one stark To dramatically. grown sector has industries in the UK and worked in production 7 million people in 2007 the fi the of living through higher standards education and health care, Class differences have changed all social classes. twentieth century of the twenty-fi at the beginning but that is not years ago, a hundred that prevailed class differences values, attitudes and behaviour of class that a convergence to argue has occurred. is a link between class there a linear relationship, Although it is not do in income. People of increases and income, and the prospects but as in the armed forces, not wear rank overtly via their clothing Within social classes, dis- found by many to indicate status. ways are such people professional creative tinctions can be made between The in how they dress. as advertising copywriters and accountants the lat- at work whereas attire former may tend to favour less formal conservatively. more ter tend to dress many middle-class occupations have incremen- whereas their career, entitle- coupled with different tal salary scales. Such experiences, other holidays, pensions schemes and over, ments to, and discretion experi- ‘world views’. The daily associated with different ‘perks’, are a manager for example, where, ence of work impacts on these views manual employee and make decisions, and a discretion may exercise Workplace almost like a robot. may work to a rigid work schedule that can upon clothing tasks, rules or norms may place restrictions have uniforms position. Where be worn depending upon a person’s levels that wear them – even the to be worn it is usually the lower the need senior managers from Japanese companies excuse their clothing worn during the person’s to wear overalls. In consequence, or affi a distance from, time may be chosen to express leisure evident in media use, store are Class differences to, work identity. and bank accounts, and cards selection, ownership and use of credit on clothing and footwear per person. annual expenditure

Fashion Marketing 90 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 91 cation Of An interesting recent development is the combination of geodemo- development is the combination recent An interesting The census data can be linked to survey data on purchasing behaviour be linked to survey data on purchasing The census data can used by marketers for target Geodemographic data have been rst used and up to 11 years old before the next census material is and up to 11 years old before rst used One such system is ACORN, which stands for A Classifi which stands system is ACORN, One such graphics with lifestyles, particularly those focused on fashion segments. graphics with lifestyles, particularly those focused on fashion segments. system developed by Experian and TNS has catego- One commercial rized every adult in the UK into 1 of 20 female and 15 male catego- based ries called the Mosiac Fashion Segments. The categories are to fashion and these on attitudes and shopping behaviour in relation to the census and location data. An example of a female is linked are fashionistas’, ‘Annabel’ a type 12 female described as ‘best-dressed in designer labels, interested aged 18–25, often living with parents, quality and style and shopping at River Island and Independent readily available. The owners of these systems claim they are able to claim they are available. The owners of these systems readily of changes in the housing update their databases to take account and cur- in competition are mix and local economies. The systems secondary sources. expensive than data from much more are rently behaviour of buying predictive Geodemographics is not equally is a com- categories. A geodemographic category all product across as class, age, ethnic origin and posite of a number of variables such that it is either social class sub- housing amenities, and critics assert artefact looking for a theory. division by another name or a statistical Residential Neighbourhoods and is owned by CACI; Pinpoint is by CACI; Pinpoint and is owned Neighbourhoods Residential census analysis of statistical from derived systems are These another. census enumeration usually areas, to discover residential variables 450 about 150 households and approximately districts comprising composition. distinct in people, that are of a respondent, media usage. Knowing the postcode and information on the geodemographic category. can determine the market researcher The categories are groups. and 17 related ACORN has 5 categories Moderate Means Comfortably Off, Urban Prosperity, Achievers, Wealthy category in Urban Prosperity Among the categories Pressed. and Hard Educated Urbanites Professionals, known as Prosperous groups are there is CACI and the The owner of the ACORN system and Aspiring Singles. hyperlink is: http://www.caci.co.uk. forecasting, by area, sales targets marketing, media planning, setting locations for outlets. Among fash- market testing and selecting new rms, although retail- fi the mail order rms, the heavy users are ion fi presents involved. Geodemographics ers such as House of Fraser are demographic for marketing, especially when future a promising a number However, interlaced with psychographic data. data are on First, it relies of major criticisms can made of geodemographics. when it is be at least one-year-old census material that, at best, will fi ve groups, uent suburb uent affl at, an ed on the basis of the ned in a number of ways. Innovation can be nd characteristics of the above fi cant advance, but it is not a panacea or even a clear successorcant advance, but it is not Fashion marketers obviously need better tools for analysis and plan- obviously need better tools for analysis Fashion marketers products individuals will adopt new fashion Obviously different Instead of trying to fi les available give much more detail than that above and readers can can and readers detail than that above les available give much more 3.5.6 of innovation Diffusion An innovation can be defi Stores. A male example is ‘Stephen’ a type 6 described as ‘a main- a type 6 described is ‘Stephen’ A male example Stores. Debenhams, he at Next and 35–46 who shops father’ aged stream for him, but he not a high priority and quality is rate brands doesn’t pro- The actual children. on clothing for his to spend money does like fi via the hyperlink: http://www.business-strate- access the full dataset gies.co.uk/. represents combined with fashion lifestyles ning, and geodemographics a signifi obvious questions, why ask some of analysis. To to alternative methods of clothing?dwelling have any bearing on the purchase should the type of a leather coat live in an inner city fl Does the buyer of or a rural setting? ‘copying’ a so it could include anything that is new to the company, garment. An innovation or a new style of method of merchandising that has been taken up by only also can be taken to mean anything or less, or an item that of the market, usually 10% a small proportion a short time. For the purposes of has only been on the market for taken as anything the consumer this discussion an innovation will be introduced thus it could include an ‘old’ product to be new, perceives into a new market. times. The proc- of enthusiasm and at different degrees with differing by communi- innovation is spread ess by which the acceptance of an Diffusion is known as diffusion. cation to members of a social system among consumers (groups) to how an innovation is spread refers of new to individual acceptance adoption refers over time, whereas pro- review, literature Rogers (1983), after an extensive products. classifi consumers are posed a scheme whereby Rogers’ scheme is obviously time when they adopt any innovation. ideal types are and therefore to percentages, arbitrary with regard The scheme is based on the common-sense 3.2. in Table presented notion that most users do not adopt the innovation simultaneously. as Another way of looking at the issue is to conceive the process being segmentation over time. between have focused on the differences efforts modern research have innovators and non-innovators. In practice this means researchers them with combined innovators and early adopters and compared

Fashion Marketing 92 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 93 rst nd an uence the Rejector 2.5% 13.5% 34% 34% 16% Innovator cation of adopters cation of Acceptor of innovations Innovators A classifi 3.2 A Table Early adopters Early majority Late majority Laggards ts, the faster the rate of diffusion in terms of lower cost ts, the faster the rate of diffusion ActivePassive Opinion leader Innovator Opinion leader Table 3.3 Table of opinion leaders and innovators Comparison Compatibility: The innovation must match cultural values, beliefs and expectations. An example of a compatibility issue, , one of the fi was the Next Directory rst introduced, when fi examples compatibility recent major paid-for catalogues. More : The more immediate and important the Relative advantage: The more benefi life. or long product

◆ ◆ There is only limited, and contested, evidence of the super-innovator, of the super-innovator, is only limited, and contested, evidence There and the opinion is often a tendency to equate the innovator There infl in the factors that interested Fashion marketers are are: rate of diffusion uence the The main factors that infl the rest. Innovators tend to be more open-minded, inner- rather than open-minded, inner- Innovators tend to be more the rest. They also tend to be and younger rather than older. other-directed, of income, education, social higher than non-innovators in terms Non-innovators magazines and newspapers. and reading mobility, purchase risk in the more television and perceive tend to watch more than do innovators. of new products areas. product several unrelated i.e. a person who is an innovator across is moderate suggests there As with opinion leadership, the evidence we may fi Therefore interests. overlap depending on product for other aspects of to be an innovator innovator for fashion products items. food or electronic appearance, but not necessarily for as differences, are They may indeed be the same, but there leader. active since they tend to com- 3.3. Opinion leaders are shown in Table purchases. about their negatively, municate with others, positively and may be taken marketing action so that appropriate rate of diffusion, obstacles of speed during the process. to overcome uent or the cant amount of fashion : Ease with which information : Ease with which : The more complex, in terms complex, in terms : The more : Some groups are more willing to more are : Some groups : The ability to try on garments or easily or easily to try on garments : The ability rm selling it. Greater promotional spending promotional Greater rm selling it. : Depends on whether the purchase of the : Depends on whether the purchase : The greater the risk the slower the diffusion. Risk the diffusion. the risk the slower : The greater nancial, physical or social. In addition, a perception may social. In addition, a perception nancial, physical or Perceived risk Perceived can be fi will lead to lower prices. purchasing exist that a delay in market of target Type of decision Type decision. innovation is an individual or a collective of the fi the control process. can speed the diffusion concerns are ethical use of labour and the use of sustainable and the use of sustainable use of labour ethical are concerns in garment manufacture. raw materials of trials Possibility Observability or communicability is transmitted. about an innovation the innovation The complexity of Newer and use, the slower the diffusion. of understanding or care or garments that have complicated synthetic fabrics examples. are cleaning requirements young, the affl accept change than others, e.g. the highly educated. exchange those that cannot be tried on, i.e. mail order items, mail order be tried on, i.e. those that cannot exchange is a key factor. is not completely beyond of diffusion The rate Marketing effort:

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ uence behaviour and these points will be addressed. It is argued that because organizational buyers buy in bulk, are bet- buyers buy in bulk, are that because organizational It is argued 3.6 The organizational buyer organizational 3.6 The consumer of upon the retail The discussion so far has concentrated that a signiﬁ fashion. It should be remembered Knowledge of diffusion of innovation may aid planning, particularly of innovation may Knowledge of diffusion The diffusion forecasting. over time and concerning setting targets life cycle concept discussed to the product related is directly process adopter are of the innovator and early in Chapter Six. The key roles in Chapter Six planning the perspective of product examined from in Chapter Nine. to promotion and in relation be they manufacturers at organizations, is directed marketing effort garments who buy to sell on, or companies who purchase or retailers, All of the concepts discussed so far for consumption by their staff. buyers buying, for organizational have a bearing upon organizational with needs and attitudes, who also conform to social still humans are do that differences some are there norms like consumers. However, inﬂ accountable for their decisions ter trained and better informed, are

Fashion Marketing 94 The Fashion Consumer and Organizational Buyer 95 u- uences on customer decision-making; c approaches to organizational buyers are devel- buyers are to organizational c approaches uences; infl how individual customers make decisions; infl what types of decision they must make; psychological how fashion marketers classify customers and sociological and consumer buying. a comparison of organizational the importance of understanding buyers; ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ The preceding arguments support the view that organizational the view that organizational support arguments The preceding be easily rationality cannot about relative Clearly the arguments This chapter has introduced the concept of buyer behaviour in the This chapter has introduced fashion market. It has dealt with: 3.7 Summary enced by psychological and sociological processes which are expressed expressed are which processes enced by psychological and sociological that enable fashion marketersin buying decisions. Key structural factors to determine specifi between the relationships where oped further in Chapters Six to Nine, to the marketing mix. in relation explored are the organizations and are often part of a buying team they are more rational than con- rational than more they are of a buying team often part and are formality with involves more buying usually Organizational sumers. unlike rating systems and criteria or vendor explicit buying to regard and over products is often negotiation buying, there most consumer that has concentration in fashion retailing greater prices. Given the buyers Eight), organizational years (see Chapter in recent occurred than consum- so more of promotion, subject to personal forms are relations and have impersonal mass communications ers who receive with suppliers. that is another perspective there rational. However, more buyers are spending some- buyers are organizational otherwise. Because argues the consumer would than less careful money they may be one else’s is concerned with personal Fashion own money. be with his or her to be certain about his or her pur- taste and the consumer needs only uncertainty in buyer faces greater the organizational chases, whereas assortment of others. This multiple the anticipation of the needs of an to lead circumstances, for buying can, under some responsibility com- via may be diffused action, as personal accountability careless loyalty displayed by retail- mittees or teams. The extent of supplier being counterindicative of could be taken as ers and manufacturers consumer who to buying than that of the rational approach a more shows no loyalty to any brand or retailer. infl types of buyer are but the point to note is that both resolved, , 9th , Stanford , Stanford , 10th Edition, , John Wiley and Sons, , John Wiley and , 3rd Edition, The Free Edition, The Free , 3rd Consumer Behavior: In Consumer Behavior , Sage, London. Understanding Attitudes and Attitudes Understanding Consumer Behaviour and Marketing Consumer Behaviour Consumer Behavior , Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Cliffs, Hall, Englewood , Prentice Consumer Behaviour Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, and Consumer Behavior: Buying, Having, (2006), A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance A Theory of Cognitive Diffusion of Innovations Diffusion Consumer Behaviour et al. (2006), (2008), et al. , 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill, London. , 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill, , Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Hall, Upper Saddle River, , Prentice et al. , Prentice Hall, Harlow. , Prentice Chichester. CA. Stanford, University Press, Strategy New York. Press, NJ. River, Hall, Upper Saddle Edition, Pearson Prentice Being Fashion Predicting Social Behavior Social Predicting and Economics, Mason, OH. Thomson Business Festinger, L. (1957), Festinger, (2008), and Olsen, J.C. J.P. Peter, Rogers, E.M. (1983), L.G. and Kanuk, L.L. (2007) Schiffman, Solomon, M.R. (2007), (2004), Solomon, M.R. and Rabolt, N.J. Further reading Further M. (1980), and Fishbein, Ajzen, I. Blackwell, R.D. East, R. Evans, M.J.

Fashion Marketing 96 Chapter Four Fashion Marketing Research

4.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to some of the main concepts and decisions involved in the research process, as well as the main techniques used in survey research. Most adults in the UK have had some experience of marketing research, usually through contact with the ‘lady with the clipboard’ in street surveys. As such, the main emphasis of this chapter will be on the decisions that must be made as part of survey design; from the deﬁ nition of the research problem to the design of the questionnaire and data collection. The application of marketing research to product development and fashion forecasting international marketing research issues and the impact of the Internet will also be considered.

4.2 The purpose of marketing research

4.2.1 What is marketing research? Kotler (2000) defi nes marketing research as ‘the systematic design, analysis and reporting of data and fi ndings relevant to a specifi c marketing situation facing the company’. It is often asked whether there is a difference between market research and marketing research. The difference is in the scope of an investigation, as shown in Figure 4.1. Market research is used to refer to research into a specifi c market, investigating such aspects as market size, market trends, competitor analysis, and so on. Marketing research is a much broader concept, covering investigation into all aspects of the marketing of goods or services, such as product research and development, pricing research, advertising research, Fashion Marketing Areas covered by Market research

Market size Market share Market potential Competition Consumer Segmentation profiles studies

Areas covered by Marketing research

Promotion Distribution Trade Consumer and creative research analysis research research

Pricing Competitor Product Market research analysis research research

Figure 4.1 Comparison of market research and marketing research.

distribution research, as well as all the aspects of market analysis covered by market research.

4.2.2 Why is information necessary? In today’s fi erce market economy the risks faced by businesses are great. Aggressive competitors pose serious threats for both large and small businesses in the constant fi ght to maintain and increase their market share. To maximize opportunities the successful business person must make the right decisions at the right time. The consequence of making the wrong decision can be fi nancial ruin. Without the gift of clairvoyance, such decisions are problematic. An understanding of the market and the needs and wants of your consumers now and in the future are rarely based on intuition alone. Sound market information provides the basis for marketing decisions. Marketing research, properly designed and implemented, will provide this information.

4.2.3 Marketing research as part of a marketing information system The wealth of information ﬂ owing into a company has to be organized so that it reaches the right people. Successful companies operate marketing information systems (MIS) to gather accurate, up-to-date information, analyse it and disseminate the results to appropriate

98 Fashion Marketing Research 99 cult owing to thecult c market as well as nd out the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a sit- Qualitative research uses techniques such as group discussions, indi- uses techniques such as group Qualitative research information to which numbers can provides Quantitative research The techniques used in the collection of marketing information The techniques used in the collection vidual depth interviews, projective techniques and observation. The techniques vidual depth interviews, projective information obtained attempts to fi may be diffi uation, rather than ‘how many’. Analysis depth and complexity of the data collected and so it should be car- Qualitative research ried out by experienced and trained researchers. development is invaluable for basic exploratory studies, new product development studies. and creative is the best-known face of market- be applied. Quantitative research and its main survey method is what most people recog- ing research nize as marketing research. Although marketing research techniques can be applied to all areas to all areas techniques can be applied Although marketing research to every situation. appropriate of marketing, not all techniques are qualitative and two types of research: are speaking, there Broadly quantitative. 4.2.5 of research Types There is no area of marketing activity to which the techniques of mar- of marketing activity is no area There provide can Marketing research cannot be applied. keting research of a specifi size and structure information on the 4.2.4 scope of marketing research The a competi- consumer preferences, trends, current information about distribution methods and effectiveness, activities, advertising tor’s in the devel- also plays a vital role Marketing research pricing research. strategies. and promotion and new advertising opment of new products implementation of thoseIt can also monitor performance following strategies. but will vary problem, of the research on the nature depend largely the ‘ladies with interview carried out by the well-known street from tech- as projective sophisticated techniques such to more clipboards’ as motivation research. niques used in such areas decision-makers in time to allow the company to maximize its oppor- to maximize its allow the company in time to decision-makers with other information Along threats. to avoid potential tunities and accounts, etc.), company (sales, within the departments producing in the decision-making assist management can research marketing description activities, from the full range of marketing across process trends. future of to prediction of a market segment ned, the information nd out to try to solve it? This nd out nition and setting research objectives nition and setting research ndings. ned. ne the research problem and set the research objectives. research and set the problem ne the research Problem defi Problem 1. Defi sources; 2. This includes: Design the research. data (a) (b) select the sampling method; (c) method; select the data collection 3. data. (d) design (pilot). the research Test the design the data collection form (questionnaire). 4. Collect 5. the results. Analyse the data and interpret 6. the fi Present ning the research problem is the most critical step in the research is the most critical step in the research problem ning the research preliminary planning is important as it has implications for the design preliminary and the quality of the information collected. of the research design 4.5 Research descriptive and exploratory, design: types of research three are There design will depend on the problem causal. The choice of research defi previously 4.4 Defi is accurately defi Unless the problem process. and discussion thought Careful collected will be of limited or no use. the problem to address the information needed about the problem, should take place value of the information collected and the relative to decision- systematic approach anything else. A structured, before (or the commissioner of the making will also enable management what is In other words, to set the objectives of the research. research) and what do we want to fi the problem 4.3 process research of the marketing An overview There must be planned. that is a process of information The collection be made, decisions need to in which planning areas many different are is vital. so good organization 4.3.1 process in the research Stages of the on the nature will vary depending procedures Research research of marketing but in general, the process problem, research are: made up of a number of stages. They can be seen to be

Fashion Marketing 100 Fashion Marketing Research 101 Secondary sources can be separated into the two types as shown in Secondary sources 4.6.1 Secondary sources 4.6.1 Secondary with a starting point for data collection. the researcher These provide either wholly or in problem It may be possible to solve the research the cost of a research part by using secondary data. This reduces cheaper than collecting primary data. secondary data are as project in the main, fairly accessible, of information, are Secondary sources dential and others may be conﬁ may remain although some sources too expensive to acquire. those that generate information within are Internal sources 4.2. Figure 4.6 Data sources 4.6 Data Secondary primary and secondary. two sources, Data come from been collected already consist of information that has data sources used those are of information for other purposes and primary sources cally for the current speciﬁ for the purpose of collecting information project. research 4.5.3 Causal research 4.5.3 Causal between vari- is used to determine the relationship Causal research purchases. and repeat between advertising ables, e.g. the relationship The purpose of descriptive research is to provide an accurate description an accurate is to provide research The purpose of descriptive be used by the exploratory stage. This could of the variables uncovered or the demo- products of a company’s to investigate the market share income, etc.). market (age, gender, graphic characteristics of the target surveys. or from secondary data sources usually obtained from Data are 4.5.2 Descriptive research 4.5.2 Descriptive 4.5.1 Exploratory research 4.5.1 Exploratory if the particularly early stages of research, useful in the This is most no formal is There area. with the subject is not familiar researcher look at a needs to as the researcher to exploratory research structure The aim being restricted. without sources wide range of information any variables that may be rele- is to uncover of exploratory research of the environ- as well as an investigation project vant to the research place. will take research ment in which the ciently. External statistics Government Trade information Financial reports Previously published items – books, journals CD-ROMs, etc. gures and accounts infor- gures : Many market research companies : Many market research : Census data, family expenditure sur- : Census data, family expenditure : Many major banks publish reports on : Many major banks publish reports Secondary data : Trade press, e.g. Fashion Weekly, Drapers Drapers e.g. Fashion Weekly, press, : Trade data. of secondary Sources undertake continuous research and omnibus surveys cover- and omnibus surveys undertake continuous research consumer, range of topics, including broad ing an extremely Ipsos-RSL). NOP, Nelson Sofres, (e.g. Taylor media and retail Mintel, Keynote available, from, are market reports Various and Retail Intelligence, for example. Financial institutions and national industries. regional research Commercial Government statistics veys, trade and manufacturing trends. information Trade surveys, company trade associations, e.g. CBI, trade Record; and competitors’ accounts. reports

◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Internal Accounts Sales figures Company reports Customer complaints The use of secondary data sources, also called desk research, can be also called desk research, The use of secondary data sources, avail- is such a lot of information very time consuming because there data. Keeping the objectives of able, including CD-ROM and ‘online’ that time is spent efﬁ in mind will help to ensure the research sources 4.6.2 Primary will involve the collection of more projects Most marketing research Primary secondary sources. up-to-date information than is available from information may include consumers, designers, buyers, manu- of sources problem. and so on, depending upon the research retailers, facturers, mation. External sources are those that generate information outside those that generate information are mation. External sources numerous, more by far the These are a company or an organization. listed below: are and some examples of external sources Figure 4.2 Figure e.g. sales ﬁ a company or an organization,

Fashion Marketing 102 Fashion Marketing Research 103 rst dence that the sample is representative of the research popu- of the research dence that the sample is representative ne the research population from which to draw the sample. which to draw population from ne the research When selecting a sample it is important that there is a high level of is a that there When selecting a sample it is important Before selecting the sample, however, the researcher must fi the researcher however, selecting the sample, Before For some surveys, particularly if the survey population is small or particularly if the survey population For some surveys, 4.7.2 Choice of a sampling method methods and The two main types of sampling method – probability 4.3. shown in Figure methods – are non-probability lation as a whole. The sample must be large enough to provide accu- provide enough to be large lation as a whole. The sample must costs research as to increase without being so large rate results, dence levels for different It is possible to calculate confi unnecessarily. several texts that cover this adequately are sample sizes and there at the end of this chapter). (see Further reading confi 4.7.1 Deciding sample size sample 4.7.1 Deciding in your sample is as impor- Deciding how many people to include be selected. Factors such as cost, tant a decision as how they should data collection level of accuracy required, availability, time and staff all play a part in deciding method and location of the population factor is the most important cost-effectiveness sample size. In reality, followed in the research, in deciding how many should be contacted number a large If it is decided to select availability. by time and staff available to contact the cient staff may be insuffi for the sample, there so a smaller the survey, within the time constraints of respondents sample size may be accepted as a compromise. In designing research a major decision that the researcher must make the researcher decision that a major research In designing a very Sampling is a sampling method. the selection of concerns selecting a small It involves marketing research. important tool in survey population whose character- larger the from number of people group. larger of the representative behaviour are istics, attitudes and 4.7 Practical sampling methods sampling 4.7 Practical defi population to include all ne the can help to defi Exploratory research the survey. to relevant that are the players and variables it may be possible to take a geographical area, concentrated in one com- More useful method in some business surveys. census, which is a both the reduces sample is interviewed as this monly a representative time and the cost of the research. Simple random sample Simple random random Systematic random Stratified Cluster Convenience Judgement Quota 60 ed random sampling and cluster ed random sampling 50 3000 conven- samples it is more With larger ϭϭ n the sampling Items can be selected from Non-probability Probability of sampling method. Types c type of very precise probability sample. There is often some sample. There probability c type of very precise methods Sampling The main types of probability sample are simple random sampling, simple random sample are The main types of probability Example If the sample size is 50, and the population size is 3000, then the sampling interval is calculated as: sampling. Simple random sampling e.g. taking numbers out of a hat. frame by using the lottery method, winners, and Bond Premium In the UK, ERNIE the computer selects sampling. Random number tables does so by using simple random in marketing research. generated by computer and often used are Systematic random sampling Figure 4.3 Figure methods Probability method the best types of sampling Statistically speaking, these are being selected, so bias is has a known chance of as each respondent to be estimated of the results minimized. They also allow the accuracy referred are sampling methods Sometimes probability statistically. to a methods. In fact, this refers to generically as ‘random sampling’ specifi ‘random’. Selecting people in theconfusion over the use of the term often sampling, but more at random is not technically random street quota sampling. by interviewers for to selection of respondents refers systematic random sampling, stratifi ient to divide the population by the sample size to calculate the sampling interval (n). A random starting point is selected using random number tables and every nth time after that is selected.

Fashion Marketing 104 Fashion Marketing Research 105 ed by ed random ed random sampling type this One way to try to overcome There are two main methods used to stratify samples. First, with a two main methods used to stratify samples. are There As the fi rst number was selected randomly, this method is some- this method randomly, rst number was selected As the fi simple relatively these methods is that they are The advantage of Cluster sampling Cluster sampling is a variation of stratifi Proportionate and disproportionate sampling and disproportionate Proportionate If all the strata are be sample would a proportionate equally important to the survey, Frequently, each stratum. from taken, i.e. the same number selected than others. For important to the research more some strata are outsize of the purchase conducting a survey into example, if you were of to assume that most garments (size 18ϩ), it would be reasonable than size larger by those who were these items would be purchased of these not. It is logical that more 16 rather than those who were a dispro- people should be included in the sample. In other words, sample were portionate sample would be taken. If a proportionate sized clothes would taken, too few of the people who took larger cult to extrapolate the be included in the survey and it would be diffi of accuracy. the general population with any degree to results age, gender, socio-economic group, and so on). A random sample is and so on). A random sample socio-economic group, age, gender, each stratum. then taken from with secondly, sampling), or uniform sampling fraction (proportionate sampling). a variable sampling fraction (disproportionate sampling and may be used when the survey population is concentrated Stratifi times called a ‘quasi-random’ method. times called a ‘quasi-random’ can be calcu- dence levels confi and sampling error to carry out and pro- is that samples may be The main disadvantage lated statistically. of the survey population. ect the characteristics refl duced that do not a list of all stu- drawn from sample of students were For example, if a sam- that all the students in the it is possible dents at a university, of the students. This is clearly not representative ple might be design as a whole. student population ed random sampling. This is used is to use stratifi of sampling error char- within the population have groups when it is felt that different The types of answers. likely to lead to different acteristics that are who have (strata) groups population is divided into distinguishable as cation factors should be as relevant similar characteristics. Stratifi stratifi often surveys are possible to the survey (e.g. consumer If the random number picked from the tables was 35, for example, was 35, for example, the tables from number picked If the random be 35. frame would the sampling selected from rst item fi then the size of until a sample would be selected number after that Every 60th 50 was achieved. rst stage ned before the fi ned before ed by geographical region and a ed by geographical region sampling methods it is probability When using ciently representative of the survey population. For of the survey population. ciently representative date and accurate. Each element should be included only once. No element should be excluded. The frame should cover the whole of the population. the frame should be up-to- The information used to construct The frame should be convenient to use. ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ cult. In practice, most sampling frames are not perfect. Not everyone not perfect. Not are In practice, most sampling frames There is a problem with cluster sampling that occurs if the clus- with cluster is a problem There Examples of sampling frames include electoral rolls, the telephone electoral rolls, Examples of sampling frames include similar databases. lists of postcodes and other book, the Royal Mail’s for example. Finding a sam- with a telephone is in the phone book, can occasionally prove pling frame that is suitable for your research diffi methods Non-probability sampling methods, some element of judgement With non-probability The extent to which judgement is used, enters the selection process. varies in these methods. the element of bias introduced, and therefore a sampling frame and the methods do not require Non-probability in a relatively small number of groups (clusters) that are considered considered are (clusters) that number of groups small in a relatively issample of these clusters A random the market in question. typical of is then these clusters within of units from A random sample then taken. may be is small, a census within a cluster the number of units taken. If for wear retailers, survey of specialist bridal carried out. In a national be identifi could example, sales areas random sample of these taken. Within each selected sales area, all or a sales area, these taken. Within each selected random sample of would be interviewed. managers sample of the store not suffi ters are it is likely that it will consist geographical area, example, in a small Although clus- housing, incomes and lifestyle. of people with similar than some other methods cost-effective be more ter sampling can will a danger that sampling error is there sampling, of probability defi not carefully if the clusters are increase of sampling. Sampling frames This is a list of every element in necessary to use a sampling frame. list. A sampling this is drawn from the survey population. The sample as each element techniques, frame is essential for probability-based and so must be included in must have a known chance of selection, (1999), a sampling frame to Webb the sampling frame. According must have the following characteristics:

Fashion Marketing 106 Fashion Marketing Research 107 ϭ 26%; 30–64 ϭ 58%; 65ϩ ϭ 16% ϭ 48%; Female ϭ 52% This is more conveniently represented as shown in Table 4.2. as shown in Table conveniently represented This is more by narrow- can be increased accuracy of representation A survey’s quick to that it is relatively The advantages of quota sampling are The methods are convenience sampling, judgement sampling and judgement convenience sampling, are The methods ing the bands and including more characteristics, e.g. social class. characteristics, e.g. ing the bands and including more of interviews (quotas) with then allocated a number Interviewers are c types of respondent. speciﬁ It is eldwork point of view. a ﬁ carry out and easy to administer from sampling methods. The disad- also cheaper to use than probability of bias and sampling vantages of quota sampling involve problems lies with the for selection of respondents responsibility The errors. is the added problem bias. There introduce which may interviewer, mechanism with quota sampling, so the is no probability that there cannot easily be calculated. sampling error If we wanted to interview 150 people who were representative of the representative who were If we wanted to interview 150 people (age and gen- two quota controls above population in terms of the 4.1. as shown in Table der), we would calculate the quotas Gender: Male Age: 16–29 Gender: Example characteristics: Assume that your survey population has the following Quota sampling method to most likely non-probability This is the based on sample as items selected are a representative produce known characteristics of the population. Judgement sampling that the researcher selected by Items are population. This method of the survey felt to be representative are convenience sampling. than representative more attempts to be likely to advice on which items are Experts also may be consulted for of tex- For example, in a survey for the survey. appropriate be more may developer specialist such as a product a staff tile manufacturers, for would be suitable useful advice on which manufacturers provide selection. Convenience sampling close or easily that are selected are Items giving research, useful in the exploratory stage of available. This is Despite being very cheap and a ‘feel’ for the subject. the researcher bias with this method is likely and the level of error quick to carry out, so it should be used with caution. to be very high and quota sampling. chance of each unit being selected is unknown. Statistical estimates of Statistical estimates selected is unknown. each unit being chance of be made. cannot therefore the sampling error the size of den- ciently Total ne degrees of 52% marketing research marketing research 12 12 73 12 12 77 ϭ 48% ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ 16% 16% ϭ ϭ ϭ

؉ ϩ ϩ ad hoc 52% Female 42 of 150 42 Quota 45 of 150 45 Quota 58% 65 58% 65 ϭ 47% Male ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ 12 12 24 Quota sampling frame (B) 52% Female 19 of 150 19 Quota 20 of 150 20 Quota 26% 30–64 26% 30–64 ϭ 48% Male ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϭ ϩ Table 4.2 Table Age16–2930–64 Male65 19Total 42 Female 73 20 Total 45 77 39 87 150 frame (A) Quota sampling 16–2916–29 30–64 65 Male 26% of 48%of 150 58% of 48% 16% of 48% Quota 16–29 Female 26% of 53%of 150 58% of 52% 16% of 52% Quota M A L E F E M A L E TOTAL 39 87 24 150 Table 4.1 Table Quota samples are often used in surveys where fi where often used in surveys Quota samples are services continuous research Although many companies who provide 4.8 Primary data collection methods on the use of secondary data alone to should not rely The researcher available to Not all secondary data are problems. answer the research as some may be unavailable, for example in confi the researcher accuracy are not required, for instance in product testing for prefer- for instance in product not required, accuracy are ence between products. sampling, the majority of use probability The and other data may simply be too costly to acquire. tial reports, information that is available may be out-of-date or not suffi is conducted using quota samples. If this method gave consistentlyis conducted using quota samples. would not be used. biased or misleading conclusions, it

Fashion Marketing 108 Fashion Marketing Research Observation

Primary spuorG sucoF spuorG data noitatnemirepxE collection

Surveys

Figure 4.4 Approaches to primary data collection.

detailed to solve the research problem. Usually, primary data need to be collected. The four main approaches to primary data collection – observation, focus groups, experimentation and surveys – are shown in Figure 4.4.

4.8.1 Observation There are occasions when it is more useful to observe behaviour than to interview the respondent about it. Observation is usually used to complement other research methods in marketing research, rather than being used alone, as this method can identify patterns of behaviour, but cannot provide information on the reasons behind that behaviour. There are a number of methods available for the observation of behaviour, as follows.

Personal observation The researcher observes behaviour and records it as it occurs. The skill and the objectivity of the researcher play a key role in the collection of unbiased data. The audit data are collected by taking an inventory of certain products or brands at the premises (at home or ofﬁ ce) of the respondent. This type of ethnographic research (observing respondents in natural settings, e.g. observing fashion buyers at trade fairs) is particularly useful in fashion marketing research. Methods such as accompanied shopping can provide insight into the processes by which decisions are made. Using this method the researcher would accompany the respondent on a shopping trip, often following a prior discussion of the process in the respondent’s home, observe the respondent and often use direct questioning to gain insight into underlying reasons for certain behaviour, e.g. why certain products attracted the

109 cally valid type lm being used later for analysis such as researching store layout. store used later for analysis such as researching lm being ts and to expand the wardrobe to obtain a desired image. Some to obtain a desired ts and to expand the wardrobe 4.8.3 Experimentation to Kotler (1994), this is the most scientifi According The focus group (also known as the group discussion) is a form of discussion) is a (also known as the group The focus group 6 and 12 usually consists of between The group qualitative research. aspects services, attitudes or other who discuss products, respondents led by a skilled researcher The discussion is of the marketing process. a who guides the discussion, following moderator, called a group in an informal setting, usually meets checklist of topics. The group sum paid a small members are home, and the group often someone’s take several hours to completefor attending. These discussions can It is also possi- to survey research. often used as a preliminary and are (see Section 4.14). via the Internet ble to conduct online focus groups subjected to are of respondents groups matched Here, of research. is observed. the responses in the difference and treatments different and as controlled are All variables outside the scope of the research of the differ- taken to be as a result are such, the observed responses seeks to iden- Experimental research of the group. ence in treatment central to marketing work. that are relationships tify cause-and-effect 4.8.2 Focus groups 4.8.2 Focus respondent’s attention. This is a useful tool for store layout research layout research for store is a useful tool attention. This respondent’s is another analysis displays. Wardrobe of point-of-sale and evaluation Here image consultants. by many method employed observational a respondent’s that constitute garments and accessories existing with information on work examined. This is combined are wardrobe on how best to build on existing advice to provide and lifestyle needs outfi online. this service companies also offer Mechanical observation in natural used either in laboratory settings or devices may be Recording as the psychogalvanometer devices such settings. In the laboratory, (and so level of perspiration the respondent’s used to measure are other to an advertisement or following exposure the level of arousal) camera that detects stimuli. Other devices include the eye-movement advertisement, identifying the vis- the movement of the eye over an that gain attention. In natural set- ual aspects of the advertisement with behaviour, to record video cameras may be used tings, in-store the fi

Fashion Marketing 110 Fashion Marketing Research 111 In a personal interview there is the opportunity to show support- is the opportunity to show In a personal interview there in the selection eldworker also plays a vital role The interviewer or fi the depth interview, another type of personal interview, is There ing material, such as examples of a product or still photographs from from or still photographs product ing material, such as examples of a can also be included in theadvertisements. Open-ended questions the answers to record design as the interviewer is present questionnaire verbatim. for interview when using quota sampling. This, how- of respondents bias into the survey. may introduce ever, inter- these Typically, of qualitative research. which belongs to the realm The interviewer does not have a ques- views can last for over an hour. interview schedule. This as such, but uses a less structured tionnaire may consist of either a series of open questions that must be asked as written or a checklist of topics for discussion, as with the focus they are interviewer must be very highly trained in the art of asking The group. 4.9.1 Personal interview 4.9.1 Personal most widely used method of pri- Face-to-face interviewing is still the telephone interviewing is mary data collection in the UK, although and This method is labour-intensive popular. becoming increasingly ques- in a satisfactorily completed likely to result but is more costly, This is particularly true if than any of the other methods. tionnaire covers sensitive subjects. is long or complicated or the questionnaire to build a rapport with the inter- Respondents have the opportunity without who can elicit full and accurate answers to questions viewer, biasing the responses. If a survey is to be conducted, there are a number of methods avail- a number are conducted, there If a survey is to be advantages of data and each has its relative able for the collection by per- are main traditional methods and disadvantages. The three Online telephone interview and mail questionnaire. sonal interview, later in the chapter. data collection methods will be discussed 4.9 Data collection methods collection 4.9 Data 4.8.4 Surveys approaches the research well known of is the most Survey research collect informa- Surveys research. used for descriptive and is widely survey population on such sample of the a representative tion from as well as buying attitudes and beliefs, behaviour, topics as consumer are these beliefs, attitudes and intentions of intentions. The strengths to the population as a whole. extrapolated and the results measured eld eld- eldworkers do not have to travel. eldworkers eldwork considerably, providing the sample size is large. It the sample size is large. providing eldwork considerably, There are disadvantages to this method of data collection. It is dif- disadvantages to this method of data collection. are There Increasingly technology has made data capture easier for fi made data capture technology has Increasingly eldworkers with XDAs (small hand-held devices, similar to palmtops) with XDAs (small hand-held eldworkers cult to establish a rapport with the respondent by telephone, which is establish a rapport with the respondent cult to 4.9.3 Mail (postal) questionnaire (postal) 4.9.3 Mail useful to If the survey population is widely dispersed, it may be more by mail than to have an interviewer call on the send the questionnaire in fi Mail surveys also have the advantage of a reduction respondent. is not a cost-effective method for small samples. With the increased With the increased method for small samples. is not a cost-effective omni- particularly for commercial demand for immediate information, of a very fast is ideally suited for the provision bus surveys, CATI as the and processed recorded are of data as the results turnaround a wide from The sample also can be drawn answered. questions are as the fi geographical spread, fi of personal for the researching partly why this method is not successful sell- fearful of ‘sugging’, are or embarrassing topics. Many respondents and expect the interviewer ing under the guise of marketing research, and the like. With a disembodiedto try to sell them double glazing or end an interview to refuse voice it is also easier for a respondent struc- The telephone interview demands the use of very prematurely. that may be completed quickly without questionnaires precoded tured, on examples of supporting material. An ideal telephone having to rely interview will last no longer than 15 minutes, on average. 4.9.2 Telephone interviewing 4.9.2 Telephone Interviewing) (Computer Aided Telephone The development of CATI interviewing is the extent to which telephone increased has greatly cutting the a central location, undertaken. Interviewing is done from costs of fi unbiased questions, and usually, the interviews are recorded for tran- recorded are the interviews questions, and usually, unbiased and is a is particularly useful This method and analysis later. scription is of a personal or of the survey if the subject of information rich source nature. embarrassing using lap- Assisted Personal Interviewing) workers. CAPI (Computer no of paper questionnaires amounts the large tops has meant that tech- in wireless carried by interviewers. Progress longer have to be to equip their companies some market research nology has allowed fi The ques- of short face-to-face questionnaires. for the administration allow for fast data capture to the XDA and sent directly are tionnaires client. of data to the fast turnaround and subsequently,

Fashion Marketing 112 Fashion Marketing Research 113 xed and t enthusiasts) andt enthusiasts) rst, the highly structured questionnaire used, for example, questionnaire rst, the highly structured Many factors will affect the design of the questionnaire, such as the such as the design of the questionnaire, Many factors will affect A well-designed questionnaire will provide the researcher with the researcher will provide A well-designed questionnaire The disadvantages (apart from the low response rate) are several. A rate) are response the low (apart from The disadvantages 4.10 Questionnaire design 4.10 Questionnaire people in which many design is an aspect of research Questionnaire those without prior research automatically assume expertise, even and great is a vital part of most surveys experience. The questionnaire inher- the novice, the problems must be taken with its design. To care until apparent tend not to become ent in designing a questionnaire the pilot stage of the survey. how the (qualitative or quantitative) and of the data required nature telephone, (by personal interview, is to be administered questionnaire instruments will electronic mail or other self-completion, or whether two tend to lie between most questionnaires be used). However, fi extremes: is fi the question wording in telephone interviewing, where responses are limited; and secondly, an unstructured interview sched- an unstructured limited; and secondly, are responses which consists of a list of topics to be ule used in qualitative research, of the questions left to the trained with the actual wording covered, interviewer. complete, accurate and unbiased information using the minimum number of questions and allowing the maximum number of successfully completed interviews. the questionnaire relates to their area of interest. Otherwise, a response a response Otherwise, of interest. their area to relates the questionnaire the telephone not uncommon. The advantage over rate of 30–40% is can be lengthy and method is that the questionnaire interview with this ask for detailed information. amounts of junk with the increasing has to compete mail questionnaire is a high non-response letterboxes. If there our mail that pour through is high, particularly if a reply- per questionnaire rate then the cost no guarantee that the selected is included. There paid envelope is and in spite of the questionnaire, will actually complete respondent If question sequence is removed. of the design, the control careful is no the questions, there does not understand any of the respondent be a long also may There to clarify the problem. interviewer present com- receiving and questionnaires time lag between sending out the pleted forms. staff, and if there is a high response rate, the cost per questionnaire is per questionnaire rate, the cost response is a high and if there staff, consists if the survey population likely rate is more high response A low. (e.g. keep-fi group of a special interest of members Some- cult to construct, but Tull and Tull construct, but cult to rst decision to be made here is rst decision to be made here one If the question is necessary, The fi The questionnaire layout; questionnaire revise. and pretest preliminary decisions; preliminary content; question wording; question format; response sequence; question ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ whether or not the question is actually necessary. If the question is If the necessary. whether or not the question is actually meeting the survey objectives, not necessary for the purposes of then leave it out. needed? How many questions are will answer the question that the information you elicit must take care you ‘Do a respondent: For example, if you asked without ambiguity. to wear?’ and the comfortable and warm are think woollen trousers uncomfort- were trousers was ‘No’, would that mean woollen response ask double- warm? Rather than able or did not keep the respondent questions, it is better to use one question for each point of barrelled so you would ask: ‘Do you think that woollen information required, comfortable to wear?’ and ‘Do you think that woollen are trousers warm to wear?’ are trousers the information to answer the question? Has the respondent asked questions on subjects about which are times respondents not informed. A husband may not have the necessary infor- they are mation if asked how much his wife spends a month on clothing, for Preliminary decisions Preliminary will be who is required, These include decisions on what information will be contacted. included in the survey and how they Question content content of individual questions: This section is concerned with the to phrase the question. Points to what to include, rather than how consider include the following: Is the question necessary? 4.10.1 The decision areas decision 4.10.1 The diffi notoriously are Questionnaires design of tackling the a convenient way (1997) suggest that Hawkins namely: into a number of decision areas, up the task is by breaking

Fashion Marketing 114 Fashion Marketing Research 115 Ask- Even if the culty in phrasing their nd diffi in different parts of the country. Words should be chosen to should be chosen to Words parts of the country. in different mean the same to all respondents. of nylon purchaser you a regular avoided. For example, ‘Are This c enough. How often is ‘regular’? tights?’ is not specifi respondents. things to different may mean different mean the same to all respondents? Does the word things such as ‘dinner’ and ‘tea’ mean different Some words also should be The use of vague or ambiguous words ◆ ◆ ◆ Response format format that may be used. a number of types of response are There dichotomous, multiple-choice and The most commonly used are Are the questions loaded? the Are not be or phrases should Some words in bias. Emotive likely to result design as they are used in questionnaire you in for example, ‘Are phrases invite particular responses; or words starving people in Africa?’ favour of sending money to help the poor, Question wording This is of of questions. must be taken with the wording care Great or international cross-cultural particular importance when conducting include: Decisions about question wording marketing research. ing questions about behaviour over a long time span may not produce a long time span may not produce ing questions about behaviour over how much asking the respondent accurate information. For example, an answer that in would result they spent on tights in the last year spent on tights in the last guesswork. Asking how much they was pure accurate information. likely to provide fortnight would be more Asking questions beyond the memory span of the respondent Asking questions beyond the memory Is the respondent able to articulate the response? able Is the respondent they information to answer a question, has the necessary respondent If successfully. able to articulate their responses may not always be wear a particular the type of person who might asked to describe would fi respondents fragrance, many with a presented if they are for the respondent answers. It is easier that they they can choose the response which from set of alternatives and Using aids such as descriptions appropriate. feel to be the most to answer the questions, the respondent makes it easier for pictures the interview. and so complete example. Some respondents will attempt to answer questions with- attempt to answer will Some respondents example. of the the validity affect which will adequately informed, out being results. cult culty of this c or diffi cation questions, which eldwork has taken place. Coding of responses eldwork has taken place. Coding of responses nds easy to answer, to more specifi to more nds easy to answer, cult to ensure that the list of possible responses that the list of possible responses cult to ensure of with a choice is presented the respondent Here ‘yes’ or ‘no’, allowed, such as are Only two responses in the of choice freedom has complete The respondent cult to analyse as coding frames must be constructed forcult to analyse as coding frames In some surveys it is possible to ask classifi questions about attitudes or behaviour. If may appear personal or embarrassing, at the end of the interview. a quota sample is being used, some of these questions will need to as they may form part of the be asked at the start of the interview, open-ended formats. Most questionnaires contain a mixture of contain a mixture questionnaires formats. Most open-ended these. Dichotomous know’ category is sometimes A neutral ‘don’t ‘male’ or ‘female’. quick to ask questions are that these are included. The advantages The disadvantages and analyse. easy to record are and the responses in for any shades of meaning to be included that they do not allow are to derivequestions would have to be asked and many the responses, detail by using this format alone. information of any Multiple-choice the list of answers to the question. Frequently, several possible of the alter- The order a card. on to the respondent choices is shown the questions to avoid bias. Again, native answers should be rotated and analyse. easy to record are quick to ask and the responses are the respond- shades of meaning and This format also allows for more The diffi of choice in the response. freedom ent has more format is that it is diffi is complete. Open ended lit- is often used where given with this format. This format response multiple choice list, or when great tle information exists to construct a is produced The advantage is that the information detail is required. answers. The main any bias of suggested from extensive and is free as they must be slow to record are disadvantage is that the responses what they verbatim. This can lead to interviewers selecting recorded in bias. These responses the most important points, resulting think are also diffi are each question after the fi which can lose some of responses, grouping at a later stage requires shades of meaning. Question sequence logically to avoid introducing The questions need to be organized general questions you should move from bias. Generally, or error fi that the respondent

Fashion Marketing 116 Fashion Marketing Research 117 lter cations (A) £5000 p.a. under (B) p.a. £5000–£9999 (C) 999 p.a. £10 000–£14 (D) 000 p.a. £15 000–£20 (E) £20 000+ p.a. (A) 15–24 (B) 25–34 (C) 35–44 (D) 45–54 (E) 55+ Sample showcards. Sample Figure 4.5 Figure Nominal scales e.g. male/female, groups, These classify individuals into two or more agree/disagree. Attitudes are measured in scales. The main types of scale are as in scales. The main types of scale are measured Attitudes are follows. 4.11.1 of attitude scale Types These are used to quantify the strength of a response. The two scales The of a response. used to quantify the strength These are seman- Osgood’s are most commonly used in attitude measurement scale. scale and the Likert summated rating tic differential 4.11 scales and rating Attitude measurement Pretesting (pilot) and revision Pretesting respondents tested, using must be thoroughly The questionnaire This is known nal survey. in the fi similar to those who will take part and validity to the reliability as the pilot stage and is vitally important done, any modifi Once this has been of your survey results. questions (ones that may be omitted in certain situations) should be questions (ones that may be omitted interviewer should be in block cap- clearly marked; instructions to the or visual aids may be used. itals; arrows tested again. needed can be made, and the questionnaire Questionnaire layout Questionnaire that can aid some procedures are There The overall aim is clarity. fi numbered; are These include ensuring that all questions clarity. quota control. To overcome this, showcards may be used, e.g. with may be used, this, showcards overcome To quota control. 4.5). (Figure age or income bands cients and sig- Unfavourable ed as either positive or negative, xed origin or zero point, which permits the use point, which permits the use xed origin or zero Interval scale. Interval strongly agree; strongly agree; know/neutral; don’t disagree; disagree. strongly Opium Paris Gauche, etc. Rive Favourable ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ cance testing. The advantage of this scale is that it can be used to measure the it can be used to measure The advantage of this scale is that used attitude scaling mentioned, the most widely As previously Interval scales 4.6. see Figure calibrations, for example These scales have regular the use of statistical of a particular attitude. It also allows strength coeffi deviation, correlation such as standard measures nifi Ratio scales These scales have a fi or weight. of length of all arithmetical functions, e.g. measurement of consum- and number of market size, market share Measurements also examples of ratio scales. ers are scales. the Likert and semantic differential techniques are scale Likert 4.11.2 The disa- or of agreement asked to indicate their level Respondents are with a series of statements about a subject or an object. greement identifi The statements used are The list of possible allocated for particular responses. are and scores is usually: responses Figure 4.6 Figure scales Ordinal certain characteristics, e.g. Yves to according These rank individuals preference: to fragrances according St. Laurent

Fashion Marketing 118 Fashion Marketing Research 119 Fashionable Dull X X cult for consumers to articulate their feelings in these areas, feelings in these areas, cult for consumers to articulate their Unfashionable Bright scale. of the semantic differential An example The role of marketing research in new of marketing research The role development product idea generation; idea concepts; evaluating and developing new product evaluating and developing new products; pricing new products. ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Semantic differential scales have been successfully used for such scales have been successfully Semantic differential Figure 4.7 Figure Marketing research has a vital role to play in ensuring that new prod- has a vital role Marketing research rather than successful ventures, ucts launched onto the market are makes into The main input that marketing research dismal failures. of: is in the areas development process the new product 4.12 4.11.3 scale The semantic differential series A in marketing research. This is another widely used technique presented descriptive phrases are of bipolar (opposite) adjectives of scale. ve or seven point fi at opposite ends of a to the respondent best describes on the scale asked to indicate where Respondents are An example is shown in the subject or object. their feelings towards 4.7. Figure image. It brand image and product investigations as corporate image, is often diffi and the semantic differential scale offers them an easy way of express- them an easy way of scale offers and the semantic differential as research widely used in marketing ing themselves. These scales are behaviour that may not bethey obtain information about consumer questioning. direct of success by obtained with the same degree The Likert scale is not an interval scale, so it is not possible to infer not an interval scale, so it is not The Likert scale is The attitude as ‘agree’. an strong is twice as agree’ that ‘strongly those to only relative are respondents achieved by individual scores popular as they are Likert scales are respondents. achieved by other of about the degree information and give reliable easy to construct feelings. respondents’ ed to be ed to ling charac- le is available ed, the attitudes and le le for each one. Profi le for each le of the competitors cation of specialized target markets is as important to the cation of specialized target Since the late 1970s, there has been an increase in the number of in the has been an increase late 1970s, there Since the of a strategy for the development of a marketing The creation markets have been identifi Once these target a customer profi The information necessary to write The identifi c niche markets, in an attempt to differentiate themselves from the themselves from in an attempt to differentiate c niche markets, 4.12.2 a profi Preparing product Information about competitors’ market size, market share, range, consumers and marketing strategies comes under the scope With this information it is possible to analyse of marketing research. 4.12.1 of a customer profi Creation it is product, markets for the proposed By identifying potential target a customer profi possible to prepare These inputs are similar in the development of fashion. similar in the development are These inputs product Specialists called lines. their own product developing stores may on customers. There and test them products create developers or modifi is developed why a product reasons be numerous changes in market; new government legislation, sold in a particular the climate may be responsible. the economy or even culture, four stages. Each of the stages (discussed involves fashion product ultimate aim of testing a with the research below) involves marketing a plan and to produce to its production, for feasibility prior product and marketing. for its production occupation and geographical location teristics such as age, gender, as used in mar- together with lifestyle characteristics considered, are ket segmentation. Different be researched. of potential consumers may perceptions the needs, and by addressing of consumers have different groups it is possible to identify variables associated with buyer behaviour, group. target attributes that will appeal to each the product trade For example, both primary and secondary. several sources, from industry analysis and fashion shows, sales staff, from reports press, information. buyers can all be called upon to supply fashion retail- as it is to fashion design. Many of fashion retailing area very spe- for example) have deliberately targeted ers (Next and GAP, cifi placed on the development andcompetition. Emphasis has been to satisfy particular market merchandise acquisition of appropriate segments.

Fashion Marketing 120 Fashion Marketing Research 121 cult cult le prepared for le prepared ed and a profi ed product. These are the main steps in developing and evaluating a new fash- the main steps in developing and These are Some of this information can be found from secondary data sources data sources secondary be found from this information can Some of in any market, but particularly so in fashion. Anticipating what buyers in any market, but particularly so in fashion. Anticipating what buyers diffi to do under a given set of conditions is made more likely are about the future of fashions, so any predictions by the eclectic nature cation as the seasons change. exible and open to modifi should be fl 4.13 Forecasting fashion 4.13 Forecasting diffi demand for goods or services is extremely Estimating future ion product. The steps are slightly different from those involved in the from slightly different The steps are ion product. infor- but the products, conventional consumer development of more (such as an evaluation of themation necessary for a successful launch informa- preferences, consumer attitudes and concept, its acceptability, very similar. is the product) tion on the market in general and testing This stage involves product testing, i.e. exposing prototypes of the prototypes testing, i.e. exposing This stage involves product suggested by to fashion buyers. Any further developments product ed, as is modifi and the prototypes these ‘experts’ will be considered, testing. the usual practice with product 4.12.4 The merchandise plan merchandise 4.12.4 The Once the target market has been identifi market has Once the target 4.12.3 of a marketing strategy report Preparation such as company reports, trade press, brochures and other promotional and other promotional brochures trade press, reports, such as company useful information for competi- also provide sources materials. Online to gather for sales representatives It may also be possible tor research. Buyers, for example, competitors. regarding customers primary data from and may be by a range of alternative suppliers will usually be contacted competitors marketing intentions. insight into able to provide the relative strengths and weaknesses of the competition, and decide competition, and weaknesses of the and strengths the relative they pose. of a threat how much both the consumer and the competition, a marketing strategy must and the competition, a marketing both the consumer about the will include general information The report be prepared. information about etc.) as well as particular market (size, structure, about the market. It will also contain information target the proposed advantage and pricing differential including the product’s product, outlets will also be included, An evaluation of potential retail policy. and will be needed to produce and an assessment of the resources market the new or modifi air cation Of A form of product testing, called style testing, is used to involve A form of product There is a problem with the use of formalized techniques for pre- techniques for the use of formalized with is a problem There years ahead of the market can Millers and tanners who often work ed and described by using marketing research techniques. The use using marketing research ed and described by 4.13.2 Further techniques 4.13.2 Further analytical an will provide the above sources Information gained from These include the techniques. specialized forecasting base for more well as panels of alternatives as scales to rank product use of ordinal view of a consensus asked to provide up to eight people, who are if the the bias introduced A consensus is sought to avoid forecasts. sales potential was taken. future opinion of a single person regarding has been specially developed for use software Computer forecasting which has facilitated the use of complex stat- in the fashion industry, istical techniques. sample of A representative process. the consumer in the forecasting styles and ranges for is shown several provisional consumers target then asked to state which they The consumers are seasons. future likely to be ‘losers’ in terms of believe will be ‘winners’ and which are customer appeal. diction in that many fashion professionals mistakenly believe that mistakenly believe professionals that many fashion diction in acumen and fl that their fashion be inhibited or will their creativity the case, and This is clearly not process. by this will be trivialized maker. be used to assist the decision these methods should information of 4.13.1 Uses made is one of sound informa- can be forecasts The basis on which analysed for trend are purchases consumer tion. Past and present must be clearly identi- for your products market data. The target fi Classifi systems such as ACORN (A of geodemographic be used to identify and contact Residential Neighbourhoods) can about attitudes, prefer- market, and collect information your target buy a you likely to ‘Are buying intentions such as ences and future months?’ new coat in the next three as can fash- developments, future be contacted for primary data on consumer of current in the forefront ion editors and buyers, who are news- such as trade magazines and Secondary sources behaviour. plans accessible. Range information which is readily papers provide and price type, colour product covering such variables as material, of data. also an important source are

Fashion Marketing 122 Fashion Marketing Research 123 t- tion. The increased use of the Internet as part of the marketing pro- use of the Internet as part The increased It is easy to be very enthusiastic about the use of the Internet for Test marketing of new styles, colours or silhouettes often takes place often takes colours or silhouettes of new styles, marketing Test Fashion forecasting methods involve much organization and plan- involve much organization methods Fashion forecasting of intuition and high degree on a always rely Fashion buying will 4.14 tool The Internet as a research c details of web page design (on which Rather than go into specifi this section will concentrate available sources), numerous are there methodology. as part of research on the usefulness of the Internet in reductions and corresponding Rapid developments in technology the Internet for both business and costs have meant that the use of years. Businesses all over in the past few social use has proliferated profi can improve considering whether e-commerce the world are ability. Consumers are increasingly embracing online shopping, with embracing online shopping, increasingly Consumers are ability. particularly all the time, the choice of goods available broadening alike have websites Designers and retailers to apparel. with regard (e.g. Next, Paul Smith, La that can be found easily on the Internet Redoute). the marketing research impact on cess has similarly had a great companies that now pro- The number of marketing research industry. has also grown services (‘e-research’) vide specialist Internet research considerably. must be taken tools, care but as with all available research research, As with the to the particular study. that it is appropriate to ensure advantages and dis- are methods, there research traditional more the via the Internet may increase advantages. Conducting research costs, as well and reduce design to results from speed of research on an international level. Problems as appearing to facilitate research using a ‘sample, test, re-order’ system. Small quantities of garments quantities of system. Small test, re-order’ using a ‘sample, Customer reac- outlets. retail placed in selected made up and are produc the costs of full without incurring be monitored tions may Similarly marketing research is used to monitor sales performance at to monitor sales performance at is used research Similarly marketing the fore- from to identify any variations away the start of each season cast that may occur. rst instance. All fash- establish in the fi not easy to ning, and are and an to some degree, in forecasting involved ion businesses are being set up solely to provide are number of companies increasing services. specialist prediction with a struc- the market. When this is combined gut feeling about accurate more to planning and the use of research, approach tured is possible. forecasting ’ website), provid- nd as there is no single nd as there Provides free information onfree Provides 2 million companies. than more Provides a free annual reports annual reports a free Provides service, giving information on the performance of over 1300 listed companies. The Financial Times www.companieshouse.gov.uk www.companieshouse.gov.uk www.londonstockexchange.com The Internet can be a particular useful resource for business- useful resource The Internet can be a particular a whole range of market reports It is also possible to gain access to nancial information and an indication of the target market. nancial information and an indication of the target ing access to news sources, trade publications and market reports. and market reports. trade publications sources, ing access to news access to online that as with conventional sources, (It is useful to note a wealth of The Internet contains secondary data is not always free.) to fi information but it may be time consuming engines (e.g. a range of search index of information available, rather may not necessarily be logic- Google), and sources Yahoo!, AltaVista, may be engines and search ally linked. Although online databases may keywords the selection of appropriate using keywords, searched will that keywords It is not always the most obvious be problematic. quota- using short phrases in the best information. Searches provide The speed of searching results. relevant more tion marks may provide available does if not always depth, of information and the breadth, however, secondary data searches, make the Internet a useful tool for particularly in exploratory research. websites which It is possible to visit companies’ to-business research. offered, or services products contain much useful information about fi which may limit free, are reports and articles online. Not all of these research for market A useful source access for some researchers. than more which offers information is www.marketresearch.com Other over 550 publishers. from reports 000 market research 110 include: online sources Online commercial databases have been available to researchers for have been available to researchers databases Online commercial – many years (e.g. www.FT.com related to research via the Internet include using samples that are not that are include using samples via the Internet to research related obsolescence of and rapid population of the target representative the of the problems, In spite addresses. such as e-mail information, pri- for both in marketing research being used increasingly Internet is to be a very use- data collection, and is proving mary and secondary ‘tool kit’. researcher’s ful addition to the 4.14.1 secondary data sources Online

Fashion Marketing 124 Fashion Marketing Research 125 A dedicated web portal for the web portal for A dedicated a web- Also offers fashion industry. service. site design and hosting news, links for agencies, Provides in the services and employment fashion industry. serviceA mainly subscription-only trend information on providing for fashion industry forecasting professionals. Daily website – Wear Womens on all information giving current aspects of the fashion industry reports plus access to archived available by subscription. www.fashionweb.co.uk www.fashionweb.co.uk www.fashion.net www.fashioninformation.com www.wmd.com With e-mail surveys, questionnaires are sent to respondents at sent to respondents are With e-mail surveys, questionnaires on a particular posted surveys consist of questionnaires Web-based The main methods of collecting primary data via the Internet are by data via the Internet are The main methods of collecting primary by online discussion groups. e-mail or website-based surveys or and then completed are The questionnaires their e-mail address. both delivery and return online. The advantages of speed of returned cost savings over mail surveys. Disadvantages of as are clear, are dential and that conﬁ that e-mail is not completely this method are repre- may not be selected as having e-mail addresses respondents time lag may also be a population. There sentative of the research It should also their e-mail regularly! as not everyone reads for replies the amount of in use of the Internet, be noted that with the increase rate to The response ‘junk’ e-mail has increased. e-mail and therefore to mail surveys as can be compared e-surveys, although often lower, Now most e-mail surveys with unsolicited mail exist. similar problems following an e-mail invitation to participate and is a completed are The usual useful means of conducting business-to-business research. when still relevant design are associated with questionnaire problems designing e-mail surveys. who ‘hit’ that given then completed by respondents website which are using both presentation, complex surveys allow for more site. Website on convenience sampling of graphics and sound. This method relies 4.14.2 online Primary data collection For the fashion industry, there are a number of websites providing providing a number of websites are there industry, For the fashion include: information. These a range of industry access to les may also Online discussion groups are frequently used for qualitative frequently are groups Online discussion 4.15 International marketing research marketing 4.15 International to marketing research generally refers International marketing research was com- undertaken in countries other than that in which the research infor- is to provide here missioned. The challenge for the researcher a culturally diverse, rapidly changing world. Each country mation from is conducted will have its own unique characteristics in which research At the outset may not be familiar. with which the researcher and mores The rapid developments in technology have meant that access to infor- The rapid developments in technology faster and easier for an increasing mation via the Internet is becoming deal of enthusiasm about a great is currently number of people. There activities, but and business leisure the Internet as a medium for both considering the Internet with caution when this should be tempered associated with access, Problems as a means for conducting research. etc. all need to be rate and quality of information, sampling response As with all tools avail- against economies of time and cost. considered for its appropriateness each must be considered able to the researcher, to the study and selected accordingly. 4.14.3 for research Using the Internet users who access the website. These self-selected respondents may respondents These self-selected access the website. users who and as such this population of the target all representative not be at the also be noted that It should care. should be used with method is more mean that it of this complexity setting up a website costs of organizations. research employed by commercial frequently develop- for new product groups, in a similar way to focus research of this evaluation. One key advantage testing and ment, product available immediately and a tran- are that results method is the fact also costs are Research can be taken easily. script of the discussion The incurred. not are etc. venue hire, as travelling expenses, reduced their place of work, from able to participate are fact that respondents meant that this dispersed they may be, has however geographically research. used in business-to-business being method is increasingly as the costs however, An incentive may be paid to the respondents, ﬁ and sound Visuals of connection will be borne by them. be included within the discussion site, but as respondents cannot site, but as respondents be included within the discussion not be suitable for certain prod- touch the items, this method may softness of fabric is important. ucts, e.g. where

Fashion Marketing 126 Fashion Marketing Research 127 - ed between Do concepts such as ‘brand loyalty’ such as ‘brand Do concepts and signifi have the same meaning cance in each country selected? cance in each country or sim- have the same Does a product selected countries? ilar function in the taken in Do scale measurements the same produce selected countries or similar results? when translated Does language used for respond- the same meaning provide or in writtenents, whether verbally form? uences nition of the research required; nition of the research sampling methods; sampling design; questionnaire collection. data defi decisions about the survey population; ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ Conceptual equivalence Conceptual Functional equivalence Functional equivalence Scalar equivalence Linguistic equivalence The chapter has also covered types of research design and approach, design and approach, types of research The chapter has also covered The of data available to the fashion marketer. and the sources This chapter has covered the nature and scope of marketing research, research, and scope of marketing the nature This chapter has covered process: starting with the survey research 4.16 Summary Researchers must also understand the culture in which the research in which the research must also understand the culture Researchers will be easier to study in some will be conducted. Some subjects population the research but not in others, depending upon cultures ts all’ approach that a ‘one size fi selected. It should not be assumed design may have to be modifi will be successful. Research 4.15.1 Cultural infl 4.15.1 Cultural For example, comparability of data. to ensure countries and cultures of women to obtain samples in Arabic countries it is generally harder have to be care- access and culture Issues regarding respondents. marketing research In many instances, international fully addressed. local agencies by administered may be designed in one country but custom and practice. because of their knowledge of local certain factors need to be taken into account in the research design. in the research taken into account need to be certain factors These include: , , , Pearson , Vol. 40, No. 4, , Vol. , 3rd Edition, Esomar, Edition, Esomar, , 3rd Marketing Information eld of fashion materi- , American Marketing Sociology , Special issue: Research on , Special issue: Research Applied Marketing Research Marketing Research: Measurement Measurement Marketing Research: , 3rd Edition, Kogan-Page Limited, , 3rd Understanding and Designing Marketing Understanding and Designing Marketing Essentials of Marketing Research Marketing Research: A Guide to Planning, A Guide to Planning, Marketing Research: Marketing Management: The Millennium Edition Marketing Management: The Millennium Marketing Research: Measurement, Method and Method and Measurement, Marketing Research: , Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. , Macmillan Publishing Company, , International Thomson Business, London. , Academic Press, London. , Academic Press, Consumer Market Research Handbook Research Consumer Market and Method Research Association, Chicagos, IL. and Research in Fashion Management and Research (eds), McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead. London Fashion Week, alized: a study of Methodology and Evaluation London. 41, No. 4, October 1999. the Internet, Vol. Application NJ. Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Wokingham. Addison-Wesley, Education Limited, Harlow. pp. 735–751, BSA Publications Ltd., London. DOI: 10.1177/ Publications Ltd., London. pp. 735–751, BSA 0038038506065158. Webb, J.R. (ed.) (1999), Webb, Tull, D.S. and Hawkins, D.I. (1997), Tull, application of marketing research to the development of new prod- the development to of marketing research application well as a consid- discussed, as has been fashion prediction ucts and marketing research international around some of the issues eration of methodology. Internet on research the impact of the design and Further reading and Downham, J. R.M. Sampling, in Worcester, Collins, M. (1986), Rocamora, A. (2006), The fi Entwistle, J. and Society Journal of the Market Research Kent, R. (1999), (2000), P. Kotler, Mouthino, L. and Evans, M. (1992), (2000), T. Proctor, E. and Rachman, D. (eds) (1978), Richards, Hague, P. (2003), Hague, P.

Fashion Marketing 128 Part C Target Marketing and Managing the Fashion Marketing Mix This page intentionally left blank Chapter Five Segmentation and the Marketing Mix

5.1 Introduction and overview

This chapter will discuss the nature of market segmentation and the related strategies that are open to the fashion marketer. The preceding three chapters have concentrated on customers, in the context of the marketing environment in Chapter Two, as buyers with differing needs and social characteristics in Chapter Three and as a focus of research efforts in Chapter Four. This chapter attempts to draw together several themes to look at how to decide which market or markets to aim at, namely the target market(s). Having determined the target market or markets, the next consideration is the positioning of the fashion marketing organization and its marketing efforts towards the target, and this will be covered later. The chapter also forms an important link with the rest of the book by introducing the concept of the marketing mix. Having shown how an organization can position itself within a market, the next task is the planning and organization of controllable variables to meet the requirements of the market proﬁ tably. The particular combination of marketing variables offered to speciﬁ c markets is known as the marketing mix, and this is described shortly.

5.2 Mass marketing and market segmentation

5.2.1 What is a market? To constitute a market a number of conditions have to be met. There should be a genuine need, the customer(s) should be willing and able to buy the product, and the aggregate demand should be suffi cient to enable a supplier to operate profi tably. ciently ects the needs t of dark blue jacket and trousers. t of dark blue jacket methods, uenced by local skills and raw materials. Mass production In Chapter Two, when considering the development of markets, it when considering In Chapter Two, the pre- perhaps because of can be standardized, a product Where consumers have amply Given choice and the diversity of suppliers, Recognizing that the existence of many markets refl 5.2.2 Mass marketing 5.2.2 Mass are in the market that all customers who assume Fashion marketers marketing or undifferentiated a mass marketing adopting are the same needs do is based on the idea that customer The assumption approach. marketing mix a standardized the company can offer not vary and that marketing mix means of everyone. The standard that meets the needs effort of distribution, prices and promotional method the same product, during the cultural The best example of this is China aimed at everyone. the Mao was offered the whole nation of the 1960s where revolution outfi able to obtain aristocracy and wealthy classes were was noted that the Most people in the pre-industrial needs. that met their precise products greatly were in a variety of styles which period dressed revolution infl armies, large clothing for coupled with the experience of producing for clothing. Indeed the practice led to the possibility of mass markets military can be illustrated by the of mass marketing linked to the to servicemen upon demobilization existence of the ‘demob’ suit issued national service. from that a mass it could be argued dominance of function over style, then consider- methods enable market exists. Also, when mass production so effi may be produced able economies of scale, some items of Certain items becomes a low-priced commodity. that the product certainly or one-size tights are underwear such as white Y-Fronts marketing. suitable for mass capable of consideration as products is that although the possibility of mass market- however, The reality, fashion of a major feature it has never been ing of clothing remains, markets in any advanced economy. clothing can give them for individuality that demonstrated the desire for clothing. elusive the idea of a mass market and they have rendered in the clothing market that homogeneity is absent This is not to argue clothing is not just one mass market, but many different or that there markets. One of the big success stories of the last decade has been younger customers with fast fashion as com- Zara who have targeted 5.1). petitive prices (Figure and purchasing capacity of clothing buyers leads to the idea of seg- and purchasing for menting markets. Markets may be segmented or divided where, of consumers has a set of homogeneous needs that instance, a group to other groups. is different

Fashion Marketing 132 Segmentation and the Marketing Mix 133 5.2.4 Market segmentation 5.2.4 Market market is heterogeneous the larger Market segmentation is where similar in character. down into smaller units that are and can be broken 5.2.3 Heterogeneous markets 5.2.3 Heterogeneous has everyone is where form of market segmentation The extreme and this is described as capability, needs and purchasing different everyone had An example of this would be if market heterogeneity. is economics of the prospect, bespoke tailoring, which, given the an example is the market for corporate The nearest unlikely scenario. custom-made uniforms may require clothing. Here organizations large achievement to enable the staff or limited ranges of clothing for their the even within goals. However, of corporate image and personnel with for will be some homogeneity, corporate clothing market, there such and local non-competing organizations example smaller regional willing to accept similar garments for their who are as restaurants many organizations and cleaning personnel from staff Security staff. with the same garments. may be provided Figure 5.1 Figure market segmentation. Zara, an example of successful