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Home , Jared Lobdell, Joseph Pearce, Tolkien Studies

Notes

Introduction: Things Deeper and Higher 1. , Tolkien: and Myth (San Francisco: , 1998) 2. 2. January 20, 1997. 3. Pearce 2. 4. Catharine R. Stimpson, J.R.R. Tolkien, Columbia Essays on Modern Writers, 41 (New York: Columbia University Press, l969) 7; Robert J. Reilly, “Tolkien and the Fairy Story,” Thought 38 (1963) 90; C.S. Lewis, “The Gods Return to Earth,” Time and Tide 35 (August 14, 1954) 1082; Naomi Mitchison, “ to Bind Them,” The New Statesman 48 (September 18, 1954) 331; Richard Hughes, “,” The Spectator (October 1, 1954) 408. 5. Mark R. Hillegas, ed., Shadows of Imagination (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969) xiii. 6. Edmund Fuller, “The Lord of the : J.R.R. Tolkien,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 36—Fuller quotes Philip Toynbee quoting W.H. Auden; Robert Sklar, “Tolkien and Hesse: Top of the Pops,” Nation 204 (May 8, 1967) 599; W.R. Irwin, “There and Back Again: The Romances of Williams, Lewis, and Tolkien,” Sewanee Review 69 (October–December 1961) 577; Daniel Hughes, “Pieties and Giant Forms in The Lord of the Rings,” Shadows of Imagination, ed. Mark R. Hillegas (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969) 96. 7. D. Hughes 95; George Burke Johnston, “The Poetry of J.R.R. Tolkien,” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 65; Gerald Monsman, “The Imaginative World of J.R.R. Tolkien,” South Atlantic Quarterly 69 (1970) 265; Reilly 130; Burton Raffel, “The Lord of the Rings as Literature,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 229; Michael Wood, “Tolkien’s Fictions,” New Society 338 (March 27, 1969) 493; Stimpson 13. 8. Johnston 63; Monsman 265; Marion Zimmer Bradley, “Men Halflings, and Hero Worship,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 176 NOTES

1968) 126; Fuller 18; Monsman 264; Neil D. Isaacs, “On the Possibilities of Writing Tolkien Criticism,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 4; William Ready, The Tolkien Relation: A Personal Inquiry (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1968) 165; Charles Moorman, “, Mordor, and Minas Tirith: J.R.R. Tolkien,” The Precincts of Felicity: The Augustinian City of the Oxford Christians (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1966) 86; W.D. Emrys Evans, “The Lord of the Rings,” The School Librarian 16 (December 1968) 287; David M. Miller, “The Moral Universe of J.R.R. Tolkien,” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 60; Patricia Meyer Spacks, “Power and Meaning in The Lord of the Rings,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 93; Clyde S. Kilby, “Meaning in The Lord of the Rings,” Shadows of Imagination, ed. Mark R. Hillegas (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969) 75; Roger Sale, “Tolkien and ,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 247, 263 ; Reilly 130; Rose A. Zimbardo, “Moral Vision in The Lord of the Rings,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 105; Irwin 575; Monsman 271. 9. Spacks 97; M. Wood 493; Francis Huxley, “The Endless Worm,” New Statesman 50 (November 5, 1955) 587; Fuller 22. Cf. Stimpson 43, who finds it Captain Marvelous. 10. D. Hughes 95; Charles Elliott, “Can America Kick the ? The Tolkien Caper,” Life 62 (February 24, 1967) 10. 11. Edmund Wilson, “Ooo, Those Awful !” The Bit Between My Teeth: A Literary Chronicle of 1950–1965 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1965) 329; C.B. Cox, “The World of the Hobbits,” The Spectator (December 30, 1966) 844. 12. Raffel 240; Wilson 329; George H. Thomson, “The Lord of the Rings: The Novel as Traditional Romance,” Wisconsin Studies in Contemporary Literature 8 (Winter 1967) 43; W.D. Norwood, “Tolkien’s Intention in The Lord of the Rings,” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 23; Harry T. Moore, preface, Shadows of Imagination, ed. Mark R. Hillegas, (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969) vi; Douglass Parker, “Hwaet We Holbytla,” Hudson Review 9 (Winter 1956–1957) 604; Irwin 568; Stimpson 43; Nat Hentoff, “Critics’ Choices for Christmas,” Commonweal 83 (December 3, 1965) 284; Moorman, “Shire, Mordor” 86; Spacks 82, 99; Parker 598, 609; Wilson 328; Ready, The Tolkien Relation 155; Monsman 271; Hillegas xvii. 13. Miller 60; Kilby 73. NOTES 177

14. Fuller 18; Raffel 229. 15. Parker 607; M. Wood 493. 16. R.A. Schroth, “The Lord of the Rings,” America 116 (February 18, 1967) 254; R. Hughes 408. 17. “Heroic Endeavor,” [London] Times Literary Supplement 27 (August 1954) 541; Wilson 328. 18. Gunnar Urang, “Tolkien’s Fantasy: The Phenomenology of Hope,” Shadows of the Imagination, ed. Mark R. Hillegas (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969) 107; Spacks 82. 19. Sklar 598; M. Wood 493. 20. M. Wood 493, 492. 21. Earl F. Walbridge, “,” Library Journal 80 (May 15, 1955) 1219; Wilson 331. 22. Spacks 97; Stimpson 18. 23. L.A.C. Strong, “The Pick of the Bunch,” The Spectator (December 3, 1957) 1024; M. Wood 493. 24. Moore vi; Michael Straight, “The Fantastic World of Professor Tolkien,” New Republic 134 (January 16, 1956) 26. 25. Bruce A. Beatie, “Folk Tale, Fiction, and Saga in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings,” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 3. 26. Cox 844. 27. W.H. Auden, “At the End of the Quest, Victory,” New York Times Book Review (January 22, 1956) 5. 28. , The Road to Middle-Earth (London: Grafton, 1992) 2. 29. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 41, 78. 30. Tom Shippey, J.R.R. Tolkien: Author of the Century (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) 313. 31. Raffel 219, 246. 32. Parker 607, 608. 33. Spacks 98–99. 34. Raffel 220; M. Wood 493. 35. Judy Henry, letter to the editor, New York Times Book Review (November 28, 1965) 79. 36. Wilson 332; Judith Crist, “Why ‘Frodo Lives,’ ” Ladies’ Home Journal 84 (February 1967) 58; M. Wood 492. 37. St i mpson 3. 38. Huxley 588.

 Ordinary Everyday Magic 1. J.R.R. Tolkien, : Or There and Back Again, 3rd ed. (London: Unwin Books, 1966) 2. Hereafter cited in the text as “H,” thus: H2. To avoid confusion, it has sometimes been necessary to alter British punctuation conventions in quotations from Tolkien’s works to coincide with the general format of this work. British 178 NOTES

spelling and Tolkien’s overenthusiastic capitalization have been preserved. 2. Shippey, Road 216. 3. Shippey, Road 216. 4. Good articles on the Tolkien craze include “Don’s Tales Start U.S. Campus Craze,” [London] Times February 12, 1966, 6; Nancy Griffin, “The Fellowship of Hobbitomanes,” San Francisco Examiner and Chronicle December 18, 1966, “This World” section 44, 51; “Tolkien Mythology Comes to Vietnam,” Publisher’s Weekly 192 (September 4, 1967) 24. Among the more stable newsletters and journals are The Green Dragon (Palo Alto) Mallorn (London), The Middle Earthworm (Bristol), Minas Tirith Evening Star (Monmouth, Illinois), (Alhambra, California), Orcrist (Madison, Wisconsin), The Tolkien Journal (Center Harbor, New Hampshire). The Tolkien Journal 3:1 (1967) 12–13 gives a comprehensive list. 5. Margery Fisher, Intent upon Reading (Leicester: Brockhampton Press, Ltd., 1961) 85; Crist 58; Fuller 30; Monsman 272. 6. Fisher 85; Urang 97; M. Wood 493; Kilby 76; Beatie 8. 7. E . L. Epstein, “The Novels of J.R.R. Tolkien and the Ethnology of Medieval Christendom,” Philological Quarterly 48 (1969) 517. 8. Stimpson 27; Parker 605. 9. Epstein 522–23; Alexis Levitin, “The Hero in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings,” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 171. 10. Charles Moorman, “ ‘Now Entertain Conjecture of a Time’—The Fictive Worlds of C.S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien,” Shadows of Imagination, ed. Mark R. Hillegas (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969) 61. 11. Brian Rosebury, Tolkien: A Critical Assessment (London: Macmillan, 1992) 15. 12. Rosebury, Assessment 15. 13. Mary Quella Kelly, “The Poetry of Fantasy: Verse in The Lord of the Rings,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 171. 14. Spacks 98, 87 is on both hands. 15. Kilby 75. 16. Paul Edmund Thomas, “Some of Tolkien’s Narrators,” Tolkien’s Legendarium: Essays on the History of Middle-Earth, eds. and Carl F. Hostetter (London: Greenwood Press, 2000) 74. 17. Paul Kocher, “Middle-Earth: Imaginary World?” Understanding The Lord of the Rings, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004) 151. 18. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 6. 19. J.R.R. Tolkien, The Lord of the Rings (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994) 820. This widely available compact edition, which comprises NOTES 179

Volume I: The Fellowship of the Ring, Volume II: The Two Towers, and Volume III: , will hereafter be cited in the text by page number only. 20. See, for another example, 303; I could discover in the entire work only four such references. 21. Perhaps the most impressive weather effect is the incidental explica- tion of the conditions that allow Sauron to lay down his smog cam- ouflage for “The Battle of the Pelennor Fields,” then disperse that smoke as arrives by boat “upon a wind from the Sea” (829)—the wind patterns, for all their supernatural implications, precisely indicate a passing low pressure area. Some, such as Naomi Mitchison, find “uncertainties on the scientific side” (331), but do not specify what they are. 22. An intriguing instance can be seen in the recurring references to the psychological effects of light on warriors’ morale in such places as 528, 617, 820, and 842. 23. Some take their plausibility even further. See Kathryn Blackmun, “The Development of Runic and Feanorian Alphabets for the Transliteration of English,” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 76–83, and C. Stevens, “Sound Systems of the Third Age of Middle-Earth,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 54 (October 1968) 232–40. 24. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 56; the subsequent reference is to 177. 25. Andy Schultz, “Tolkien and Friends” English 495 Course, Brigham Young University, fall semester 2005. 26. Ready 177. 27. Shippey, Road 132, first observed this. 28. Two of twenty-one in my informal survey. 29. Beatie 8; Parker 599. 30. Rosebury, Assessment 28. 31. Beatie 8; Kilby 75. 32. Kocher 147. 33. Parker feels Middle-earth nurtures “probably the most original and varied creation ever seen in the genre, and certainly the most consis- tent” (602). There is an extended discussion in Thomas J. Gasque, “Tolkien: The Monsters and the Critters,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 159–63. 34. Fuller 21. 35. Rosebury, Assessment 39. 36. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 3. 37. Miller 60. 38. Kilby 73. 39. Evans 287; Kilby 77. 40. See 1031, 500–11, and H116. 41. Cf. Judges 14:12–20. 180 NOTES

42. Moore vi. 43. Wilson 329. 44. Rosebury, Assessment 42. 45. R. Hughes 408. 46. Fuller 28; C.S. Lewis, “The Dethronement of Power,” Time and Tide 36 (October 22, 1955) 1373; W.H. Auden, “Good and Evil in The Lord of the Rings,” Critical Quarterly 10 (1968) 138. 47. Mitchison 331. 48. Tom Shippey, “Orcs, Wraiths, Wights,” J.R.R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances, eds. George Clark and Daniel Timmons (London: Greenwood Press, 2000) 186. 49. Auden, “Good and Evil” 8. 50. Respectively, H60; 490–91; 711–12; 739. 51. : 57, 214, 251, 488–89, 569, 733, 793–94. : 982–99. Sauron: 924–25. 52. See 738, 824, and 925. 53. See 65–66; 276; 349; 425; 217; and 62. 54. Wilson 329; Parker 602; Stimpson 18. 55. Beatie 8; C.S. Lewis, “The Dethronement of Power,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 14; Fisher 85. 56. Lewis, “The Dethronement” 1374. 57. W.H. Auden, “A World Imaginary, but Real,” Encounter 3 (November 1954) 61. 58. Raffel 237. 59. J.R.R. Tolkien, (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1949) 56, 57, 59, 62, 75—hereafter cited “FG” in text. 60. D. Hughes 89. 61. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 77. 62. Parker 607; H2—comfort is a vital term in The Hobbit; see 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 26, 31, 42, 44, 51, 103, 161, 166, 179, 208, 262, and 277 for typical examples. 63. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 77—the humanness of hobbits is the thesis of Ready’s book. 64. Cf. H18: “There is a lot more in him than you guess, and a deal more than he has any idea of himself.” 65. Huxley 587; D. Hughes 84. 66. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 161; William Ready, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit: Notes (Toronto: Coles Publishing Company Limited, 1971) 6. 67. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 106. 68. Stimpson 31, 32. 69. Gasque 161. 70. Gasque 160. NOTES 181

71. H7 vs. H25; Ready, The Tolkien Relation 99; H219; 221–22 vs. 1045–46; 276 vs. 1110; H195 vs. H260. 72. See 1051. 73. See 1048 and H111. 74. Shippey, Road 109. 75. Kocher 162. 76. See FG23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 33, and 40. 77. See 11–13; 47; 53–59; 243–50; 374–85.; the quotation is from 374. 78. Evans calls their introduction at that point “a daring stroke, whose impact is not to be appreciated in a first reading” (285). 79. See 87, 88, 73, 193, 191, and 822. 80. Shippey, “Orcs” 191. 81. Wilson 329. 82. D. Hughes 89. 83. J.R.R. Tolkien, “On Fairy-Stories,” (London: Unwin Books, 1964) 40—hereafter cited in the text as Tree. (Also includes “”). 84. Fisher 85, Fuller 17, Urang 97, Walbridge 1219, M. Wood 493, for example. 85. Shippey, Road 109. 86. Sale 265. 87. H79, H177; cf. the citizens of Wootton Major, who are of such lim- ited vision as to overlook a faërie star in the very center of Smith’s forehead: “Few people in the village noticed it though it was not invisible to attentive eyes”—J.R.R. Tolkien, (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1967) 20; hereafter cited in the text as Smith. 88. See Parker 602. 89. H34; cf. an turning in Frodo’s imagination into Sam (889), the sun bringing green fire from the emerald in Aragorn’s hand (960). 90. Shippey, Road 175. 91. Wilson C. McWilliams, “Critics’ Choices for Christmas,” Commonweal 83 (December 3, 1965) 287. 92. His perception of the surprise of the usual is more than artifice: in the realistic context of a prefatory note, Tolkien says, “typing by the ten-fingered was beyond my means” (The Lord of the Rings xvi). 93. H.H. Arnason, A History of Modern Art (London: Thames and Hudson, 1969) 314; cf. 368. 94. Cox 844. 95. Shippey, Road 166. 96. Gasque 154. 97. William Blissett, “Despots of the Rings,” South Atlantic Quarterly 58 (Summer 1959) 456. 98. See 108–19. 99. Kilby 71. 182 NOTES

100. See 27; H5; 1059; H99; and 462. 101. See H99; 578; 881–82; see 894 for an air raid. 102. Stimpson 11. 103. See 3–5; 9–13; 1009–13 and 663. 104. See, for example, 777–78, 780, 868, 952, 365, 430–31, and 842. 105. See, for example, 95, 100, 243, 346, 373; 479; 523; 873; 830; and 1057; Sklar 599. 106. Cf. 190, 279, and 615–16. 107. Ruth Harshaw, “When Carnival of Books Went to Europe,” American Library Association Bulletin 51 (February 1957) 120. 108. The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien, ed. and Christopher Tolkien (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) Letter #131, 160. 109. For typical examples from the first volume see 1, 11, 12, 22, 28, 33, 46, 49, 61, 66, 73, 74, 77, 78, 87, 89, 95, 108, 112, 114, 116, 117, 118, 134, 136, 154, 172, 190, 199, 207, 213, 231, 233, 243, 247, 257, 292, 306, 317–18, 336, 342, 347, 367, 368, 383, and 396— the relative density of such terms is directly proportional to the supernaturalness of the situation. 110. There are many others—for example, funny, fabulous, remarkable, marvelous, and unearthly. 111. Shippey, Road 151. 112. Tolkien Letter #142, 172. 113. Tolkien Letter #142, 172. 114. Bradley Birzer, J.R.R. Tolkien’s Sanctifying Myth (ISI Books, 2002) xi. 115. Birzer xvi. 116. Ralph Wood, The Gospel according to Tolkien ( Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press) 121. 117. R.Wood 10. 118. Tolkien Letter #208, 267. 119. Leslie Ellen Jones, Myth and Middle-Earth (Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Springs Press, 2002) 132. 120. R. Wood 46. 121. Pearce 97. 122. 27; cf. 110, 135, 287, 598, 620 for a cross-section of examples. 123. Dorothy K. Barber, “The Meaning of The Lord of the Rings,”The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2 (Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967) 44. 124. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 13. 125. Fisher 85; cf. M. Wood 493, Cox 844. 126. David Sander, “ ‘Joy beyond the Walls of the World’: The Secondary World-Making of J.R.R. Tolkien and C.S. Lewis,” J.R.R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances, eds. George Clark and Daniel Timmons (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000) 143. 127. See 929. The tale is actually told in 933. NOTES 183

128. Gasque 158; Sale 268. It is not as surprising a conclusion as it sounds; in the carefully rational criticism of Tree and Leaf 16, 24, 44, and 59, Tolkien sets forth and proceeds upon the hypothesis “if elves are true.” 129. Gregory Bassham, “Tolkien’s Six Keys to Happiness,” The Lord of the Rings and Philosophy, eds. Gregory Bassham and Eric Bronson (Illinois: Open Court, 2007) 59.

 Blade and Leaf Listening 1. Christopher Garbowski, “Middle-Earth,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 427. 2. Roger Sale, “Tolkien and Frodo Baggins,” J.R.R. Tolkien, ed. Harold Bloom (Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2000) 47. 3. Sale, revised “Tolkien and Frodo Baggins,” 47. 4. Shippey, Road 132. 5. Jennifer McMahon and B. Steve Csaki, “Talking Trees and Walking Mountains: Buddhist and Taoist Themes in The Lord of the Rings,” The Lord of the Rings and Philosophy, eds. Gregory Bassham and Eric Bronson (Illinois: Open Court, 2007) 180. 6. Shippey, Road 132. 7. Fi sher 87; D. Hughes 83; Jared C. Lobdell, “From Middle-Earth to the Silent Planet,” Rally 2 (July–August 1967) 36; Mitchison 331. 8. Roger Lancelyn Green, Tellers of Tales (London: Edmund Ward Publishers Ltd., 1965) 277; Fisher 85; R. Hughes 408. 9. Auden, “At the End” 5; Sklar 600. 10. Kilby 80; Spacks 95; Green 277. 11. Urang 101; Beatie 3 ; Green 277. 12. Hugh T. Keenan, “The Appeal of The Lord of the Rings: A Struggle for Life,” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968) 63, provides an acute discussion of “the reiterated sterility-fertility conflict” of the trilogy. 13. Stimpson 30, 36. 14. Michael N. Stanton, Hobbits, Elves, and (New York: Palgrave, 2001) 45. 15. Ready, The Tolkien Relation 3; Walbridge 1219; Cox 844. 16. R. Hughes 408. 17. Tolkien Letter #155, 200. 18. Tolkien Letter #131, 152. 19. Monsman 266. 20. See 133; 286; 279; H42; H174; 111; 622; 593; 275; 60; and 519. 21. McMahon and Csaki 180. 22. Stanton 13–14. 23. Parker 599. 184 NOTES

24. Stanton 62. 25. Stanton 62. 26. Stanton 62. 27. Henry Gee, The Science of Middle-Earth (New York: Cold Spring Press, 2004) 195. 28. McMahon and Csaki 181. 29. McMahon and Csaki 183. 30. Max Riessar, Analyse Des Poetischen Denken (1954) 72. 31. I am indebted for this apt phrase to Sheridan Baker, “Paton’s Beloved Country and the Morality of Geography,” College English 19 (November 1957) 55–61. 32. John Ruskin, Modern Painters, vol. 3, part 4 (London: G. Bell, 1927) 164. 33. Stimpson 27. 34. Stanton 13. 35. Brian Rosebury, Tolkien: A Cultural Phenomenon (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2003) 74. 36. Tolkien Letter #246, 329. 37. Stanton 17. 38. Patrick Curry, “Environmentalism and Eco-criticism,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 165. 39. See, for example, Daniel 11:44, Ezekiel 27:26, Hosea 12:1. 40. Alfred K. Siewers, “Environmentalist Readings of Tolkien,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 166. 41. Siewers 166. 42. Stimpson 36; R. Hughes 409. 43. Fisher 84. 44. Raffel 221. 45. Sale 42. 46. Raffel 219. 47. Raffel 219. 48. Garbowski, “Middle-Earth” 423. 49. McMahon and Csaki 181. 50. Stimpson 12. 51. Keenan 64. 52. Tolkien Letter #208, 267. 53. Keenan 62; Sale 260. 54. See H187 and H188; cf. 50, 51, 52, 100, 136, 159, 165, 185, 222, 232, and 256. 55. Stanton 51. 56. Keenan 74. 57. See Monsman 271–78. 58. Verlyn Flieger, Splintered Light: Logos and Language in Tolkien’s World (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983) 78. 59. See 317; see also 138, 192, 889, and 1002–03. NOTES 185

60. Urang 105. 61. See H180; H214; H226; and H267. 62. Fuller 35. Fuller thinks Tolkien has been “explicit about the nature of Gandalf. In response to my question he said, unhesitatingly, ‘Gandalf is an angel.’ ” 63. 749; cf. 503 for Gandalf’s own witness. 64. Green 277.

 The Road Goes On for Ever 1. Ursula LeGuin, “The Staring Eye,” A Reader’s Companion to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1995) 117. 2. LeGuin, “The Staring Eye” 117. 3. Ursula LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern,” Meditations on Middle-Earth ed. Karen Haber (New York: St. Martins, 2001) 106. 4. LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern” 105. 5. Janet Adam Smith, “Does Frodo Live,” A Reader’s Companion to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1995) 70. 6. Orson Scott Card, “How Tolkien Means,” Meditations on Middle- Earth, ed. Karen Haber (New York: St. Martins, 2001) 154–55. 7. See, for example, 612, 618, and 920. 8. Eddy Mark Smith, Ordinary Virtues: Exploring the Spiritual Themes of The Lord of the Rings (Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 2002) 123–24. 9. Tree 73; cf. Smith 36, 49, and FG39. 10. LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern” 107. 11. LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern” 107. 12. Allan Turner, “Prose Style,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 546. 13. Turner, “Prose Style” 546. 14. Gee 46. 15. See H18, 72, 264, 40, 217, and 194 respectively. 16. Rosebury, Cultural Phenomenon 55. 17. Rosebury, Cultural Phenomenon 55. 18. Allan Turner, “Rhetoric,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 568. 19. Christopher Garbowski, “Comedy,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 108. 20. Patrick Curry, Defending Middle-Earth: Tolkien, Myth and Modernity (Great Britain: Floris Books, 1997) 164. 21. See H31–41; H64–83; and H194–213. 22. See H42, 63, 143, 192, and 262; cf. H47, 56, 61, 103, 161, 196, 203, 270, and 274. 23. See, for example, H46, H138–39, H142, H271, 77, 187, 231, 330, 368, 491, 712, and 1005. 186 NOTES

24. See 763; cf. 748, 750, 797, and 864. 25. Isaac Asimov, “The Ring of Evil,” A Reader’s Companion to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1995) 30. 26. Card 172. 27. Card 172. 28. See 734; 1059; 873; and 34. 29. See 958; 315; 543; 683; and 128—cf. King Lear 4.7.46–48. See also Ezekiel 1:15–20. 30. Legendary allusions include 701, 703, 704, and 714. There are historic quotations in 600, 665, 704, and 818, 849, and 926. 31. Ubi sunt (Latin: “where are?”). See 736; cf. 779, 916, and 1069. 32. Turner, “Prose Style” 546. 33. Lisa Goldstein, “The Mythmaker,” Meditations on Middle-Earth, ed. Karen Haber (New York: St. Martins, 2001) 190. 34. Goldstein 190. 35. Rosebury, Assessment 15. 36. Card 156. 37. S ee 527; 623; 679; 775; and 693; cf. 358, 475, 540, 624, 684, and 740, 869, 910, and 914. 38. See 114–15; 137; 207–09; 307–16; 315; and 725. 39. See 701, 873, and 909. 40. See 177, 412, 591, 635, and 741, 802, and 887, for example. 41. The destructions and conclusions leading up to Théoden’s funeral are conveniently accumulated in 824–26. 42. Tolkien Letter #208, 267. 43. See the prolonged ax joke in 480, 492, 500, 512, 520, 522, 532, 552, 565, 571, and 953. 44. See 102, 954, 974, 997, and 1008. 45. See 1 and 1004. 46. Note the wind in 819, 828–30, and 839.

 Always On and On 1. Carl G. Jung, Four Archetypes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985) 12. 2. Tolkien goes so far as to present a hissingly snakey Gollum to play Satan to Bilbo’s bildungsroman Adam. 3. See H161; cf. H33, 144, 171, 197, and 262. Frodo’s isolation is even more thorough in 61, 98, 106, 107, 152, 270, 387, 392, 394; 626, 671, and 715; Merry: 865 and 877; Aragorn: 1034 and 1035. Cf. also “poor Sméagol all alone” (671), and the isolating of that most gregarious of hobbits: “No thought could yet bring any help to Samwise Hamfast’s son; he was utterly alone” (877). 4. See H10; H247; H21; H32; H77; H144; H171; H197; H203; H248; H261; and H277, respectively. NOTES 187

5. E. Smith 19. 6. Jonathan D. Langford, Pathways into Maturity: Coming-of-Age among Hobbits in The Lord of the Rings, M.A. thesis, Brigham Young University, 1990, 188–190, details Sam’s spectacular growth.” 7. S ee H146; cf. H82, 886, and 852. 8. Auden, “The Quest Hero” 54. 9. Gee 204. 10. Christopher Vaccaro, “Rings,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 572. 11. Card 169. 12. E. Smith 100. 13. See M. Wood 493. 14. E. Smith 100. 15. Julie Phillips, “Hobbit Redux: J.R.R. Tolkien’s Elf Consciousness,” A Reader’s Companion to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings (New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1995) 81. 16. J. Smith 70. 17. See the Introduction to Tree and Leaf. 18. Phillips 81. 19. Alison Milbank, “ ‘My Precious’: Tolkien’s Fetishized Ring,” The Lord of the Rings and Philosophy, eds. Gregory Bassham and Eric Bronson (Illinois: Open Court, 2007) 35. 20. Milbank 35. 21. Anna Smol, “Sexuality in Tolkien’s Works,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 602. 22. See 119–31; 464–66; 189; and 985. 23. Tolkien Letter #131, 161. 24. Tolkien Letter #131, 161. 25. See 940–44; 511–12; 1032–38. 26. Stimpson 19. 27. M. Wood, 493. 28. Patrick Bruckner, “Tolkien on Love,” Tolkien and Modernity, ed. Thomas Honegger and Frank Weinreich (Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2006) 36. 29. See 929; cf. 699, 703, 905, 917, 921, and 930. 30. Miller 60. 31. E. Smith 47. 32. See H20–21; H80; H174; H178; H85; and H253. 33. T.S. Eliot, “Little Gidding,” The Four Quartets (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1943) ll. 214, 239–42.

 The Potency of the Words 1. , The Philosophy of Tolkien: The Worldview behind The Lord of the Rings (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005) 154. 188 NOTES

2. Shippey, Road 43. 3. Shippey, Road 133. 4. Poul Anderson, “Awakening the Elves,” Meditations on Middle- Earth, ed. Karen Haber (New York: St. Martins, 2001) 31. 5. See H40, 212; H48; H59; H144; 237; 269; 521; 237; and 810; 1.1507. 6. Kreeft 155. 7. Cf. H204 for more explicit dragon lore. 8. For a cross section of internal tales, see the flashbacks beginning on pages H17, H21, H116, 142, 236, 423, 707, 794, and 856. The allusion functions with the same indirect appropriateness as the more puzzling digressions in Beowulf. 9. Douglas Anderson, “Tolkien After All These Years,” Meditations on Middle-Earth, ed. Karen Haber (New York: St. Martins, 2001) 139. 10. Kreeft 156. 11. Rosebury, Assessment 60. 12. Verlyn Flieger, A Question of Time: J.R.R. Tolkien’s Road to Faërie (Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1997) 189. 13. Flieger, Time 199. 14. , “Dreams,” J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout (New York: Routledge, 2007) 132. 15. Lobdell, “Dreams” 132. 16. Ursula LeGuin “Rhythmic Pattern,” Meditations on Middle-Earth, ed. Karen Haber (New York: St. Martins, 2001) 112. 17. Rosebury, Assessment 63. 18. Randall Helms, Tolkien’s World (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1974) 80. 19. Mary E. Zimmer, “Creating and Re-Creating Worlds with Words,” Tolkien and the Invention of Myth: A Reader, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004) 52. 20. Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass (New York: Macmillan, 1962) 248. 21. Zimmer 50. 22. Ruth S. Noel, The Languages of Middle-Earth (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980) 57. 23. Marion Gymnich, “Reconsidering the Linguistics of Middle-Earth,” Reconsidering Tolkien, ed. Thomas Honegger (Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2005) 26. 24. Gymnich 23. 25. J. Smith 75. 26. J. Smith 75. 27. David L. Jeffrey, “Name in The Lord of the Rings,” Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, ed. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky) 106. 28. Tolkien Letter #297, 380. 29. Rosebury, Assessment 292. NOTES 189

30. Rosebury, Assessment 292. 31. Kreeft 159. 32. Zimmer 58. 33. Jared Lobdell, The World of the Rings (Chicago: Open Court, 2004) 40. 34. See Stimpson 35. 35. Noel 60. 36. See H80 and 279 for synesthesia of vision, 74 and 687 for olfactory. 37. S ee 341; cf. 342, 785, and 947. 38. See 410, 621, 640, 633, and 928, for example. 39. See, for example, H54 and 813. 40. See 622, 799, and 439. 41. See 604; cf. 605, 608, 621, and 672. 42. Michael D.C. Drout, “Tolkien’s Prose Style and its Literary and Rhetorical Effects,” 1:1 (2004) 155. 43. Lobdell, World 45. 44. See Albert Stansburrough Cook, The Christ of Cynewulf (Boston: Ginn & Company, 1900) 89–90. 45. The analysis is based on an average of random samples. For a conve- nient example, see the final page of Book I and the initial page of Book II in The Fellowship of the Ring. 46. LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern” 104. 47. LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern” 102. 48. LeGuin, “Rhythmic Pattern” 103. 49. Turner, “Rhetoric” 567. 50. See Appendices E and F at the conclusion of The Return of the King. 51. Hobbit poems in The Lord of the Rings alone may be found in 35, 76, 88, 99, 104, 110, 155, 181, 201, 227, 241, 266, 271, 350, 606, 632, 888, 965, and 1005. 52. Rosebury, Assessment 72. 53. Turner, “Rhetoric” 567. 54. See H195; cf. H269 and especially the fluctuating tensions of H80. 55. See, for example, H40. 56. E. Kirk, “Language, Fiction and The Lord of the Rings,” Towards a Poetics of Fiction, ed. M. Spilka (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977) 300. 57. H94 is a good example of the lengths to which Tolkien goes to main- tain that hobbit perspective. 58. Rosebury, Assessment 59–60. 59. See 28; 48; 51; 128; 236; 664; 774; and 461. Lewis nominates as “a portrait of the artist”; Ready’s books insist upon hobbits, particularly Frodo, for that position; Stimpson (16) thinks Gandalf “a totally reliable moral mouthpiece.” 60. Gymnich 14. 61. Shippey, Road 136. 62. See 273; see also 215 for a clearer but more involved example. 63. Kirk 294. 190 NOTES

 Just a Bit of Nonsense 1. Tolkien Letter #25, 31. 2. See 21; see 27 for elevenses. 3. See 502; 424; 822; 595; 237; 373; and 497. 4. See 501; 419; 236; 768; and 467. 5. See the usages in 734, 516, and 827. 6. See 745. The word invented by Tolkien for the occasion is daymeal. 7. S ee 307; 861; 426; and 426. 8. For typical Old English sections, see 237–41, 407–30, 760–65. Specific Old English formulas are included, notably the “that was a worthy man” (425), “that was a strange deed” (409) type. 9. J. Smith 74. 10. See 59; 823; 567; 868; 806; and 735. 11. See H158; cf. 442, 244, 868, and 427. 12. Rosebury, Assessment 78–79. 13. Miller 60. 14. Wilson 329. 15. Fuller 22. 16. Raffel 246. The passages just quoted demonstrate that generalized quality clearly. 17. Kocher 151. 18. See 107; cf. 804–05, 10. 19. Kocher 151–52. 20. See 58, 49; cf. 218, 709.

Conclusion: What You Will See, If You Leave the Mirror Free to Work 1. Tolkien Letter #208, 267. 2. Tolkien Letter #208, 267. 3. Tolkien Letter #269, 355. Sources

Tolkien’s Fiction and Poetry Listed Chronologically Songs for the Philologists. With E. V. Gordon and others. London: privately printed through the Department of English at University College, 1936. The Hobbit: Or There and Back Again. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1937, 1951, 1966. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1938, 1958. New York: Ballantine Books, Inc., 1965, rev. ed., 1966. “Leaf by Niggle.” Dublin Review 216 (January 1945): 46–61. “The Lay of Aotrou and Itroun.” Welsh Review 4 (December 1945): 254–66. Farmer Giles of Ham. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1949. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1950. “The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm’s Son.” Essays and Studies of the English Association, New Series 6 (1953): 1–18. “Imram.” Time and Tide 36 (December 3, 1955): 1561. The Adventures of Tom Bombadil. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1962. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1963. Tree and Leaf. London: Unwin Books, 1964. (Collects “On Fairy-Stories” and “Leaf by Niggle). . New York: Ballantine Books, 1966. (Collects “The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm’s Son,” The Adventures of Tom Bombadil, Farmer Giles of Ham, “Leaf by Niggle,” and “On Fairy- Stories.”) : A Song Cycle. With music by Donald Swann. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1967. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1967. Smith of Wootton Major. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1967. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1967. Redbook, 130 (December 1967): 58–61, 101, 103–07. “For W. H. A.” Shenandoah 18 (Winter 1967): 96–97. Poems and Songs of Middle Earth. With William Elvin and Donald Swann. London: Caedmon Records, 1968. Smith of Wootton Major and Farmer Giles of Ham. New York: Ballantine Books, 1969. 192 SOURCES

“Once Upon a Time,” “The Dragon’s Visit.” The Young Magicians, ed. . New York: Ballantine Books, 1969. 254–62. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien, ed. Humphrey Carpenter and Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. The Children of Húrin. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007. Critical essays by Tolkien that provide enlightening perspectives on his aesthetics include “Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics,” Sir Israel Gollancz Memorial Lecture, Proceedings of the British Academy 22 (1936): 245–95—reprinted in Lewis E. Nicholson, An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism. Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1963. 51–103 and Donald K. Fry, The Beowulf Poet. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968. 8–56; “Tolkien on Tolkien,” Diplomat 18 (October 1966): 39; and especially “On Fairy-Stories,” Andrew Lang Lecture, University of St. Andrews, 1938, printed in C. S. Lewis, ed., Essays Presented to Charles Williams. London: Oxford University Press, 1947. 38–89, revised for reprinting in Tree and Leaf. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1964 and (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1965).

Critical Works Cited Three collections of essays have been of especial value in the preparation of this book: Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo, eds., Tolkien and the Critics. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. Mark R. Hillegas, ed., Shadows of Imagination. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969. The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2. Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967. Richard C. West’s Tolkien Criticism: An Annotated Checklist. Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1970. is a helpful guide to early Tolkien criticism. Anderson, Douglas. “Tolkien After All These Years.” Meditations on Middle- Earth, ed. Karen Haber. New York: St. Martins, 2001. 129–51. Anderson, Poul. “Awakening the Elves.” Meditations on Middle-Earth, ed. Karen Haber. New York: St. Martins, 2001. 21–32. Arnason, H. H. A History of Modern Art. London: Thames and Hudson, 1969. Asimov, Isaac. “The Ring of Evil.” A Reader’s Companion to The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club, 1995. 23–30. Auden, W. H. “At the End of the Quest, Victory.” New York Times Book Review, January 22, 1956, 5. ———. “Good and Evil in The Lord of the Rings.” Tolkien Journal 8 (1967): 5–8. Reprinted in Critical Quarterly 10 (1968): 138–42. ———. “The Quest Hero.” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 40–61. ———. “A World Imaginary, but Real.” Encounter 3 (November 1954): 59–62. SOURCES 193

Baker, Sheridan. “Paton’s Beloved Coutnry and the Morality of Geography.” College English 19 (November 1957): 55–61. Barber, Dorothy Elizabeth Klein. “The Meaning of The Lord of the Rings.” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2. Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967. 38–50. Bassham, Gregory. “Tolkien’s Six Keys to Happiness.” The Lord of the Rings and Philosophy, eds. Gregory Bassham and Eric Bronson. Illinois: Open Court, 2007. 49–60. Bassham, Gregory, and Eric Bronson, eds. The Lord of the Rings and Philosophy. Illinois: Open Court, 2007. Beatie, Bruce A. “Folk Tale, Fiction, and Saga in J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings.” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2. Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967. 1–17. Birzer, Bradley. J. R. R. Tolkien’s Sanctifying Myth. Wilmington, DE: ISI Books, 2003. Blackmun, Kathryn. “The Development of runic and Feanorian Alphabets for the Transliteration of English.” The Tolkien Papers. Mankato Studies in English 2. Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967. 76–83. Blissett, William. “Despots of the Rings.” South Atlantic Quarterly 58 (Summer 1959): 448–56. Bradley, Marion Zimmer. “Men, Halflings and Hero Worship.” Fantasy Amateur Press Association booklet, 1961. Reprinted in Niekas (June 1966): 25–44. Abridged for Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 109–27. Bruckner, Patrick. “Tolkien on Love,” Tolkien and Modernity, ed. Thomas Honegger and Frank Weinreich. Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2006. 1–52. Card, Orson Scott. “How Tolkien Means.” Meditations on Middle-Earth, ed. Karen Haber. New York: St. Martins, 2001. 153–73. Carroll, Lewis. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and through the Looking- Glass. New York: Macmillan, 1962. Clark, George, and Daniel Timmons, eds. J. R. R. Tolkien and His Literary Resonances. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000. Cook, Albert Stansburrough. The Christ of Cynewulf. Boston: Ginn & Company, 1900. Cox, C. B. “The World of the Hobbits.” Spectator (December 30, 1966): 844. Crist, Judith. “Why ‘Frodo Lives.’ ” Ladies’ Home Journal 84 (February 1967): 58. Curry, Patrick. Defending Middle-Earth: Tolkien, Myth and Modernity. Great Britain: Floris Books, 1997. ———. “Environmentalism and Eco-criticism,” J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout. New York: Routledge, 2007. 165. Drout, Michael D.C., ed. J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. New York: Routledge, 2007. 194 SOURCES

———. “Tolkien’s Prose Style and Its Literary and Rhetorical Effects.” Tolkien Studies 1:1 (2004): 137–63. Eliot, T. S. “Little Gidding,” The Four Quartets. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1943 ll. 214, 239–42. Elliott, Charles. “Can America Kick the Hobbit? The Tolkien Caper.” Life 62 (February 24, 1967): 10. Epstein, E. L. “The Novels of J. R. R. Tolkien and the Ethnology of Medieval Christendom.” Philological Quarterly 48 (1969): 517–25. Evans, W. D. Emrys. “The Lord of the Rings.” The School Librarian 16 (December 1968): 284–88. Fisher, Margery. Intent upon Reading. Leicester: Brockhampton Press, 1961. Flieger, Verlyn. A Question of Time: J. R. R. Tolkien’s Road to Faerie. Kent: The Kent State University Press, 1997. ———. Splintered Light: Logos and Language in Tolkien’s World. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983. Flieger, Verlyn, and Carl F. Hostetter. Tolkien’s Legendarium: Essays on the History of Middle-Earth. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000. Fuller, Edmund. “The Lord of the Hobbits: J. R. R. Tolkien.” Books with Men behind Them. New York: Random House, 1962. 169–96. Revised for Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 17–39. Griffin, Nancy. “The Fellowship of Hobbitomanes.” San Francisco Examiner and Chronicle, December 18, 1966, “This World” section 44, 51. Garbowski, Christopher. “Comedy.” J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D. C. Drout. New York: Routledge, 2007. 108. ———. “Middle-Earth,” J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, ed. Michael D.C. Drout. New York: Routledge, 2007. 422–28. Gasque, Thomas J. “Tolkien: The Monsters and the Critters.” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 153–63. Gee, Henry. The Science of Middle-Earth. New York: Old Spring Press, 2004. Goldstein, Lisa. “The Mythmaker.” Meditations on Middle-Earth, ed. Karen Haber. New York: St. Martins, 2001. 185–97. Green, Roger Lancelyn. Tellers of Tales. London: Edmund Ward Publishers Ltd., 1965. The Guardian January 20, 1997. Gymnich, Marion. “Reconsidering the Linguistics of Middle-Earth.” Reconsidering Tolkien, ed. Thomas Honegger. Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2005. 7–30. Haber, Karen, ed. Meditations on Middle-Earth. New York: St. Martins, 2001. Harshaw, Ruth. “When Carnival of Books Went to Europe.” American Library Association Bulletin 51 (February 1957): 117–23. Helms, Randall. Tolkien’s World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1974. Henry, Judy. Letter to the Editor. New York Times Book Review (November 28, 1965): 79. SOURCES 195

Hentoff, Nat. “Critics’ Choices for Christmas.” Commonweal 83 (December 3, 1965): 284. “Heroic Endeavour.” [London] Times Literary Supplement August 29, 1954, 541. Hillegas, Mark R. Shadows of Imagination. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969. Hodgart, Matthew. “Kicking the Hobbit.” New York Review of Books 8 (May 4, 1967): 10–11. Honnegar, Thomas. Reconsidering Tolkien. Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2005. Honnegar, Thomas, and Frank Weinreich. Tolkien and Modernity. Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2006. Hughes, Daniel. “Pieties and Giant Forms in The Lord of the Rings.” Shadows of Imagination, ed. Mark R. Hillegas. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1969. 81–96. Hughes, Richard. “The Lord of the Rings.” Spectator (October 1, 1954): 408–09. Huxley, Francis. “The Endless Worm.” New Statesman 50 (November 5, 1955): 587–88. Irwin, W. R. “There and Back Again: The Romances of Williams, Lewis, and Tolkien.” Sewanee Review 69 (October–December 1961): 566–78. Isaacs, Neil D. “On the Possibilities of Writing Tolkien Criticism.” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 1–11. Isaacs, Neil D., and Rose A. Zimbardo, eds. Tolkien and the Critics. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. Isaacs, Neil D., and Rose A. Zimbardo, eds. Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1981. Isaacs, Neil D., and Rose A. Zimbardo, eds. Understanding the Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2004. Jeffrey, David L. “Name in The Lord of the Rings.” Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives, ed. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. 106–16. Johnston, George Burke. “The Poetry of J. R. R. Tolkien.” The Tolkien Papers, Mankato Studies in English 2. Mankato: Mankato State College, 1967. 63–75. Jones, Leslie Ellen. Myth and Middle-Earth. Cold Spring Harbor: Cold Springs Press, 2002. Jung, C. G. Four Archetypes. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985. Keenan, Hugh T. “The Appeal of The Lord of the Rings: A Struggle for Life.” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 62–80. Kelly, Mary Quella. “The Poetry of Fantasy: Verse in The Lord of the Rings.” Tolkien and the Critics, eds. Neil D. Isaacs and Rose A. Zimbardo. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1968. 170–200. 196 SOURCES

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absurdity, 147–50 Aragorn, accretion, 151 characteristics of, 11, 71, 124, 159 action, 107–8, 136, 139–40 healing, 78, 112–13 activating cliché, see cliché love, 110–11 actualizing, 72, 88, 90, 155 progression of, 101, 120 Aeneid, 2 see also Strider Aesop’s Fables, 168 archaism, 93, 117 Aiglos, 117 Ariosto, 2 alchemy, 128, 148 Arkenstone, 76, 98, 121, 139 see also magic Arnason, H.H., 28, 181 Alice in Wonderland, 58, 147 Arnold, 2 alive, 41–45, 49, 54, 59, 68 Arthur, 117 allusion, 82, 84, 115–19, 123, artistry, 42, 47, 50 137, 171 Arwen, 11, 109–11 ambiguity, Asimov, Isaac, 83, 186 creations/characters, 9–11, 17, association, 77–78, 136, 153 33, 53, 63–64 Auden, W.H., 3, 16–18, 42, 102, writing style, 4–5, 32, 34, 37–38, 175, 177, 180, 183, 187 49, 86, 90, 145–46 Augustine, 2 ambivalence, 90, 98, 133 augury, 121 anatomy, 43–45 autumn, 59 Anderson, Douglas, 119, 188 awakenings, 57, 61, 70 Anderson, Poul, 117, 188 awareness, 41, 45, 48 Anduril, 117 And What Happened After, 113 Bag End, 26, 69, 81 Anglo-Saxon, 14, 32, 85, 117, Balin, 72, 97, 127 143, 153 balrogs, 13–14, 17, 131, 138 animation, 41, 43, 45–49, 54 Barber, Dorothy Elizabeth Klein, anticipation, 58, 61, 77–78, 81, 84, 38, 182 86–88 Barliman Butterbur, 27, 134 anticlimax, 120 barrow-wights, 13–14, 34, 66, 88 antiquity, 153–54, 156 Bassham, Gregory, 39, 183, 187 apocalypse, 86–87, 90, Batman, 4 139, 164 Beatie, Bruce A., 3, 8, 13, 17, 42, appearance, 18, 35, 49, 53, 127, 177–80, 183 136, 162 believability, 24–26, 41, 100, 118 202 INDEX

Beorn, 15, 22, 143 Cain, 20 Beornings, 14 Card, Orson Scott, 72, 83, 86, 107, Beowulf, 2, 4, 76, 109, 117 185–87 Beren and Tinuviel, 110 Carroll, Lewis, 123, 188 Bible, 34, 75, 117, 141, 168 Catcher in the Rye, 95 Bilbo, Catholic, 35 adventures of, 29, 45, 49–50, 53, Celeborn, 69 75, 95–100, 107 centrifugal force, 53, 171 connection to readers, 20, 22, 86, Cervantes, 2 112, 145 Chanson de Roland, 2 relationship with Frodo, 59, 68, character, 100, 104 degeneration, 98, 102, 104 see also burglar, riddles, development, 94, 100, 102–3, escape, luck, dreams, Ring 171–72 of Power foil, 95–96, 98–100, bildungsroman, 94–97, 99–103, 103–6 112, 130, 171 growth, 96–97, 99–102 binary alteration, 75, 77–78 maturation, 94–96, 101–2, Birnam Wood, 116 112, 169 birth, 57–59 roles, 97–99 birthdays, 58–59, 68, 79, 101, 152 stature, 25, 34, 100, 105 Birzer, Bradley, 35, 182 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 2 black and white, 108 chauvinism, 52 Black Breath, 11 chess, 82 Black Riders, 24, 28, 32, 37, childishness, 98, 101, 149 89, 120 children, 95, 101 see also ringwraiths choice, 76 Blake, William, 113 Christian, 3 Blissett, William, 29, 181 Christianity, 39, 168 Bombur, 121 Christlike, 112–13, 137 Boromir, 17, 102, 127, 159 chronological, 84–86, 90 death of, 89, 123 Chrysophylax, 23, 155 Ring of Power, 105–6 Cirith , 44 Bradley, Marion Zimmer, 2, 175 Cirith Ungol, 46, 58 breathless prose, 87–88 Clark, George, 180, 182, 198 see also syntactic urgency cliché, 151, 154–55, , 29, 34, 37, 129 158, 172 Breemen, 14 activating, 156–57 Bronson, Eric, 183, 187 classic, 1, 8 Browning, Robert, 2 coincidence, 76–78, 84 Bruckner, Patrick, 111, 187 Coleridge, 2, 23, 91 Buck Rogers, 2 color scheme, 60, 135 Bullroarer, 118 comic, 2, 20, 77–78, 114 burglar, 98–99, 118 commonplace, 7, 18–19, 27–28, 34, burlesque reduction, 155 51, 112, 120, 170 Burns, Robert, 163 see also mundane, ordinary INDEX 203 complexity, 3, 10, 16, 18–19, 34, dialect, 142–44, 154 41, 58, 123, 172 Dickens, Charles, 2, 129 moral, 54, 111 Disney, Walt, 2, 159 concentration, 16, 34 Divine Comedy, 2 concreteness, 159–62 do-it-yourself literature, 118, contradiction, 42 167–69, 173 controversy, 1–4 Don Juan, 109 Cook, Albert Stansburrough, down-to-earthiness, 11–12, 25, 27, 137, 189 32, 52, 112, 127 courage, 36, 74, 76, 80, 100 dragons, 25–26, 29, 82, 118, Cox, C.B., 2, 3, 28, 38, 42, 126–27, 132–33, 137, 176–77, 181–83 157–58, 164 Cracks of Doom, 12, 58, 100, 103, see also Smaug 106, 112, 126, 171 dream, 121–22, 171 crafting, 10 Drout, Michael D.C., 41, 137, creative vacuum, 166, 169 183–85, 187–89 credibility, 10, 14, 16, 18, 23, 30 Durin, 22, 66 see also believability, plausibility Dwalin, 96–97 Crist, Judith, 4, 8, 177–78 dwarves, 17, 21–23, 136, critical isms, 94 142–43 critics disagree, 1–4, 9, 35, dying, 57, 64, 89, 127 54, 159 dynamic, 42, 46, 50–51, 57, 65, 71, cumulative imagery, 84 107, 152, 158 Curry, Patrick, 52, 78, 184–85 eagle, 150 darkness, Earendil, 137 cliché, 155 echoes, 69, 79, 83, 85, 99, 115 in the east, 53 ecology, 42–43, 51–53 evil, 55, 57, 60–62 Eden, 62, 95 metaphor, 64, 67, 80–81 Elanor Gamgee, 59 see also shadow elegy, 140–41 dawn, 57, 61–62, 136, 149 Elijah, 34, 65 Dead Marshes, 89 Eliot, T.S., 2, 50, 114, 169, 187 dead metaphor, 54–55 Elisha, 99 Deagol, 20 Elliott, Charles, 2, 176 death, 57–59, 64–69, 88–90, Elrond, 11, 22, 106, 111, 145 127, 171 elves, Defoe, Daniel, 2, 10 description of, 13, 91, 123, déjà vu, 65, 80, 113 133–34, 136–37 Denethor, 15, 89, 102, 106 knowledge of, 27, 89, 128 Dernhelm, 56 language of, 131, 142 Descartes, 122 traits, 21–22, 63 detail, 9–10, 14, 34, 48, 93–94, 99, emblem, 134–38, 171 159, 161, 172 emotional oscillation, 78 development, see character, organic, Emyn Muil, 79 reader development engaging, 93–94 204 INDEX enlivening, Middle-earth, 8–9, 13–14, Middle-earth, 43, 46, 62, 64, 70, 27–30, 40–41, 48, 152 88, 90–91, 171 narrative, 11 narrative, 49, 51, 54, 57, 63 through cliché, 157 entombment, 58, 66, 87 see also commonplace, style entrapment, 87 Fangorn Forest, 11–12, 26, 33, 78, ents, 109, 138 creation of, 14, 17, 23, 39, see also Treebeard 152, 171 fantasy, 5, 7–8, 25, 119, 135, description of, 11, 21, 30, 48, 167, 172 108, 126 see also genre language of, 23, 124, 132, Faramir, 33, 102, 105–6, 110, 142–44, 146 133–34 entwives, 48, 110, 126, 140–41 Farmer Giles, 18–19, 33, 126, 156 Éomer, 65, 68, 102, 138 Farmer Giles of Ham, 18, 33, 94, Éowyn, 65, 102, 105, 110, 134 113, 120, 145 epic, 1–2, 59, 73, 85, 117–18, 120 Farmer Maggot, 32 epiphany, 64, 133, 172 fatalism, 76, 102, 123, 158, 171 epistemology, 149 Father Murray, 35 Epstein, E.L., 8, 9, 178 Faulkner, William, 2 escape, 54, 57–59, 64–66, 70, 79, fauna, 9, 11, 14, 58, 152 123, 134, 167 Faust, 2, 102 eternal, 57, 68–69, 85 finality, 86, 89–90 etymology, 115, 130–31, 142, 152 Fisher, Margery, 8, 17, 25, 38, 42, Evans, W.D. Emrys, 2, 14, 23, 176, 54, 178, 180–84 179, 181 flashback, 118 Evenstar, 89 flexibility, 90, 140, 142, 144 evil, 159, 164 Flieger, Verlyn, 64, 121, 122, 178, fight against, 16, 55–56, 71, 184, 188 102, 105 flora, 9, 11, 14, 48, 50 of Mordor creations, 28, 127, Folcwine, 68 131, 137–38 formulaic, 93, 143 reality of, 24, 35–36, 52–53 fortune, 34, 76 expansiveness, 77, 84, 90–91, 143 Frankenstein, 41 exploration, 72 Freud, Sigmund, 15 extraordinary, 11, 25, 28–29 Frodo, 11, 28, 65, 99–100, 122 eyes, 24, 33, 40, 81–83, 138, 149 connection with readers, 20, 36 journey to Mordor, 32–33, 38, faërie, 18, 24–25, 32, 39, 44–46, 54, 69, 73–74, 87, 134–35, 161 103, 133 faith, 25, 27, 37, 39, 168, 172 language of, 144 false dilemma, 108 relationship with Sam, 71, 100, familiarity, 111, 119–20 characters, 22–23 see also Bilbo, birthdays, in diction, 153 Christlike, love, in fiction, 170 Ring of Power INDEX 205

Frost, Robert, 167 Grond, 117 Fuller, Edmund, 2, 3, 8, 14, Guardian, 1 16, 25, 67, 159, 175–81, Guthwine, 117 185, 190 Gymnich, Marion, 124, 146, 188–89 Gaffer Gamgee, 31, 120 Galadriel, 11, 17, 35, 109–10, 127 Haber, Karen, 185–86, 188 mirror of, 103, 122, 173 Halfelven, 14 Gandalf, 17, 35, 65, 98, 145 Haradrim, 14 magic of, 31, 37, 61, 101, 114 Harry Potter, 95 Garbowski, Christopher, 41, 56, Harshaw, Ruth, 33, 182 78, 183–85 Helm’s Deep, 63 Garm, 23 Hemingway, Ernest, 34 Gasque, Thomas J., 14, 20, 21, 29, Henry, Judy, 4, 177 39, 179–81, 183 Hentoff, Nat, 2, 176 Gee, Henry, 48, 75, 105, Hercules, 118 184–85, 187 Hey Diddle Diddle, 116 generalization, 55–57, 93, Hillegas, Mark R. 2, 175–78 159–61, 171 history, Genesis, 2, 117 of characters, 79, 84, 108 genre, 1 Farmer Giles of Ham, 146–47 geographical bias, 52 Middle–earth, 13, 32, 72–73, giant, 120, 126 86, 154 Gilgamesh, 2 Tree of Tales, 94 Gimli, 17, 46, 87, 110, 128, 159 Hitchcock, Alfred, 145 Glorifindel, 81 The Hobbit, Goblin King, 17 luck, 76 goblins, 23, 56, 61, 114, 131, 136, narrative of, 7, 25, 39, 149, 151 95–96, 99 language of, 133, 143–44 as preface to The Lord of , 37, 60, 62–63, 109–10, the Rings, 21, 72 126, 143 seasons, 59–60 Goldstein, Lisa, 85, 86, 186 style, 114, 125, 140, 146 golf, 118 hobbits, Gollum, 20–21, 23, 58, 102, 136–37 creation of, 19, 130, 152 language of, 128, 131, 144 domesticity of, 52–53, 58, 75, similarities with Frodo and Bilbo, 81, 84, 111 98, 103–4 familiarity of, 13–14, 17, 25 Gondor, 37, 60, 68, 78, 155 language of, 144–45 Gospels, 8 magic of, 27, 31, 37–38 Graham, Billy, 35 perspective of, 13, 21, 31, 45, 47, Great Expectations, 95 78, 129 Green Dragon Inn, 26 see also birthdays, childlike, Green, Roger Lancelyn, 42, 69, dreams, down-to-earthiness, 183, 185 Shire, water Grey Havens, 31, 59 Homer, 116–17, 136 206 INDEX homosexuality, 111 invisibility, 28, 32, 37, 56, 173 Honnegar, Thomas, 187–88 invitational, Houses of Healing, 78 imagination, 10, 161, 173 Huckleberry Finn, 95 prose, 7–8, 34, 43, 159, 166, 169 Hughes, Daniel, 2, 19, 24, 42, reader, 115, 118, 129, 147–48, 175–76, 180–81, 183 169, 173 Hughes, Richard, 2, 3, 16, 42, 54, subcreation, 28, 93–94, 150, 172 175, 177, 180, 183–84 irony, 4, 52, 90, 115, 119–21, Humpty Dumpty, 116, 123 123, 171 Huxley, Francis, 2, 4, 19, Irwin, W.R., 2, 175–76 176–77, 180 Isaacs, Neil D., 2, 175–76, 178–80, 183, 188 identity crisis, 96–98 , 63, 134–35 imagery, 132, 137, 165, 169, 171 Isuldur, 145 of Middle-earth, 138–39 Ithilien, 59–60, 62, 119 see also metaphor imagination, Jackson, Peter, 9 of characters, 28, 107 James Bond, 2 Middle-earth, 27, 42, 107, 166 James, Henry, 2, 8 of reader, 27, 11–12, 94, 148–49, Jason, 118 161, 168–73 Jeffrey, David L., 128, 188 of Tolkien, 3, 7, 9–10, 94 Johnston, George Burke, 2, 175 see also invitational Jones, Leslie Ellen, 36, 182 implicit, 7, 16, 22, 62, 64, 95, 103, Joyce, James, 2, 94, 169 108, 112–13 Jung, Carl, 95, 121, 186 implicit possibility, 95, 103–4, 113, 168, 170–72 Kafka, Franz, 2 incremental technique, 80 kaleidoscopic, 3 individuation, 48, 104–5, 108 Keats, John, 2, 146 inevitability, 76–80, 82, 84, Keenan, Hugh T., 42, 57, 59, 64, 89–90, 171 183–84 inflections, 152–53 Kelly, Mary Quella, 9, 178 initiation ritual, 96–97 Kierkegaard, Søren, 116 see also language Kilby, Clyde S., 2–3, 8, 10, 14, 31, innovative, 4 42, 176, 178–79, 181, 183 inorganic, 42, 45, 49, 54 kinetic, 46–47, 133 insight, 7, 15 King Lear, 84, 116, 147 see also perspective Kirk, E., 145, 146, 189 integrity, 14, 50, 77, 102, Kocher, Paul, 3–4, 23, 161, 140–42, 171 178–79, 181, 190 interjections, 149, 155 Kreeft, Peter, 115, 117, 121, 129, internal consistency, 13 187–89 internalized, 3, 30, 38 introspection, 7, 118 language, 121, 123–24, 128–30, inverting perspective, 163 142–46, 158, 166, 170–71 investigator, 98–99 agricultural, 30, 48 INDEX 207

archaic, 85 Marlowe, 2 style, 54, 75 maturation, see character, Lawrence, D.H., 2, 169 maturation Lazarus, 66 McMahon, Jennifer, 42, 44, 50–51, Leaf by Niggle, 74, 86, 91 57, 183–84 Legolas, 28, 134, 159 McWilliams, Wilson C., 27, 181 LeGuin, Ursula, 71, 75, 122, 140, meaning, 147–52, 154, 156, 185, 188–89 164–65, 168, 171–73 Levitin, Alexis, 8, 178 meditation, 151 Lewis, C.S., 2, 9, 16, 17, 175, melodramatic, 41, 159 178, 180 Melville, 2 lifelike, 43–46, 48, 55 Merry, 15, 30, 62–63, 66, 78, 101, light-minded lore, 118 132, 145 liminal, 17, 34, 122, 162 message, 168 linguistic styles, 78 metaphor, 5, 7, 57, 134, 165, 169 literalization, 155–56 dead, 54–55 literary wisdom, 167–68 of characters, 62–63, 91, litotes, 166 101, 144 little, 36 of Middle-earth, 30, 33, 38, 46, Lobdell, Jared C., 42, 122, 130, 49, 139, 170 137, 183, 188–89 mobile, 88, 138 loci of implication, 150 see also poetry, pun , 49, 139 metonymy, 165 Lord of the Nazgul, 17, 57 Michelangelo, 94 The Lord of the Rings, 1–2, 34, middle class, 19, 25 57–58, 71–72, 78–79, 88–90, Middle-earth, 32, 35, 51–52, 113, 167 107–9 language in, 140, 142, 146 creation of, 7–12, 29, 38–39, as literary classic, 7–8, 169, 173 42–48, 72 opinions about, 4, 16, 93–94 creatures of, 17–18, 21–25, reader development, 112 112–13, 147, 161 wildlife, 42–43, 59, 61, 63 tales of, 119, 121–22 Lórien, 77, 79 Milbank, Alison, 109, 187 Lothlórien, 60, 72, 89, 128 Miller, David M., 2–3, 14, 111, love, 35–36, 39, 109–11 159, 176, 179, 187, 190 luck, 16, 34, 76, 79–80, Milton, 117 85, 97 mimetic diction, 125–26 Lyrical Ballads, 23 Minas Tirith, 105–6, 123 , 31, 45, 49–50, 53, 55, magic, 81, 129 faith, 39 mirror, 170 of language, 23, 40–43, 124, mirroring, 98, 103, 163 130, 146–49 Misty Mountains, 58, 61, 81 ordinary, 5, 7, 27–28, 30–32, Mitchison, Naomi, 2, 11, 16, 42, 39, 170 175, 179–80, 183 Malory, 2, 117 Mithrandir, 101 208 INDEX mock epic, 118–19 Norse, 32, 103 Modern Painters, 51 Norwood, William D., 2, 176 Monsman, Gerald, 2, 8, 43, 64, nostalgic, 153 175–76, 178, 183–84 nothingness, 160–61, 163–65 Moore, Harry T., 2–3, 16, 176–77 numinous, 7, 34, 36 Moorman, Charles, 2, 9, 176, 178 moral, 20–21, 35–36, 53–54, 56, Odyssey, 2, 118 123, 128, 168 ogre, 23 moral directionality, 52–54, 56 , 29–30, 45, 87, 134 morality of geography, 51–54, 61 old grey mare, 18 Mordor, 44, 63, 78, 87, 102, 116, , 62, 66, 86–87, 164–65 108–9, 130 Moria, 54, 58, 72, 79, 81, 87, 159 Oliver Twist, 169 motivation, 15–16, 121 omen, 123 motives, 16–17, 35 One Ring, Mt. Doom, 12, 71, 113 see Ring of Power, rings mundane, 19, 23, 27–28, 31, 39, “On Fairy-Stories,” 41 68, 148, 170 onomatopoeia, 129–33, 139 myopic, 25–26, 52 onwardness, 73–74, 86, 90, 100, mythology, 10, 31 112, 158, 169 open-ended, 8, 28, 56, 76, 86 naïve hero, 99 Orcrist, 47, 117 see also unlikely hero orcs, 14, 22, 55, 157 names, 22–23, 25, 93, 97, 108, 117, attack of, 65, 81 128–31, 152 description of, 16, 23, 126, 146 naming as creation, 121, 127–31 imagery, 134, 136 narrative, language of, 130, 143 of Middle-earth, 42–44, 48, ordinary, 14, 19–20, 25, 27–28, 170 59–60, 108 organic, Tolkien’s style, 2, 4–5, 8, creation, 91 14–16, 29–32, 71–72, 76–79 development, 44, 48–49, 62, narrator, 10, 118 102–3, 171 Narsil, 117 imagery, 59, 61, 171 natural, 7, 33, 72–73 language, 145, 152 Middle-earth, 25, 44, 48, Lord of the Rings, 113, 124 83, 171 Middle-earth, 42, 63, 149, 168 Nazgul, 24, 26 origin, 54 see also Black Riders Oromë, 10, 67 Necromancer, 114 Osaki, B. Steve, 41–42, 44, 50–51, neologisms, 151–54, 172 57, 183–84 New Criticism, 128 Osgiliath, 63 New York Times Book Review, 3 Niggle, 76, 103 palantír, 31, 64, 103 Noel, Ruth S., 124, 131, palpable prose, 127, 132 188–89 parable, 2, 35, 64, 78, 91, 105, nonsense, 147–51, 166, 172 168, 171 INDEX 209

Paradise Lost, 2 prose, 3, 7–8, 17, 37–39, 41, 54, paradox, 56, 64, 66, 70, 139 in Middle-earth, 8–10, 13, 33, imagery in, 64 38, 42, 54, 75, 151, 162 magic of, 39, 41 narrative, 90 semantic capacity, 115 Tolkien’s fiction, 3–4, 83, 86, Tolkien’s style of, 37–38, 54–57, 163, 171 114, 124, 139 parallelism, 79–82, 84, 113, velocity of, 88 141, 154 see also breathless prose, Parker, Douglass, 2–4, 9, 13, 14, invitational 17, 19, 26, 44, 176–81, 183 Prose Edda, 2 pathetic fallacy, 49–52, 54–55 Protestant, 35 Pearce, Joseph, 1, 36, 175, 182 Proust, 2 Pelennor Fields, 75 psychology, 14–15, 21, 28, 54, perception, 7, 24, 133–34, 77, 168 152, 171 pun, 24, 37–38, 115, 124–27, 147, perseverance, 73 150, 169, 171 see also tenacity persistence, 74 quest, 109–10, 112, 171 persona, 25, 145 Bilbo, 53, 99 personifying, 12, 18, 24–25, 30, end of, 69, 89 47–48, 50, 57 Frodo, 58–59 perspective, 10, 24, 145, 157–58, imagery, 74 166, 172 rhetorical, 57, 149 Peter Rabbit, 2, 19 theme, 103 Phillips, Julie, 108–9, 187 see also Bilbo, Frodo philology, 115, 146–47, 154 Quickbeam, 139 Piers Plowman, 117 Pippin, 11, 61–62, 64–67, 87, 90, Raffel, Burton, 2–4, 18, 54, 100–1, 103, 120 55–56, 160, 175–77, 180, plausibility, 14, 32, 34, 42, 47, 49, 184, 190 77, 118 reader development, 112 poetry, 140–44 reader participation, 7, 24, polls, 1, 7 171–72 popularity, 3, 7 allusions/hints, 112, 115–16 possible, 9, 47 intimate, 29, 86, 94 postmodernist, 119, 168 senses, 159–61 potential, 19, 30, 32, 34 sleight of hand, 148, 158 Pound, 2 subcreation, 28, 168 prefiguring, 78–81 reader response, 8, 30, 33, 41, 72, Pre-Raphaelite, 4 83, 94, 112, 161, 169 private eye, 99 Ready, William, 2, 3–4, 10, 11, 14, progression, 48, 64, 77, 107, 114, 19–20, 22, 38, 42, 145, 120, 154, 171 176–83, 189 prophecy, 120–23, 171 realism, 7, 10, 13, 24, 27–8, 41, see also augury 111, 138, 158–59 210 INDEX reality, ring resistance, 97–98, 105–7 believability, 42–44 rings, 83–84, 105 cross-referencing, 11, 13, 27, ringwraiths, 14, 23–24, 51, 53, 89, 40, 94 105, 164 deeper, 5, 28, 38, 169–70 ritual, 80–81, 89, 97 dreams, 121–22 Rivendell, 37, 77, 81, 84 fundamental, 15 roads, 29, 31, 46, 56, 74, 76, 156 imagery, 33, 135, 137–39 , 63, 130 magic, 30–33 Riders of, 14 personal, 167, 171–73 Roosevelt, Teddy, 166 psychological, 50 rope, 79, 123 unseen/subtle, 12, 25, 35, 39 Rorshach inkblot, 169 verbal, 127–29, 134, Rosebury, Brian, 9, 13, 14, 16, 52, 145–46, 152 78, 86, 121, 122, 129, realizing abstraction, 56–57 144–45, 157, 178–80, 184–86, reciprocal creation, 52 188–90 recurrence, 73, 81–84, 86, 164 Rose Cotton, 59, 70, 110 , 90 Ruskin, John, 50–51 redundancy, 151 refrain, 81 Sale, Roger, 2, 25, 39, 41, 54, 59, Reilly, Robert J., 2, 175–76 176, 181, 183–84 reincarnation, 65–67, 70 Sam, religion, 10, 35–36, 168 characteristics of, 17, 20, 36, 38 resurrection, 55, 58–59, 61–70, family, 59, 69–70, 109–13 78, 113 journey to Mordor, 44–45, return, 59, 65, 69–70, 79 73–74, 79, 84, 87, 103, 164 reversibility, 102 language of, 126, 131–32, 140, rhetoric, 43, 75, 122, 148, 158, 144, 148 166, 170, 172 relationship with Gollum, 15, 21 allusion, 116 see also awakenings, Frodo, Ring character change, 98, 102 of Power imagery, 64 Sammath Naur, 58 subcreation, 94 Sander, David, 38, 182 rhetorical negation, 157, 164–66 Saruman, rhythms, 57, 59–62, 71, 77–78, characteristics of, 17, 100, 137 82, 84, 140, 171 death of, 89 riddles, 15–16, 76, 80–81, 99, 101, fall of, 102, 106 147–49 language of, 143 Riessar, Max, 51, 184 Sauron, 17, 83, 105, 131, 143 Ring of Power, Schroth, R.A., 3, 177 Bilbo, 97, 106, 114 scientific, 48, 51 destruction of, 12 sea, 63, 67, 69, 85, 103 evil of, 35, 109, 163, 165 search for self, 97, 99, 102–3, Frodo, 100 106, 112 Gollum, 21, 108 Secondary Belief, 9 Sam, 65, 104–5, 107 secondary literature, 3 INDEX 211 secondary world, 7, 9, 25, 33, Socialist, 71 38, 170 sorcerer’s stone, 148 semantic capacity, 138, 146, 154 soul stretching, 169, 171 sense, 147–48, 150–51, 159–60 Spacks, Patricia Meyer, 2–3, 4, sentience, 41, 45–46, 49–50, 57 9–10, 42, 176–78, 183 serpent, 136–38 specificity, 160–61, 172 sex, 71, 101, 109–111 Spenglerian, 2 Shadowfax, 31, 66, 137 Spenser, 2 shadows, 51, 53, 57, 65, 67, 84, Spillane, Mickey, 99 137, 161–62 spring, 57, 59–63, 67–70, 80, 105, see also darkness 112, 135, 165, 171 Shakespeare, William, 2, 116, 158 Stanton, Michael N., 42, 44, 47, Shelley, Mary, 2 52, 61, 183–84 Shelob, 17, 22, 58, 87, 90, 111, 135 stars, 136–37 Sherlock Holmes, 99 stereotype, 17–18, 104 Shippey, Tom, 3–4, 7–8, 12, 16, Stevens, C., 11, 179 23–25, 27–28, 34, 41–42, 115, Stimpson, Catherine R., 2, 4, 9, 17, 116, 146, 177–83, 187–89 20, 32, 42, 52, 54, 57, 111, Shire, 130, 145, 175–78, 180, critics disagree, 9 182–84, 187, 189 features of, 26, 29, 52, 95 Sting, 117, 126 journey from, 87, 95, 121 Stormcrow, 101 language of, 144 Straight, Michael, 3, 177 return to, 69–70, 100–101 Strider, 17, 81, 101, 128–30 see also hobbits, quest see also Aragorn Siewers, Alfred K., 52–53, 184 Strong, L.A.C., 3, 177 significance, 149–51, 165, 170 style, The Silent Watchers, 31 artistic, 5 , 21, 39, 117 levels of, 36–37 simplicity, 21, 33, 71, 90, 95, meaning, 33–34 108, 157 Middle-earth, 49, 123, 144–45, Sklar, Robert, 2, 10, 32, 42, 175, 155–56 177, 182–83 prose, 8, 17–18, 41–43, Smaug, 53, 58, 61, 80–82, 96, 54–55, 75, 86, 114, 158–59 126, 147 subcreation, 35, 41, 49, 94, 111, 146 see also dragons, darkness see also invitational, reader Sméagol, 21, 104, 128, 145, 155 participation see also Gollum subtlety, 5, 15, 28, 35–36, 55, 81, Smith, Eddy Mark, 73, 99, 107, 138, 158 112, 185, 187 suggestivity, 94, 111, 170–71 Smith, Janet Adam, 72, 108, 128, summer, 57, 59, 112 154, 185, 187–88, 190 sun, 44, 53, 60–68, 164 Smith of Wootton Major, 119 superficiality, 3 Smol, Anna, 109, 187 supernatural, 8, 12, 23, 25, 31–34, Snowmane, 67 38, 112 Snowmen, 14 see also numinous 212 INDEX surprise, 76, 90 trolls, 61, 80–81, 99, 117, 136, 149 Sword of Elendil, 128 language of, 143 symbol, 172 Turner, Allan, 107, 109, 113, 142, synesthesia, 133 144, 185–86, 189 syntactic urgency, 87–88 see also breathless prose ubi sunt, 85 syntax, 115, 139–40, 143, 154 unassuming, 15, 28, 30 understatement, 119–20, 166, 169, tale, 32, 38–40, 57, 72–75, 81, 172–73 94–5, 107–8 unlikely hero, 95, 100 The Tale of Years, 32 unobtrusiveness, 16 tangible, 44, 47, 56, 67 unpredictability, 90 Ted, 26 Urang, Gunnar, 3, 8, 25, 42, 65, The Tempest, 155 177–78, 181, 183, 185 see also Shakespeare Uttermost West, 31 tenacity, 73–74, 90, 112, 124, 158 see also perseverance Vaccaro, Christopher, 105, 187 Tennyson, 2 Valar, battle of the, 10 Théoden, 10, 15, 65, 76, 89, 138 vanish, 37, 64, 156 theology, 34–36 variation, 14 “there and back again,” 69, 90, 95, verbal magic, 124, 130 103, 113 Verdi, 2 Third Age, 11–12, 14, 57, 73, 89, verisimilitude, 10 124, 135 verse, 75, 140, 150 Thomas, Paul Edmund, 10, 178 see also poetry, prose Thomson, George H., 2, 176 visionary, 71, 83, 85, 91 Thorin Oakenshield, 22, 34, 98, vitality, 41–42, 51, 54–55, 57, 63, 131–32, 160 84, 154, 158, 170, 172 Through the Looking-Glass, 123 of Middle-earth, 7, 41–43, 49, time, 16, 56, 73, 85–89, 164 57, 169–70 To Kill a Mockingbird, 95 of Tolkien’s prose, 54–55, 57, 75, Tolkien, J.R.R., 1–5, 7, 32–35, 39, 84, 154, 158 72, 115, 145–46 of wildlife, 30, 47, 63, 91 Tom Bombadil, 11, 65–66, vulnerability, 17 110, 145 house of, 60–61, 77 Wagner, 2 language of, 130, 140, 143, 147 waking, 61, 65, 69, 121 ring resistance, 83, 105–6 Walbridge, Ean F., 3, 24, 42, 177, Tom Swift and his Magic 181, 183 Runabout, 2 War and Peace, 2 topography, 43–46, 52–54, 61, 129 wargs, 23, 56, 79 torment, 119 water, 61–64, 67–70, 144 Town Hole, 66, 130 weather, 11, 30, 63, 76–77, Treebeard, 17, 41, 69, 91, 107–8, 123, 135 140, 145–46 Weinreich, Frank, 187 see also Fangorn Forest Westron, 142–44 INDEX 213

Whitman, Walt, 2 words, 115, 119, 121–27, 129–31, Wilde, Oscar, 2 139, 146, 151–54, 169 Wilson, Edmund, 2, 3, 4, 16, 17, 24, in dialogue, 132 28, 159, 176–77, 180–81, 190 meanings of, 128, 172 winter, 59, 62, 68, 171 Wordsworth, William, 2, Witch-king, 127 23, 27 Withywindle, 15 Wormtongue, 102, 134, 138 wizards, 21, 29, 31, 52, 67, 136 Woses, 14, 81, 126, 133, 136 Wood, Michael, 2, 3, 4, 8, 25, 38, 107, 111, 175–78, 181–82, 187 Zimbardo, Rose A., 2, 175–76, Wood, Ralph, 35, 36, 182 178–80, 183, 188 Woolf, Virginia, 169 Zimmer, Mary E., 123, 124, 130, Wootton Major, 103, 135 188–89