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Abstract the EMERGENCE of CULTURAL POLICY in ZIMBABWE

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Abstract the EMERGENCE of CULTURAL POLICY in ZIMBABWE Abstract THE EMERGENCE OF CULTURAL POLICY IN ZIMBABWE 1984-1997 With Particular Reference to Case Studies of Cultural Action in Bulawayo by Sheila G. Cameron The thesis re-presents the lived experience of cultural animation and policy production in postcolonial Zimbabwe, seeking to place these observations and theories in the domain of Cultural Policy Studies. The nation was in transition from oracy to literacy and from colonial control to socialist independence. Cultural workers in Bulawayo were very productive after Independence without apparently being aware of any policies. How, then, did things get done? The initial premise was that people living in oral cultures were always able to discuss plans and implement decisions, and that endogenous and exogenous influences (theorised as memes) were incorporated experimentally in a cultural bricolage. Part One introduces the pre-policy context of cultural change in precolonial and postcolonial situations, theorises cultural change at a micro level in terms of memetics and explains the methodology of multiple case studies. Part Two looks for origins of cultural concepts in 19th century white- authored journals and 20th century revolutionary texts and presents a critical analysis of formal documents controlling cultural policy since Independence. The importance of plurilingualism, translation and literacy in interactions between social actors is examined. Part Three provides empirical evidence to refine the original proposition in a detailed synchronic study of local cultural praxis. Discourse analysis of conflict and consensus operating at grassroots level is followed by accounts of the increasing management capacity of some groups as they become professional performers in international arenas. Contrasting instances of individual and communal animation are found in the development of institutions. Part Four discusses the role of dynamic oral policies in cultural action both in a pre-policy situation and in the implementation of documented policy in a democratising polity. The thesis also has potential for its theoretical findings to be applied in different national contexts of development and beyond cultural policy to other spheres where an increasing volume of policy initiatives challenges the people charged with their implementation. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many friends and colleagues have helped to make this thesis. First among them are my academic supervisors, Professor Franco Bianchini, Professor Philip Davies and Dr. Stuart Price, who have maintained their interest and support over the years and encouraged me through difficult times. Their mastery of very different disciplines was vital as my case studies made different demands, and their own work was a continuing inspiration. Other members of the De Montfort University staff to whom I am indebted for occasionally giving advice and criticism, and whose keywords remain with me, were Clive Gray, Chris Maughm and Tony Graves. In the shadow of an English castle in postcolonial Wales I found strength (and torrents of words) in the friendship of Patience Hunter, Pat Parker and Simon Parker. Their argumentation and love of language are beyond compare: not only have they many dictionaries, they also enjoy grappling with Welsh Government policy documents. I am also grateful to Mrs Menna McDaid and Mrs Winnie Evans of Waunfawr for translating 19th century newspaper reports and making the sessions round the tape recorder such fun; and thanks also go to the librarians in Bangor University and Caernarfon for their diligence. Rwyf yn gwerthfawrogi eich cyllfeillgarwch a’ch cyfraniad i fy thesis. In Zimbabwe people I am proud to know still do the work they had begun when we were together: Stephen Chifunyise, Dr. Susan Haines, Cont Mhlanga, Sam Mkithika, Jane Morris and Professor Brian Jones; and we all mourn Elizabeth Ncube, Mackey Tickeys and Tokozani Masha. No longer in Zimbabwe but equally understanding of what is needed in Southern Africa are dear friends Nomadlozi Kubheka and Chris Hurst. This thesis has been so long coming you will all be astonished that it has reached completion, but it is yours as much as mine. Any errors, omissions or inaccuracies are, however, entirely my own responsibility. Sheila G. Cameron October 2008 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ……………………………….………………………………………..….. i Acknowledgements ………..………………………………………………..…….. ii List of Appendices ……………………………………………………..…..……… iv List of tables ……………………………………………………………...…......... v Glossary………………………………………………………………………..….. vi Acronyms………………………………………………………………………….. ix PART ONE THE RESEARCH DYNAMIC Chapter One Research dynamic and aims ………………………………… 1 Chapter Two Theoretical basis, method and materials ……………………... 24 Chapter Three Contexts: language, history, economy, politics, culture ……… 55 PART TWO DISCOURSES AND DOCUMENTATION Chapter Four 19th Century origins, Rhodesians, Revolutionary discourse …. 80 Chapter Five Documentary framework of Zimbabwean cultural action …… 112 PART THREE EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE Chapter Six Bulawayo Music Revival Show 1987 ……………………….. 146 Chapter Seven Discourses: ‘theatre’, conflict, intertextuality ………………... 170 Chapter Eight Group management ………………………………………….. 202 PART FOUR REVIEW OF FINDINGS Chapter Nine Policy processes……………………………………………... 239 Conclusions ……………………………………………....…. 251 APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………. 255 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………. 321 iii LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter Two 2-1 Print media ………………………………………..…… 255 2-2 Case study resources ……………………………...…… 256 2.3 Parameters of production processes…………………… 257 2-4 Chifunyise biography …………………………….……. 258 2-5 Ministry infrastructure ………………………………….. 259 2-6 S.J. Chifunyise corpus ………………………………… 260 Chapter Three 3-1 Broad periods of Zimbabwean history …………..…….. 261 3-2 White population changes………………………….…… 262 3-3 Cultural activities in Bulawayo before Independence…... 263 Chapter Four 4-1 Kapaes………………………………………………….. 264 4-2 Elizabeth ...……………………………………………... 265 4-3 Preaching……………………………………………… 266 4-4 Pungwe………………………………………………… 267 4-5A Tables of revolutionary keywords…………………...... 268 4-5B Lexical analysis in revolutionary texts………….....….... 269 Chapter Five 5-1 NACZ–ACGB comparison …………………………….. 271 5-2 Ministry expectations of NACZ ………………………... 281 5-3 Acts of Parliament …………………………………….... 282 Chapter Six 6-1 Primary sources BMRS archive………………………… 285 6-2 Commemorative booklet……………………………….. 286 6-3 Selected press items ……………………………………. 291 6-4 Yesteryear recording……………………………………. 293 6-5 Interview with Bosco on band management …………… 294 Chapter Seven 7-1 Letter MMD to Amakhosi July 1986…………………... 296 7-2 In defence of local theatre MMD letter to Chronicle … 297 7-3 Theatre is colonial MNN letter to Chronicle…………. 298 7-4 Stop pontificating: MNN letter to Sunday Mail ………. 299 7-5 Rhetorical devices – lexical pairs in A28…………….... 300 7-6 Lexis of insult and approval in A28…………………… 301 Chapter Eight 8-1 Contents: What happened in drama in Bulawayo in 1985? 302 8-2 Heroes Day programme (networking)………………….. 303 8-3 Club Constitutions (a) Amakhosi (b) Shashi…………... 304 8-4 Problems with group constitutions 1988 …………….… 307 8-5 Interview with David Khabo …………………………… 309 8-6 Questionnaires (a) M-S 1995 (b) Linkfest’97….……… 310 8-6 Responses to Linkfest’97 questionnaire (SADC)………. 314 REFERENCES …………………………………………… 321 iv TABLES, DIAGRAMS AND FIGURES Diagram 1-1 Identity ……………………………………………………….. 18 Diagram 1-2 Exogenous influences ………………………………………… 18 Diagram 1-3 Endogenous players …………………………………………. 18 Figure 2-1 King Lobengula oversees the spearing of the bulls ………….. 26 Table 2-1 Research archive …………………………………………….. 44 Figure 2-2 Yin’s replication approach …………………………………... 53 Figure 4-1 The king presenting an ox to the Lion killer …………………. 92 Table 4-1 Meaningful phrases around ‘culture’ ………………………… 102 Diagram 5-1 Barriers to implementation…………………………………… 118 Table 5-1 Modifications of sections in NACZ Act ……………………... 128 Table 5-2 ACGB as a source of memes ………………………………... 130 Table 5-3 Contents of Zimbabwe Cultural Policy …………………….... 143 Table 6-1 Steering committee for Music Revival show………………... 153 Table 7-1 Texts examined ……………………………………………… 172 Figure 7-1 National Theatre Organisation trophy ……………………….. 184 Figure 7-2 Cont Mhlanga ……………………………………………….. 184 Table 8-1 Frequency of key words in SJC texts…………………………. 211 Table 8-2 Training priorities of Bulawayo groups………………………. 218 Diagram 8-1 Networking in 1985…………………………………………... 238 Diagram 9-1 Relationships between policy processes………………………. 239 Table 9-1 Role of prior, concurrent and retrospective documentation ...…. 245 v GLOSSARY Acculturation The concept: when 2 cultures meet three operations may take place: (a) the dominant culture completely absorbs the weaker; (b) the latter may adopt and integrate elements of the former in its own structures; (c) or, more generally, a transculturation takes place, actualising a new mixed cultural order, that is, an 'éspace métisse'. Aesthetic(s) 1. Branch of philosophy concerned with such concepts as beauty, taste, etc. 2. The study of the rules and principles of art. From Gr. aisthetikos, perceptible by the senses. Aisthesthai to perceive (Collins Millennium) 3. Relating to pure beauty rather than other considerations; artistic or to do with taste. 4. A principle of taste or style adopted by a particular person, group or culture. Analphabet An illiterate person; one who does not know the alphabet. English translation implies that illiteracy ‘damages’ cognitive functions. Others allow
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