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Erythropoietin and Its Angiogenic Activity

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Erythropoietin and Its Angiogenic Activity International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review Erythropoietin and Its Angiogenic Activity Patrícia Kimáková 1,†, Peter Solár 1,*,† ID , Zuzana Solárová 2, Radovan Komel 3 and Nataša Debeljak 3 ID 1 Laboratory of Cell Biology, Institute of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, Pavol Jozef Šafárik University in Košice, Košice 04001, Slovak; [email protected] 2 Institute of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, P.J. Šafárik University in Košice, Košice 04001, Slovak; [email protected] 3 Medical Centre for Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana SI-1000, Slovenia; [email protected] (R.K.); [email protected] (N.D.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +421-55-234-1199, Fax: +421-55-622-2124 † These authors contributed equally to this work. Received: 26 May 2017; Accepted: 11 July 2017; Published: 13 July 2017 Abstract: Erythropoietin (EPO) is the main hematopoietic hormone acting on progenitor red blood cells via stimulation of cell growth, differentiation, and anti-apoptosis. However, its receptor (EPOR) is also expressed in various non-hematopoietic tissues, including endothelium. EPO is a pleiotropic growth factor that exhibits growth stimulation and cell/tissue protection on numerous cells and tissues. In this article we review the angiogenesis potential of EPO on endothelial cells in heart, brain, and leg ischemia, as well as its role in retinopathy protection and tumor promotion. Furthermore, the effect of EPO on bone marrow and adipose tissue is also discussed. Keywords: erythropoietin; erythropoietin receptor; endothelial; angiogenesis; cancer 1. Introduction Erythropoietin (EPO) is the main hematopoietic cytokine that regulates the formation of red blood cells in the process of hematopoiesis [1]. The main source of EPO after fetal development is the liver [2], while in adults the major source is the kidneys [3]. The effect of EPO is mediated by its interaction with the EPO receptor (EPOR), which is a member of the cytokine receptor family. EPOR is preferentially expressed in erythroid cells, but also in many non-hematopoietic cells, including vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and cancer cells [4]. Formation of the complex EPO/EPOR results in the activation of proteins involved in basic signal transduction [5] such as Janus kinase 2 (JAK-2) and signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) [6], and of other signal pathways that control proliferation, survival of cells, and gene expression [7]. In this regard, EPO robustly induces phosphorylation of STAT-5 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), but only very weakly in smooth muscle cells, indicating the difference between cells [8]. Interestingly, the signaling of EPO in ECs is mediated via phosphorylation of STAT-5 similar to that occurring in erythroid cells [9]. Indeed, EPO via EPOR enhances proliferation and migration of HUVECs and bovine adrenal capillary ECs, as was demonstrated by the presence of EPOR mRNA in HUVECs as well as by strong positive EPOR protein staining in vascular endothelium in vivo [10–13]. Moreover, EPO stabilizes vascular integrity, increases the number of ECs, protects these cells against ischemia and apoptosis [14–18], and stimulates angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo [9,11,19–22]. The presence of EPOR in ECs was also shown by Yamaji et al. [23], who suggested that besides full-length EPOR, brain capillary ECs also express soluble EPOR (sEPOR), and that EPO acts directly on brain capillary ECs as a competence factor. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 1519; doi:10.3390/ijms18071519 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 1519 2 of 14 In this article we review the effect of EPO on ECs in ischemic heart neovascularization and in retinal revascularization of injured vasculature, as well as its effect on neural progenitor cells, on tumor angiogenesis, and in other pathological conditions. 1.1. Endothelial Cells The EPO-induced proangiogenic phenotype of human ECs, EA.hy926, was demonstrated by Ribatti et al. [22]. EA.hy926 cells presenting EPOR directly interact with EPO, which is followed by phosphorylation of JAK-2 and STAT-5 [9], cell proliferation, production of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), and vascular differentiation. Indeed, the angiogenic response of ECs in chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane in vivo is quantitatively and qualitatively similar to that developed by the prototypic angiogenic fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) [22], while a previous observation declared that recombinant EPO (rhEPO)-induced blood vessel growth in vitro (rat aorta ring assay) is partially dependent on endothelin-1 (ET-1) [11]. However, in contrast to this finding, Ribatti et al. [22] and Hu et al. [24] proved that ET-1-produced ECs are unable to stimulate the growth of new blood vessels. The study of Ashley et al. [25] confirmed that rhEPO stimulates proliferation and/or vasculogenesis of microvascular endothelial cells (MVEC) from neonatal rat mesentery on the hormone-rich Matrigel substrate as well as on the extracellular matrix protein type I collagen. Their study was the first showing the effect of EPO on the endothelium of the neonatal gastrointestinal tract and supposing the role of EPO as an endogenous stimulant of the vessel growth in neonatal gastrointestinal development. In addition, in the presence of EPO, Matrigel tubules were qualitatively more complex, stable, and more frequently formed compared to Matrigel tubules in the presence of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and FGF-2 [25]. Furthermore, ECs from bovine aorta were stimulated by rhEPO in a concentration-dependent manner and revealed strong EPO-induced upregulation of kinase domain receptor (KDR, encoding VEGF receptor 2, VEGFR-2) and fms related tyrosine kinase 1 (flt-1, encoding VEGFR-1) gene expression. On the other hand, a remarkable inhibition of EPO proliferative effect by anti-VEGF antibody and the finding that the addition of VEGF to the medium in the absence of fetal calf sera is sufficient to induce proliferative activity of EPO, highlighted the crucial importance of VEGF in the effect of EPO on ECs. The relationship between EPO and VEGF can be particularly important in the normal process of neovascularization and in patients treated with rhEPO [26]. Besides a direct stimulatory effect of EPO on different ECs (human bone marrow endothelial cells, HUVECs, and human umbilical artery endothelial cells), EPO also induces EPOR expression at low oxygen pressure [27]. Furthermore, in response to EPO the expression of nitric oxide (NO) synthase [28] is also elevated and is followed by subsequent NO and cGMP production. Beleslin-Cokic et al. [27] provided evidence that hypoxia increases the capacity of ECs to produce NO. If we go deeper into the molecular mechanism, EPO induces Ca2+ influx in bovine aortic ECs via activation of phospholipase C-γ1 signaling pathway, which leads to the activation of transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1), followed by the activation of the serine/threonine kinase AKT and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and the phosphorylation of eNOS. A TRPV1–AKT–AMPK–eNOS complex then leads to an increase in NO bioavailability and ultimately to angiogenesis [29]. Similarly, EPO-sustained release of gelatin hydrogen microspheres improved blood perfusion of ischemia limb in mice via increasing capillary and arteriolar densities mediated by upregulation of EPOR and the activation of AKT–eNOS–MMP-2 signaling pathway [30]. Interestingly, in ECs the β common receptor (βCR) can also play an integrative role in EPO-mediated activation of eNOS. In this regard, AMPK mediated the EPO-induced increase in the phosphorylation of βCR and the production of a βCR–AMPK–eNOS complex, which is followed by increased NO production and angiogenesis [31] (Figure1). Int.Int. J. Mol. J. Mol. Sci. Sci.2017 2017, 18, ,18 1519, 1519 3 of3 of13 14 FigureFigure 1. EPO1. EPO and and the the signalization signalization of of ECs. ECs.EPO-induced EPO-induced signalization of of EC EC along along with with target target genes genes associatedassociated with with angiogenesis angiogenesis are are outlined. outlined. Docking Docking sites sites for for several several signaling signaling proteins proteins are are marked marked with P; onlywith positiveP; only interactionspositive interactions are presented are withpresented full black witharrows. full black EPOR arrows. WikiPathway EPOR WikiPathway (Available on: http://www.wikipathways.org(Available on: http://www.wikipathways.org)) was modified with was PathVisio modified tool with based PathVisio on the referencestool based mentioned on the in thereferences article. mentioned in the article. 1.2. Bone Marrow 1.2. Bone Marrow EPOR is expressed in ECs derived from bone marrow of patients with monoclonal gammopathy EPOR is expressed in ECs derived from bone marrow of patients with monoclonal gammopathy of of undetermined significance (MGUS) and patients with multiple myeloma (MM) (MGECs and undetermined significance (MGUS) and patients with multiple myeloma (MM) (MGECs and MMECs, MMECs, respectively). Moreover, EPOR is over-expressed also in bone marrow-derived macrophages respectively).(BMMAs) from Moreover, MM compared EPOR is over-expressedto MGUS patients. also In interestingly, bone marrow-derived the conditioned macrophages media of MGECs, (BMMAs) fromMMECs MM compared as well as to BMMAs MGUS patients.induce a Interestingly,strong angiogenic the conditioned response in media vivo in of the MGECs,
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