Assessment Report Profile of Returned Cambodian Migrant Workers

ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

IOM OIM

IOM OIM Report Information

Citation Dickson B, Koenig A, 2016. Assessment Report: Profile of Returned Cambodian Migrant Workers. International Organization for Migration (IOM) Cambodia.

Written by Andrea Koenig

Editors Brett Dickson, Emily Cholette, Tara Dermott, Lindsey Higgs, Anna Nicolaus

Funded and Supported by the Swiss Agency for Development & Cooperation (SDC) Cambodia, U.S. Department of State and the Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration (PRM) and United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

Published by International Organization for Migration (IOM), Phnom Penh #281, Tai Ming 4th Floor, Preah Norodom Blvd, Phnom Penh 12301, Cambodia P.O. Box 435 Tel: +855.23.216532 Fax: +855.23.216423 E-mail: [email protected]

Photos IOM 2014 // Joe Lowry CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 (Cover, P4 - 5), Joacquim Uy by CC2.0 (p15), IOM (P8, 18, 19, 26), Simon76 by CC0 (P9), Mattes (P19), Neajjean CC BY-SA 2.0 (P20), Brett Dickson (p22, 25)

The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the section and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration. ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Written by Koenig A Edited by Dickson B, Cholette E, Dermott T, Higgs L, Nicolaus A. ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Table of Contents

1.1 METHODOLOGY AND STUDY POPULATION 03 1.2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS 06 01 Preconditions 08 Migration experience 08 Executive Experience in Thailand 09 Post return 09 Summary 1.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 10 1.4 DATA LIMITATIONS 10

2.1 BACKGROUND OF RESPONDENTS 11 Home province in Cambodia 11 Age and vulnerability 12 02 Marital status 12 Description Level of education 12 Degree of education related to detainment 13 of Key Findings by Thai authorities; Receiving wages; Health concerns Formal application for a Cambodian passport 13 2.2 BEFORE MIGRATION 13 Income in Cambodia 13 Reason for leaving Cambodia 14 Recruitment 15 Migration facilitator and... 15 ... average cost of migration 15 ... average daily income 15 ... migrating with a passport 15

4 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

2.3 MIGRATION PROCESS AND EXPERIENCE 16 Legal documents for migration 16 02 Legal documents and… ...being detained by Thai authorities 17 Description ...receiving wages 17 of Key Findings ...seeing a doctor 17 Work sector in Thailand 18 Work Sector in Thailand and...... receiving wages 18 ...problems during migration 19 ...average daily income 19 Province of work in Thailand 20 Income in Thailand 20 Migration companions 22 Exploitation and means of control used 23 by employer Difficult conditions 24 Detention by Government authorities 24 Type of work and detention 24 2.4 POST RETURN SITUATION 25 Socioeconomic status 25 Health concerns 26 Assistance needed 27 Source of information about new passport 27 procedures and employment

3.1 MIGRATION AND GENDER EQUALITY 28 3.2 DETERMINANTS FOR SAFE MIGRATION 28 03 Legal documents 28 Work sector 28 Conclusion Recommendations 29

Photo: Irregular migrants returning to Cambodia at the Poi Pet border crossing. © IOM 2014 (Photo by Joe Lowry) 5 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Part 1 Executive Summary

In June 2014, an unprecedented number of Cambodian migrant workers returned home to Cambodia from Thailand, prompted by fear of arrest and uncertainty about the tumultuous political situation in Thailand. More than 250,000 Cambodian migrants, the majority of them undocumented and travelling with families and young children, returned across the border to Cambodia. In response, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in Cambodia conducted interviews with 667 of these returning migrant workers to better understand their needs and concerns before, during and after their migration.

Figure 1. Source provinces of Cambodian migrants returning from Thailand (n=189,192)

Chong Jom O'Smach 60 km

40 mi BANTEAY MEANCHEY ODDAR MEANCHEY 6% Poipet

Aranyaprathet SIEM REAP 17% PREAH VIHEAR RATANAKIRI Banteay 15% STUNG TRENG Meanchey Battambang 45% and Siem Reap

Ban Laem Duan Lem BATTAMBANG KAMPONG PAILIN 2% 13% THOM MONDULKIRI 7% KRATIÉ Ban Pakard

Pailin 3% PURSAT KAMPONG CHHNANG KAMPONG KAMPONG CHAM 2% KMOUM 3% 4% Had Lek Koh Kong KOH KONG KAMPONG PP 2% SPEU KANDAL PREY PP: PHNOM PENH 13% VENG 2% 2% SVAY TAKÉO RIENG KAMPOT 2% 6% 4% PREAH SIHANOUK

KEP

6 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

1.1 METHODOLOGY AND STUDY POPULATION

In order to develop a full understanding of the current situation of returned migrants from Thailand, this assessment used a quantitative questionnaire to capture several variables at each stage of the migration process. The questionnaire was divided into three stages:

1. The returnees’ conditions before they migrated abroad; 2. The returnees’ experience of migration while abroad; 3. The returnees’ post return conditions in the country of origin.

Table 1. Conceptual framework

STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 Situation before leaving the Experience of migration in the Return to the country of origin country of origin main country of destination - post return conditions Demographic and social Experience of migration; Return journey; characteristics; Reasons for having lived in Reasons and factors Reasons for leaving the the country of destination; motivating return; country of origin; Duration of the experience National Identification; Social and financial lived abroad; Social and financial conditions before leaving the Documentation conditions after return; country of origin; (Travel/Identification); Employment and financial Composition of the Social and financial status after return; household before leaving conditions in the country of Access to education (if any); destination; and skills training for new Education and skills before Education and skills employment opportunities; leaving; acquired abroad; Health concerns; Health status before Health status experienced Access to services and leaving. abroad; information in the country of Remittances; origin after return. Vulnerability (risks of human trafficking) factors.

The overall sample totaled 667 Cambodian migrants who had returned from Thailand, including 312 (46.6%) male and 355 (53.2%) female migrants. The respondents were 16 to 60 years of age. Interviews were conducted by IOM staff and local university students hired and trained by IOM. Interviews were carried out across 10 provinces1, 12 districts, 13 communes and 32 villages. Analysis was conducted to determine factors that contributed to migrants practicing safe migration. IBM SPSS Statistics Version 21 and Microsoft Office Excel were used to analyze the data.

1 Battambang, Siem Reap, Banteay Meanchey, Kampong Cham, Pursat, Prey Veng, Tbong Khmom, Kampong Thom, Takeo, and 7 Kampot ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

1.2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY with a licensed broker linked with a private OF KEY FINDINGS recruitment agency or through an irregular channel (unlicensed broker, friends or The aim of this report is to identify the differences between male and female migration processes, independently). The majority of those migrating experiences, and vulnerabilities. In this report, the regularly with a licensed broker had a passport, term "safe migration" refers to regular (legal) and whereas almost all those migrating irregularly informed migration. Below are the differences with an unlicensed broker did not. and similarities found between male and female • Migrating regularly with a licensed broker migrants: was associated with a slightly higher income in Thailand. PRECONDITIONS Migration companions: Female migrants Female migrants were twice as likely to have were more likely to be accompanied by their no education at all compared to male migrants. spouses or family members during migration. However, education levels did not have any effect Male migrants more often migrated alone or with on variables related to safe migration, such as friends. receiving wages, migrating irregularly, being detained by detention authorities and health concerns.

MIGRATION EXPERIENCE Income: Male migrants had significantly higher incomes than female migrants prior to departure in Cambodia, as well as in Thailand. Reason for migration: "No job", "Low income" and "Financial debt" were the three most popular reasons for male and female migrants Documents: Possession of legal documents to leave Cambodia. "A better income" for male (such as passports, border passes, visas, work respondents and "No income at all" for female permits, Cambodian ID cards) increased the respondents were the top reported reasons migrants’ likelihood of migrating safely and to leave Cambodia. This indicates that female regularly. Possession of these legal documents migrants face more barriers to finding a job in decreased one’s likelihood of being arrested Cambodia. The third most common reason to and deported, increased chances of receiving migrate for both genders was "Financial debt". wages and of being able to see a doctor for These top three motivators for migration suggest health concerns. The high cost of a passport was that socio-economic factors are driving migration; given as the main reason for not applying for a with most people migrating as a coping strategy passport, which indicates that lack of finances is when faced with economic hardship. a barrier to practicing safe migration. The second most frequent reason listed for not obtaining a Migration facilitator: passport was that the process took too much • Migrants (male and female) most commonly time. This suggests that the process to receive a migrated with an unlicensed broker. passport may be too time consuming • Possession of a passport strongly determined whether migrants chose to migrate regularly

8 Construction site in Bangkok.

EXPERIENCE IN THAILAND documentation which appears to have increased Work in Thailand: their vulnerability to abuse and exploitation. • The majority of migrants worked in Difficulties: Male migrants were more likely construction, followed by factory and to experience difficult conditions while working, agriculture work in Thailand. such as sleeping in overcrowded rooms, not • Migrants working in construction were having a place to sleep and poor basic hygiene. relatively less likely to receive their wages before Arrest: Male migrants were twice as likely as leaving Thailand, whereas those working in females to be detained by government authorities animal farming were more likely. Employment during migration. Migrants in the fishing sector in these two industries was spread almost were also significantly more likely to be arrested. evenly across both genders; female migrants were as likely to work in construction and POST RETURN animal farming as male migrants. Loans: Once back in Cambodia, male and • Higher wages were reported with animal female migrants both took out loans. Female farming and construction work, whereas migrants were twice as likely to take out loans to wages in agriculture and home business were pay for health care, and male migrants primarily significantly lower. Working hours were not took out loans for livelihood (e.g. agriculture). assessed, so interpretation of the wages is limited. Health issues: Female migrants were more likely than male migrants to have mental health • Wages in Thailand were nearly five times as concerns. Furthermore, male migrants were high as what the migrants received in Cambodia. significantly more likely to see a doctor when While the average income in Cambodia was they faced a health issue. Female migrants stated USD 2.5 per day, once in Thailand migrants significantly more often than males that the were on average earning USD 8.23 per day. reasons for not seeing a doctor were financial • Difficult working conditions, such as barriers. This highlights that female migrants face insufficient food and overexposure to sunlight unequal access to health care due to financial were commonly reported in construction work. constraints. • Migrants working in animal farming were Assistance needed after return: Once back significantly less likely to face mental health in Cambodia, the two major priorities for both concerns than other work sectors. male and female migrants were 1) help to find Abuse: Abuse and/or exploitation were a job and 2) vocational skills training. However, reported by 19.5 per cent of returnees significantly more males prioritized vocational interviewed2. Male migrants were slightly more skills training and safety and security, whereas likely to experience abuse, such as being deceived, female migrants prioritized food security. This threatened, experiencing physical abuse by highlights that female returnees are in a much their employer and being denied freedom of more vulnerable situation if one of their top movement. Of the 19.5 per cent of migrants priorities is related to basic subsistence. who reported abuse and/or exploitation, 83 per cent had entered Thailand irregularly without

2 Abuse and/or exploitation are defined as forced labour, debt bondage, forced to take drugs and/or alcohol, excessive working hours, withholding of wages, threats to family, false promises and/or deception, withholding of identity and/or travel documents, 9 threats to individual, threats of action by law enforcement, physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, denying freedom of movement, denying food and drink and denying medical treatment. ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Sources of information: As many male as female migrants received information about passport procedures and employment opportunities upon return. However, male migrants were three times as likely as female migrants to receive information about passports through non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and public sources. Male migrants were also twice as likely to receive employment information from NGOs and private agencies, whereas female migrants were more likely to receive this information from government sources. This indicates a need for Cambodian Government and NGOs to consider how they are designing their outreach activities and what more can be done to reach and engage with women.

1.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

At the end of the report, there are a number of recommendations for the Cambodian Government as well as NGOs in Cambodia. These recommendations include supporting relevant government ministries and departments to implement affordable and efficient regular migration procedures, promoting vocational training and job opportunities in high out-migration, provinces and improving equal access to education and employment opportunities. Government and NGOs that help aspirant migrants and returning migrants are recommended to review their outreach strategies to equally engage men and women.

1.4 DATA LIMITATIONS

While the sample included a large number of respondents, their return to Cambodia was associated with the unprecedented number of Cambodian migrant workers returned home to Cambodia from Thailand, prompted by fear of arrest and uncertainty about the tumultuous political situation in Thailand. Therefore the sample may not be representative of Cambodian migrants in general. However the sample does serve as a snapshot of Cambodian migrants at a particular point in time. Migrants in certain job sectors or geographic areas might have been less likely to return at this point. For example, male Cambodian fishermen who were working on fishing vessels in Thailand and within the region were less likely to return at this time. Furthermore, some job sectors were less represented and not much can be said about gender-disaggregated aspects and safety conditions in those sectors.

10 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Part 2 Description of Key Findings

2.1 BACKGROUND OF RESPONDENTS

HOME PROVINCE IN CAMBODIA Most migrants came from Kampong Cham (13%), Banteay Meanchey and Siem Reap (each 12%). Most men came from Siem Reap (15%) and Prey Veng (14%), whereas female migrants mostly came from Kampong Cham (15%) and Banteay Meanchey (16%), a province at the Cambodian-Thai border with Poipet international checkpoint. Figure 2 shows the provinces with more than five per cent of respondents per gender group.

Figure 2. Province of origin by gender (blue figures represent percentage of male migrants and pink figures represent female migrants "n=667")

60 km

40 mi

ODDAR MEANCHEY

BANTEAY PREAH VIHEAR RATANAKIRI MEANCHEY SIEM REAP STUNG TRENG 7.4% 15.8% 15.1% 9.9%

BATTAMBANG PAILIN 8% 7% KAMPONG THOM 10.3% 9.3% MONDULKIRI KRATIÉ

PURSAT 7.4% 8.5% KAMPONG CHHNANG KAMPONG CHAM KAMPONG 11.2% 14.6% KMOUM 8.3% 12.1%

KAMPONG PP PREY KOH KONG SPEU VENG KANDAL 14.1% PP: PHNOM PENH 5.1% SVAY RIENG TAKÉO KAMPOT 7.1% 9.6% PREAH 11.2% 8.2% SIHANOUK KEP

11 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Figure 3. Age distribution (% within gender group)

4.8 16-19 7.1

39.2 20-30 38.5

30.1 31-40 32.1

24.8 41-60 21.8

1.1 Over 60 0.6

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

AGE AND VULNERABILITY The majority of the respondents were between 20 and 40 years of age. There was no significant difference in the age range between male and female migrants, and age did not have any effect on the likelihood of being detained by government authorities, receiving wages or seeing a doctor in case of a health concern. Exact ages were not recorded as respondents only marked age groups and not specific age, IOM was unable to determine the average age of male and female migrants.

Figure 4. Marital status by gender MARITAL STATUS (% within gender group) The majority of the respondents were married with significantly more married female migrants Single 9.3 22.8 (90%) than male migrants (77%) (Sig. = 0.00). Married 90.1 77.2

0 20 40 60 80 100 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Less than half of the returnees had completed primary level education and 12 per cent had no education at all. Male migrants had significantly higher education than female migrants (Sig. = 0.00). The largest group of male and female migrants completed primary level (m = 39%, f = 50%). The second largest group of male migrants (22%) completed lower secondary level, and the second largest group of female migrants (19%) had no education at all. Female migrants were twice 2as many times male migrants as likely to have no education at all compared to had some formal education male migrants. This highlights unequal access to compared to female migrants education for men and women, which can result in unequal employment opportunities for female migrants.

12 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Figure 5. Education level (% within gender group) 60

49.6% 50 38.8% 40

30 22.1% 20 18.8% 13.5% 11.9% 10 8.7% 9.6% 9% 5.4% 4.5% 2.8% 3.5% 0.6% 1.6% 0 0%

University / (6 grades) Somesecondary lower Some upper secondary No education Some(1-5 primary grades) Completed lower Completed upper Completed primary vocational or similar secondary (7-8 grades) secondary (10-11 grades)

LEVEL OF EDUCATION RELATED TO DETAINMENT BY GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES; RECEIVING WAGES; HEALTH CONCERNS The level of education did not determine the likelihood of crossing the border legally, being detained by government authorities, probability of receiving wages or prevalence of health concerns. These findings indicate that education does not influence safe migration as long as other factors, such as access to legal documents or safe working conditions in Thailand prevail.

FORMAL APPLICATION FOR A CAMBODIAN PASSPORT Male migrants were more likely than female migrants to have ever applied for or owned a Cambodian passport (m = 29%, f = 20%) (Sig. = 0.01). The top reasons for not having applied amongst both genders were "No money" and "Too expensive". This most probably has to do with the high costs and time related to obtaining a Cambodian passport (USD 115), compared to costs in other countries like Viet Nam (USD 15), Thailand (USD 30) and Lao PDR (USD 35). Processing times for a passport in Thailand are significantly less time consuming, averaging two working days, compared to Cambodia’s 20 working days. Other factors that limit people from applying for a Cambodian passport include Cambodians lacking national identification documentation, such as identification cards, and the amount of time required to travel to Phnom Penh to apply.

2.2 BEFORE MIGRATION

INCOME IN CAMBODIA The average income for male migrants in Cambodia before migration was USD 2.91/day which is almost a third higher than the average income for female migrants of USD 2.17/day. This difference is significant (Sig. = 0.00).

13 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Border crossing between Cambodia and Thailand

REASON FOR LEAVING CAMBODIA The two most popular given reasons for leaving Cambodia were to 1) Search for better job/income (m = 69%, f = 62%) and 2) No job/income in Cambodia (m = 66%, f = 73%). Male migrants prioritized search for a better job, and female migrants prioritized not having a job/income in Cambodia. This highlights that female migrants face barriers in finding work in Cambodia. Additionally, earning money for family (food, education, health care) was significantly associated with male migrants (m = 36%, f = 28%) (Sig. = 0.021), as shown in the table below. This highlights that there might be more pressure on male migrants to earn an income to support their families. Being in financial debt was another key factor for migrating, especially for female migrants (m = 38%, f = 43%) indicating that they may be more prone to being in debt.

Table 2. Reason for leaving Cambodia (% within gender group)

REASON MALE FEMALE ALL Search for better job/better income 68.9% 62.0% 65.2% No job/income in Cambodia 66.3% 73.2% 70.0% Financial debts 37.8% 43.1% 40.6% Loss of land 4.5% 3.4% 3.9% Family/Friends Earn money for family 36.2% 27.9% 31.8% (education/food/health care Problems at home 6.7% 8.7% 7.8% Forced/tricked to go 1.0% 0.6% 0.7% Accompany family / friends 17.9% 13.0% 15.3%

Figure 6. Two main reasons for leaving Cambodia No job 66% 73% 69% 62% Better job

14 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Figure 7. Type of migration facilitator (% within gender group) RECRUITMENT 10.7% Family/Friend 13.5% The highest proportion of male and female 16.1% migrants chose an unlicensed broker as a Myself 12.5% migration facilitator (m = 60%, f = 55%). The Licensed 17.5% second most popular choice for male migrants broker 13.5% was family/friend or a licensed broker (both 14%) Unlicensed 55.2% broker 60.3% and for female migrants it was a licensed broker (18%). 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Figure 8. Average cost of migration by type of MIGRATION FACILITATOR AND... facilitator (USD) ... AVERAGE COSTS OF MIGRATION The costs of migration were highest for a Family/Friend $90 licensed broker (about USD 130). The costs for

Myself $92 an unlicensed broker, migrating independently and/or with family or friend were all similar Unlicensed broker $98 (USD 90 to USD 98). However, standard deviations were very high, indicating that costs within Licensed broker $130 each category varied strongly among different

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 individuals.

Figure 9. Average daily incomes by type of migration facilitator (USD/day) …AVERAGE DAILY INCOME $87 The highest average income was associated with Family/Friends $8 $65 migration with a licensed broker (USD 8.8/day), Unlicensed whereas income following migration with an $8.1 broker unlicensed broker was slightly lower (USD 8.00

Myself $8.2 to USD 8.20/day). This shows that the benefit of employing the services of a licensed broker is Licensed broker $8.8 Average salary in associated with a higher income when in Thailand. Cambodia before 7.5 8 8.5 9 moving to Thailand

... MIGRATING WITH A PASSPORT Most of those who migrated with a licensed broker possessed a passport, whereas most of those choosing to migrate with an unlicensed broker, friend or independently did not possess a passport (Sig. = 0.00). Possession of a passport strongly determined the type of facilitator chosen. Even though a licensed broker was more expensive, the perceived disadvantage of migrating with an unlicensed broker is highlighted by the fact that those who did possess a passport almost never chose to migrate with an unlicensed broker.Abuse and exploitation was more likely to be reported by migrants who had travelled without a passport and/or with unlicensed brokers. Migrants who used unlicensed brokers were five times as likely to experience abuse and exploitation compared to those migrants who used licensed recruitment brokers.

15 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Table 3. Likelihood of migrating with a passport by type of migration facilitator (% within group)

Type of facilitator Migrated with passport Migrated without passport Licensed recruitment broker 87.5% 12.5% Unlicensed broker 3.1% 96.9% Family/Friends 25.0% 75.0% Independently 27.1% 72.9%

2.3 MIGRATION PROCESS AND EXPERIENCE

LEGAL DOCUMENTS FOR MIGRATION An overwhelming number of migrants migrate without a passport. Only 22 per cent of respondents migrated with a passport. Less than 45 per cent of migrants have national identification documents, such as birth certificates or national ID cards. There was no significant difference among male and female migrants for any type of document. Recent interviews with returning migrants suggest that many Cambodian migrants are migrating through irregular channels to access the migrant registration process in Thailand that in turn allows them to obtain the non-Thai identification card, referred to as the pink card that allows them to immediately start working while they await national verification from the Cambodian Embassy. Thus, there is no incentive to stay in Cambodia to go through legal recruitment under the current MoU process for Cambodian workers to migrate to Thailand.

Figure 10. Legal documents carried during migration (% within gender group) 50 46.5% 44.8% 45 40.1% 40.3% 40 35 30 26% 26.7% 25 23.7% 24% 21.3% 20.8% 18.6% 20 17.6% 15 10 5 0

Visa

Passport certificate Border pass Work permit Cambodian ID Cambodian birth

16 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Figure 11. Percentage of migrants arrested by LEGAL DOCUMENTS AND … Thai authorities during migration period ...BEING DETAINED BY GOVERNMENT (% within document group) AUTHORITIES 12 9.7% The likelihood of being detained by government 10 8.2% authorities seemed to be associated with the 8 7.3% 6.9% type of document the migrant possessed. A visa 6 5.8% was most protective, followed by a work permit 4 and passport. 2

Birth Visa Passport certificate Work permit Cambodian ID

Figure 12. Receiving wages associated with type of legal document carried during migration (% within document group) Cambodian Irregular Migrants deported from Thailand to the 100 94.2% 93.3% Cambodian Immigration Center (IOM 2014) 92.5% 91.5% 90 85.8% 84.2% 80 75.8% ...RECEIVING WAGES 75.1% 75.1% 75.1% 74.7% 74.9% 70 The possession of legal documents increased 60 one’s likelihood of receiving wages. Figure 12 shows the percentages of respondents who did 50 or did not receive their wages dependent on 40 the type of document they possessed. Again, 30 this shows that possession of regular migration 20 documents greatly determines successful and 10 safe migration. 0

Visa

Passport Work permit Border pass Birth certificateCambodian ID

Figure 13. Consequences of undocumented migration in Thailand GET PAID With passport 93% With no passport 75% Not having the right documents in Thailand increased the risks of not getting paid, not having access to SEE A DOCTOR WHEN NEEDED a doctor and of being detained by government With a visa 94% authorities With no visa 87%

NOT BE DETAINED BY IMMIGRATION Did not have a passport 86%

17 WORK SECTOR IN THAILAND Several migrants worked in more than one sector while in Thailand. The three main work sectors in which returnees worked were construction (50%), agriculture (26%) and factory work (24%). Other sectors included working in street stalls or shops (5%), fishing (4%) and other (3%).

Of the 24 returnees who worked in the fishing industry, 21 were males. Overall, it was more common for male migrants to work in the fishing sector than for female migrants (m = 7%, f = 1%) (Sig. = 0.00). Female migrants were significantly more likely to work in shops/stalls (m = 3%, f = 8%) (Sig. = 0.01).

Figure 14. Work sector in Thailand (% within gender group) 60 52% 50 48.2%

30 25.6% 23.1% 21.7% 20 16%

10 6.4% 7.9% 6.7% 4% 0.8% 1.3% 0.6% 2.5% 1.3% 0.8% 0

Animal Fishing Home Agriculture farming Shop/stall business Restaurant Construction Factory work

Figure 15. Migrants who received their wages before leaving Thailand WORK SECTOR IN THAILAND AND... (% within work sector group) ...RECEIVING WAGES 120 Returnees who had worked in animal farming 95.8% 100% 100 84.6% 90.9% 91.7% were more likely to receive their wages than 81.9% 80 70.8% 72.3% those who worked in other sectors (farming = 60 96%, not farming = 78%). Those who worked 40 in construction were significantly less likely to 20 receive their wages (constr. = 72% not constr. = 0 86%). For other work sectors, differences were not significant due to small representation of those sectors. Fishing (N=24) Factory (N=162) Restaurant (N=7) Shop/Stall (N=36) Agriculture (N=127) Construction (N=336) Home business (N=11)Animal farming (N=48) 18 Workers in a construction site in Thailand

...PROBLEMS DURING MIGRATION Around 90 per cent (9 of 10 cases) of those who had experienced insufficient food and 79 per cent (11 of 14 cases) of those who experienced overexposure to sunlight were construction workers.

...AVERAGE DAILY INCOME In some sectors, wages were significantly above or below the average wage of all other sectors combined. Many of the groups were too small for the average to be representative for the work sector. The average daily income by work sector showed the following ranking:

Figure 16. Average daily incomes by work sector (USD/day) (Due to small group representation of some work sectors some of the averages may not be representative, e.g. restaurant, fishing, shop/stall) 10 9.1$ 9 8.57$ 8.42$ 8.38$ 8.24$ 8.2$ 8 7.47$ 7 6.09$ 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

(N=7) Fishing Factory (N=48) (N=24) (N=36) (N=11) (N=336) (N=162) (N=127) Restaurant Shop/Stall Agriculture Construction Animal farming Home business

Sectors with significantly higher wages included: Animal farming (animal farming = USD 9.10/day versus not working in animal farming = USD 8.16/day) (Sig. = 0.001) Construction (construction = USD 8.42/day versus not working in construction = USD 8.04/day) (Sig. = 0.035) Sectors with significantly lower wages included: Agriculture (agr. = USD 7.47, no agr. = USD 8.41) (Sig. = 0.000)

19 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

PROVINCE OF WORK IN THAILAND Most male and female migrants worked in Chonburi province (m = 18%, f = 16%) and Bangkok (m = 14%, f = 15%). About 23 per cent of female migrants, twice as many as male migrants, were not aware of which province they were working in. This indicates that female migrants were not as well informed about their migration, highlighting their increased vulnerability and a lack of control over their migration (see figure 18).

INCOME IN THAILAND The average daily income in Thailand amounted Figure 17. Average daily incomes of male and female respondents in Thailand to USD 8.23. Male migrants had a significantly higher income than female migrants (m = USD 8.95/day, f = USD 7.59/day) (Sig. = 0.00). Female 7.5$ Average incomes in Thailand were higher than in Cambodia; for example, average daily wages in Male 8.95$ the construction industry in Thailand were USD 8.42. In Cambodia the average daily wage in the 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 construction industry was recorded as USD 5.61.

Aerial view of Bangkok

20 Figure 18. Map of Thailand

ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS VIETNAM MYANMAR CHIANG RAI

MAE HONG SON PHAYAO LAOS

CHIANG MAI NAN

LAMPANG PHRAE Nong Khai BUENG LAMPHUN KAN

UTTARADIT SAKHON Nakhon UDON THANI LOEI NAKHON Phanom SUKHOTHAÏ NBL.

TAK PHITSANULOK KALASIN KHON KAEN MUKDAHAN KAMPHAENG PHICHIT PHETCHABUN PHET MAHA CHAIYAPHUM SARAKHAM YASOTHON AC. NAKHON SAWAN ROIET UBON UTHAI THANI RATCHATHANI

CHAINAT LOPBURI NAKHON RATCHASIMA SI. SURIN SI SAKET SUPHANBURI BURIRAM AT. SARABURI KANCHANABURI AY. NN. PT. PRACHINBURI NP. NO. BA. SA KAEO CHACHOENGSAO RATCHABURISS. SP. SSO. CHONBURI PHETCHABURI CHANTHABURI RAYONG

TRAT CAMBODI A PRACHUAP KHIRI KHAN AYUTTHAYA

AT: ANG THONG AC: AMNAT CHAROEN AY: AYUTTHAYA CHUMPON BA: BANGKOK NBL: NONGBUA LAMPHU NN: NAKHON NAYOK NP: NAKHON PATHOM RANONG NO: NONTHABURI PT: PATHUM THANI SP: SAMUT PRAKAN SS: SAMUT SAKHON SURAT THANI SSO: SAMUT SONGKHRAM SI: SINGBURI PHANG NGA NAKHON SI KRABI THAMMARAT PHUKET

TRANG PHATTALUNG

SATUN SONGKHLA PATTANI

NARATHIWAT YALA 150150 kmkm

MALAYSIA 100100 mimi

21 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

MIGRATION COMPANIONS Female migrants were more often accompanied during migration than male migrants. The largest groups of migrants were accompanied by their spouses, with twice as many female migrants compared to males (m = 31%, f = 59%) (Sig. = 0.00). The second largest group of male migrants migrated alone (24%), whereas the second largest group of female migrants migrated with other family members (22%). Female migrants were more often accompanied by their children, (m = 7%, f = 16%) (Sig. = 0.00) and this resonates with the findings that female migrants more often migrate with their spouses. Male migrants were significantly more likely to migrate alone (m = 24%, f = 10%) (Sig. = 0.00) or with friends (m = 22%, f = 12%) (Sig. = 0.00). Figure 19 shows which person male and female migrants are more likely to be accompanied by during their migration (categories > 5% in one gender group).

EXPLOITATION AND MEANS OF CONTROL USED BY EMPLOYER A reported 19.5 per cent of all respondents had experienced some kind of abuse. Male migrants were abused slightly more often than female migrants (m = 22%, f = 17%). Male migrants were also twice as likely to be deceived by their employer (m = 5%, f = 2%) (Sig. = 0.03), four times as likely to be threatened by their employer (m = 4%, f = 1%) (Sig. = 0.01), almost twice as likely to experience physical abuse by their employer (m = 2.4%, f = 1.4%) (Sig. = 0.03) and more than twice as likely to be denied freedom of movement (m = 8%, f = 3%) (Sig. = 0.00). It could not be determined whether the prevalence of exploitation among male migrants is associated with male dominated work sectors or their gender. There also seems to be a correlation between undocumented migration and abuse and/or exploitation. Of those migrants who reported abuse and/or exploitation, 83 per cent were undocumented.

Cross-border migrant walking through Pelay Lai village up along the Poi Pet International border with Thailand, B, Dickson 2012

22 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Figure 19. Migration companions (% within gender group) 70

60 58.9%

30.5% 30 23.4% 22% 23.7% 21.5% 20 12.4% 15.5% 12.4% 10.4% 10.9% 10 7.4% 7.7%

1.7% 0

Alone Spouse Friends Children Broker/ member Girlfriend/ Other family Company Boyfriend

Figure 20. Exploitation and means of control used by employer (% within gender group) 9 8.7%

8 7.7% 7.7% 7% 7% 7.1% 7

6 5.4% 5.4% 5

4 4.2% 3 2.8% 3.8% 2.3%

2 1.4% 1 0.8%

abuse Physicalabuse wages Emotional Excessive Threat to Withholding deception individual False promise/ working hours Deniedof freedommovement

23 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

DIFFICULT CONDITIONS Male migrants were significantly more likely than female migrants to report having experienced difficult conditions while working in Thailand (m = 27%, f = 19%) (Sig. = 0.02). Figure 21 highlights the difficult conditions that were experienced by at least two per cent of respondents in one gender group. Male migrants were twice as likely to have slept in overcrowded rooms (m = 15%, f = 7%) (Sig. = 0.00), more than twice as likely to have had no place to sleep/sleeping on the floor (m = 7%, f = 3%) (Sig. = 0.02) and almost four times as likely to suffer from poor basic hygiene (m = 7%, f = 2%) (Sig. = 0.00).

Figure 21. Experience of difficult conditions (% within gender group) 18

16 15.4%

12 11% 10 8.3% 8 7.4% 7.4% 7%

4 3.8% 3.4% 2.8% 2% 1.7% 2% 2 1.3% 1.3%

Living in No/few breaks room Sleeping in Nowhere to sun/rain dangerous sleep/floor Poor hygiene conditions Insufficient food overcrowdwed Overexposure to

Figure 22. Ever arrested by government authorities (% within gender group) DETENTION BY GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES Male migrants were twice as likely as female 8% migrants respondents to be detained by Female government authorities during their stay in Thailand (m = 17%, f = 8%) (Sig. = 0.00). Male 17%

0 4 8 12 16 20

TYPE OF WORK AND FORMERLY ARRESTED BY GOVERNMENT AUTHORITIES Migrants who worked in fishing were significantly more often arrested compared to other work sectors (46% of N = 24).

24 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

2.4 POST RETURN SITUATION

SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS Following return from Thailand to Cambodia, about 55 per cent of respondents took out loans. There was no significant difference between male (52%) and female migrants (59%). The main reasons for taking out loans were for livelihood inputs (m = 47%, f = 36%) and basic needs (m = 43%, f = 51%). Twice as many female migrants took out a loan for health care (m = 14%, f = 29%) (Sig. = 0.03) and more male than female migrants took out loans for livelihood purposes (m = 47%, f = 36%) (Sig. = 0.03). This indicates that the financial costs of accessing health care may pose a risk for financial security particularly for female migrants.

Figure 23. Purpose of taking out a loan by gender, categories > 3% within at least one gender group (% within gender group) 60 51% 50 47.2% 42.9%

40 36.1%

30 26.9%

19.7% 18.6% 20 17.4% 13% 10.1% 11.2% 10.6% 11.1% 10 6.8%

Shelter (food) inputs Children’s Livelihood Healthcare material Basic needs Return travel Pay off other education loans/debts

Migrant House in Pelay Lai Village, Poi Pet Border

25 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

Male Migrant being seen by an IOM nurse in Phnom Penh (IOM 2013)

HEALTH CONCERNS The two most commonly reported health Figure 24. Health concerns (% within gender group) concerns for male and female migrants were mental health concerns (m = 46%, f = 58%) and 2% Disability pain and discomfort (m = 54%, f = 61%). The 2.2% higher prevalence of mental health issues among Injury 4.5% female migrants was significant (Sig. = 0.01). 5.4% Pregnant 11.3% 2.6% Significantly more male migrants (91%) than Mental 55.8% female migrants (85%) saw a doctor when they health 46.2% faced health issues (Sig. = 0.02). Significantly 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 more female than male migrants named financial limitations as their reason for not seeing a doctor (m = 54%, f = 77%) (Sig. = 0.02). This finding indicates gender inequality in accessing health care due to financial constraints.

26 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

ASSISTANCE NEEDED As shown by the figure below, help to find a job (m/f = 80%) and vocational skill training (m = 64%, f = 54%) were the two major types of assistance needed among the returnees. However, significantly more male migrants prioritized vocational skill training (Sig. = 0.03) and safety and security (m = 23%, f = 15%) (Sig. = 0.01). Female migrants prioritized food (m = 20, f = 29) (Sig. = 0.02). This indicates higher vulnerabilities among female migrants. While women were most concerned about food security, men were more concerned about gaining skills and ensuring the safety and security of themselves and their families.

Figure 25. Assistance needed after return (% within gender group) 90 79.7% 80 79.5%

70 64.3% 60 56.3% 50 39.1% 36.3% 40 34.3% 30.7% 28.7% 30 23.4% 19.9% 20 14.9% 16% 11% 10 7.1% 7.3% 0

Food Legal a job training security shelter Health care Safety and Temporary Help finding assistance Vocational skill Material support

SOURCE OF INFORMATION ABOUT NEW PASSPORT PROCEDURE AND EMPLOYMENT Both male and female migrants received information about the passport application procedure most commonly through the radio (m = 64%, f = 56%), followed by TV (m = 48%, f = 42%). However, male migrants were three times more likely than female migrants to receive information from NGOs (m = 14%, f = 5%) (Sig. = 0.00) as well as more likely to access information from public sources (m = 25%, f = 17%) (Sig. = 0.04).

Both genders received information about employment through the government. Again, male migrants were twice as likely as females to receive information from NGOs (m = 39%, f = 24%) as well as private agencies (m = 14%, f = 9%), whereas female migrants were more likely to receive information through the government (m = 46%, f = 67%). This indicates that male migrants are more likely than female migrants to be reached by NGOs, which may be relevant for NGOs’ outreach strategies.

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Part 3 Conclusions

The findings of this report highlight the differences and similarities experienced by both maleand female migrants before, during and after migration, as well as the determinants for safe and regular migration.

3.1 MIGRATION AND GENDER EQUALITY

The gender-disaggregated results indicated inequalities amongst male and female migrants before, during and after migration, especially in terms of unequal access to education, employment opportunities, health care and how they are reached by NGOs with information about migration. On average, female migrants had lower levels of education (if any at all) and earned less in both origin and host countries than male migrants. Inequalities in the origin country put women at a disadvantage, which is then carried over to their migration journey and return. For example, they were more often faced with mental health issues but less likely to be able to visit a doctor because of their limited funds. Surprisingly, a large number of female migrants were unaware of the name of the province in Thailand where they had migrated. This indicates a lack of awareness and control over their migration situation and potentially a higher vulnerability. Female migrants were less likely than males to receive safe migration information from NGOs. Although female migrants faced many inequalities, male migrants were more vulnerable to abuse by their employers and to difficult working conditions in Thailand, such as having to sleep in overcrowded rooms with insufficient space to sleep. They were also more likely to be arrested than female migrants. More in-depth research is needed to understand the reasons for the higher prevalence of abuse among male migrants.

3.2 DETERMINANTS FOR SAFE MIGRATION

LEGAL DOCUMENTS The possession of legal documents played a dominant role in determining safe migration. Migrants were more likely to migrate with a licensed broker if they had a passport, which also resulted in a higher income in Thailand. Those with regular migration documents were also less likely to be arrested by Thai authorities, more likely to receive their wages and more likely to see a doctor in case of a health concern. These findings highlight the importance of access to these documents to ensure safe and successful migration. However, the main reason given for not applying for a passport was the lack of money to pay the direct and indirect fees. Therefore, the main barrier to accessing documents is likely the relatively high costs of a Cambodian passport. A major step towards facilitating safe and legal migration would be lowering these costs and simplifying the procedures.

28 ASSESSMENT REPORT PROFILE OF RETURNED CAMBODIAN MIGRANT WORKERS

WORK SECTOR The construction and the fishing sectors appeared to be associated with difficult conditions anda lower chance of receiving wages, whereas respondents who had worked in animal farming reported an overall positive experience, including a higher income, higher likelihood of receiving wages and a lower prevalence of reported mental health concerns. However, the fishing and animal farming samples were relatively small and thus not necessarily representative of the sector. The overall low representation in many work sectors limited the interpretation of their safety. However, trends indicate differences and suggest that each sector should be investigated in depth.

RECOMMENDATIONS Support relevant government ministries and Improve equal access to education for girls to departments to implement simple, affordable improve their employment opportunities later and efficient procedures for obtaining necessary on. travel and work documents for regular migration, Regulate, monitor and promote equal pay such as passports, visas and work permits that amongst male and female low-skilled workers, protect migrants and reduce the vulnerabilities greater employment opportunities for females, that lead to exploitation and trafficking and equal access to health care services in • Technical support to provincial passport Cambodia. offices to decentralize migration and national Explore approaches for disseminating identification document services for prospective information about safe and legal migration and returned migrants; processes and adjust target population access Promote economic development and strategy to equally engage men and women. investment in skills development and job • Empower and support Commune Council opportunities in provincial areas experiencing leaders in source communities to disseminate high outward migration. safe migration information and set up migrant • Support the National Employment Agency information centres for aspirant migrants and (NEA) and provincial job centres to provide families left behind. outreach information linking returning migrants with employers and potential employment. • Develop private partnerships and apprenticeship programs for returned migrants and families to work within garment, manufacturing, agriculture and tourism industries in Cambodia.

International Organization for Migration

#281 • Tai Ming 4th Floor • Preah Norodom Blvd • Sangkat Tonle Bassac • Khan Chamkarmorn Phnom Penh • Cambodia • P.O. Box 435 • General Post Office Tel: +855.2 321 65 32 • Fax: +855.2 321 64 23 E-mail: [email protected] IOM OIM Internet: www.iom.int/countries/cambodia/