Canadian Literature Edited by Coral Ann Howells and Eva-Marie Kröller Frontmatter More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86876-1 - The Cambridge History of Canadian Literature Edited by Coral Ann Howells and Eva-Marie Kröller Frontmatter More information

the cambridge history of CANADIAN LITERATURE

From Aboriginal writing to Margaret Atwood, this is a complete English-language history of Canadian writing in English and French from its beginnings. The multi-authored volume pays special attention to works from the 1960s and after, to multicultural and Indigenous writing, popular literature, and the interaction of anglo- phone and francophone cultures throughout Canadian history. Established genres such as ﬁction, drama, and poetry are discussed alongside forms of writing which have traditionally received less attention, such as the essay, nature-writing, life-writing, journalism, and comics, and also writing in which the conventional separation between genres has broken down, such as the poetic novel. Written by an international team of distinguished scholars, the volume includes a separate, substantial section discussing major genres in French, as well as a detailed chronology of historical and literary/ cultural events, and an extensive bibliography covering criticism in English and French.

Coral Ann Howells is Professor Emerita at the University of Reading and is currently Associate Fellow, Institute of English Studies, University of London. She has published widely on the topic of Canadian literature, especially on contemporary Canadian women writers including Margaret Atwood and Alice Munro. Editor of The Cambridge Companion to Margaret Atwood (Cambridge, 2006), she has twice been the recipient of the Margaret Atwood Society Best Book Prize, in 1997 and 2006.SheisaFellowoftheRoyalSocietyof Canada. Eva-Marie Kro¨ ller is Professor in the Department of English at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Her numerous publications on Canadian literature include Canadian Travellers in Europe, 1851–1900 (1987), George Bowering: Bright Circles of Colour (1992), and The Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature (2004). She was editor of Canadian Literature (1995–2003) and she is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86876-1 - The Cambridge History of Canadian Literature Edited by Coral Ann Howells and Eva-Marie Kröller Frontmatter More information

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF CANADIAN LITERATURE

Edited by CORAL ANN HOWELLS and EVA-MARIE KRÖLLER

cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru,UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521868761

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2009

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

isbn 978-0-521-86876-1 hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

Contents

List of plates page ix List of maps xi List of contributors xii Acknowledgments xiii Chronology xiv

Introduction coral ann howells and eva-marie kro¨ ller 1

part one OLD AND NEW WORLD, LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE, THE CANADAS, DOMINION OF CANADA 7

1 . Native societies and French colonization 9 barbara belyea

2 . Reports from la Nouvelle-France: the Jesuit Relations, Marie de l’Incarnation, and Élisabeth Bégon 29 e. d. blodgett

3 . Migrations, multiple allegiances, and satirical traditions: from Frances Brooke to Thomas Chandler Haliburton 47 marta dvorˇ a´ k

4 . Writing in the Northwest: narratives, journals, letters, 1700–1870 67 bruce greenfield

Contents

5 . Literature of settlement 87 carole gerson

6 . History in English and French, 1832–1898 104 e. d. blodgett

part two THE POST-CONFEDERATION PERIOD 125

7 . Post-Confederation poetry 127 d. m. r. bentley

8 . Writing by Victorian naturalists 144 christoph irmscher

9 . Short ﬁction 166 gerald lynch

10 . Bestselling authors, magazines, and the international market 185 michael peterman

11 . Textual and social experiment in women’s genres 204 janice fiamengo

12 . Canada and the Great War 224 susan fisher

part three MODELS OF MODERNITY, POST-FIRST WORLD WAR 245

13 . Staging personalities in modernism and realism 247 irene gammel

14 . E. J. Pratt and the McGill poets 272 adrian fowler

Contents

15 . The 1940s and 1950s: signs of cultural change 289 coral ann howells

16 . The Centennial 312 eva-marie kro¨ ller

17 . Forms of non-ﬁction: Innis, McLuhan, Frye, and Grant 335 david staines

part four AESTHETIC EXPERIMENTS, 1960 AND AFTER 355

18 . Quartet: Atwood, Gallant, Munro, Shields 357 robert thacker

19 . The short story 381 w. h. new

20 . Canadian drama: performing communities 402 anne nothof

21 . Poetry 422 kevin mc neilly

22 . Poetry, drama, and the postmodern novel 441 ian rae

23 . Comic art and bande dessinée: from the funnies to graphic novels 460 jean-paul gabilliet

24 . “Ghost stories”: ﬁctions of history and myth 478 teresa gibert

25 . Indigenous writing: poetry and prose 499 lally grauer and armand garnet ruffo

26 . Contemporary Aboriginal theater 518 helen gilbert

vii

Contents

27 . Transcultural life-writing 536 alfred hornung

28 . Multiculturalism and globalization 556 neil ten kortenaar

part ﬁve WRITING IN FRENCH 581

29 . Poetry 583 robert yergeau

30 . Drama 605 jane moss

31 . Fiction 629 re´ jean beaudoin and andre´ lamontagne

Bibliography 652 Index 706

viii

List of plates

1. Louis Nicolas, “Capitaine de la nation illinois. Il est armé de sa pipe et de page 21 son dard.” (“Chief of the Illinois nation. He is armed with his pipe and his spear.”) Codex canadiensis (c. 1700). Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, OK. 2. “Carte dressée sur le rapport du nommé Onouatary, Sauvage Oneyoutte, 22 établi, à la Présentation le 13 février 1756, dans Journal de la campagne d’hiver de Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, 1756.” (“Map drawn up from the account of the aforesaid Onouatary, an Oneida Savage, recorded, at the presentation of 13 February 1756, in Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry’s journal of the winter campaign, 1756.”) Musée de la civilisation, collection du Séminaire de Québec, fonds Viger-Verreau. P32/O-94D/L-71. 3. Eric Gill, “The Martyrdom of Jean de Brébeuf,” in The Travels and Sufferings 36 of Father Jean de Brébeuf Among the Hurons of Canada as Described by Himself, ed. and tr. Theodore Besterman (London: Golden Cockerel Press, 1938). Bruce Peel Special Collections Library, University of Alberta. 4. a) and b) Gospel of St. Mark in English and Mohawk, tr. Joseph Brant, 56 1787. British Library Board. All Rights Reserved 222.h.17 Rare Books. 5. Thomas Chandler Haliburton, The Clockmaker (London: Richard Bentley, 63 1839). Koerner Library, the University of British Columbia. 6. Plate III from Catharine Parr Traill and Agnes Fitzgibbon, Canadian 149 Wildflowers (1868): “Yellow Adder’s Tongue (Erythronium Americanum), Large White Trillium (Trillium Grandiflorum), Wild Columbine (Aquilegia Canadensis).” Reproduced from the Rare Book Collection of the Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario. 7. “Prairie Hen (Cupidonia Cupio),” chromolithograph from W. Ross King, 155 The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada (1866). Courtesy the Lilly Library, Indiana University, Bloomington. 8. E. E. S. (i.e. Evvy Smith), “Princess Louise or Woolverton. For the 160 Canadian Horticulturalist,” from The Canadian Horticulturalist 11.9 (1888), frontispiece facing [p. 193]. Author’s collection. 9. “Pear Tree, Showing Pendulous Habit Caused by Weight of Fruit,” 161 illustration from photograph in J. T. Bealby, Fruit Ranching in British Columbia, 2nd edn. (1911), facing p. 192. Author’s collection. 10. Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven in Costume, c. 1920. George 250 Grantham Bain Collection, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

List of plates

11. F. P. Grove and Family, Lake Winnipeg, 1923. Leonard and Mary Grove, 254 Toronto, Ontario. 12. Cover image, Robert J. Stead’s Grain (1926). George H. Doran Company. 258 13. L. M. Montgomery, “Myself in 1902,” self-portrait photograph taken in her 266 bedroom in Cavendish. L. M. Montgomery Collection, Archival and Special Collections, University of Guelph Archives. L. M. Montgomery is a trademark of Heirs of L. M. Montgomery Inc. 14. Graeme Taylor, John Glassco, and Robert McAlmon on the beach at Nice, 270 c. 1928.PA188182. Library and Archives of Canada. Courtesy of William Toye, literary executor for the estate of John Glassco. 15. “Nelvana of the Northern Lights,” drawn by Adrian Dingle, front cover 465 Triumph-Adventure Comics, c. 1945. Copyright Nelvana Limited. Used with permission. All rights reserved. Copyright Library and Archives Canada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2008). 16. Steven Keewatin Sanderson, Darkness Calls. Healthy Aboriginal Network, 466 Vancouver, 2006. 17. Margaret Atwood, “Survivalwoman.” Copyright Margaret Atwood, 470 This Magazine, 1975.

List of maps

1. Canada page xlvi 2. Tribal distributions in and near Canada at time of contact xlvii

List of contributors

R E´ JEAN B EAUDOIN University of British Columbia B ARBARA B ELYEA University of Calgary D. M. R. BENTLEY University of Western Ontario E. D. BLODGETT University of Alberta M ARTA D VOŘ A´ K Sorbonne Nouvelle J ANICE F IAMENGO University of Ottawa S USAN F ISHER University of the Fraser Valley A DRIAN F OWLER Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, Memorial University of Newfoundland J EAN-PAUL G ABILLIET Université de Bordeaux I RENE G AMMEL Ryerson University C AROLE G ERSON Simon Fraser University T ERESA G IBERT Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid H ELEN G ILBERT Royal Holloway College, University of London L ALLY G RAUER University of British Columbia Okanagan B RUCE G REENFIELD Dalhousie University A LFRED H ORNUNG Johannes-Gutenberg-Universität C ORAL A NN H OWELLS University of Reading / University of London C HRISTOPH I RMSCHER Indiana University N EIL TEN K ORTENAAR University of Toronto E VA-MARIE K RO¨ LLER University of British Columbia A NDRE´ L AMONTAGNE University of British Columbia G ERALD L YNCH University of Ottawa K EVIN M C N EILLY University of British Columbia J ANE M OSS Colby College / Duke University W ILLIAM H. NEW University of British Columbia A NNE N OTHOF Athabasca University M ICHAEL P ETERMAN Trent University I AN R AE King’s University College at The University of Western Ontario A RMAND G ARNET R UFFO Carleton University D AVID S TAINES University of Ottawa R OBERT T HACKER St. Lawrence University R OBERT Y ERGEAU University of Ottawa

xii

Acknowledgments

We thank the contributors for their fine work and collegiality, the University of British Columbia and the Foundation for Canadian Studies in the United Kingdom for financial support, Laura Potter and Melanie Sanderson for excel- lent research assistance, Dominique Yupangco and Miranda Clifford for expert technical help, and Patricia Lackie and Carol Wong for efficient clerical support. Robin Howells, David Staines, André Lamontagne, Réjean Beaudoin, Lally Grauer, and Gordon Bölling gave generous scholarly advice. We also thank the individuals who assisted us with the illustrations, and acknowledge especially Robert Desmarais of the Bruce Peel Special Collections Library at the University of Alberta and Sean Muir of the Healthy Aboriginal Network, as well as Tim Ford for his work on the illustrations in Christoph Irmscher’s chapter. We thank Rebecca Jones and Rosina Di Marzo at Cambridge University Press, and our copy editor, David Watson. Sarah Stanton was, as always, an inspiring editor.

xiii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural c. 12,000 BCE Asiatic migrants cross land bridge in the Bering Sea to North America c. 11,000 BCE Blueﬁsh Caves (Yukon): earliest evidence of human habitation in North America currently recorded 10,000–8000 BCE Cordilleran and Laurentian ice sheets retreat Fluted Point and Early Microblade cultures spread across North America 8000–4000 BCE Plano people: ﬁrst recorded cremation burial 4000–1000 BCE Maritime Archaic people: use toggling harpoon and large watercraft; construct burial mounds containing funereal gifts; Laurentian Archaic and Shield Archaic people: leave gifts, some elaborately crafted, with the dead 1000 BCE–CE 500 Point Peninsula / Meadowood / Saugeen people: earth- mound burial; silver ornaments Middle Northwest Coast people: development of elaborate artifacts Late Palaeo-Eskimo: bone and ivory carvings

xiv

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural CE 500–European Northern Algonquin (including contact Beothuk) and Late Nesikep: rock art 985/986 First European sighting of Baﬃn Island (“Helluland”), Labrador (“Markland”), and the Gulf of St. Lawrence (“Vinland”), as recounted in Bjarno Harjulfsen’s Graenlendinga Saga 1000 Viking Settlement in Newfoundland 1390–1450 Iroquois Confederacy 1497 John Cabot sails to Newfoundland 1545 Jacques Cartier, Bref récit et succincte narration de la navigation faite en MDXXXV et MDXXXVI par le Capitaine Jacques Cartier aux îles de Canada, Hochelaga, Saguenay et autres 1534 Jacques Cartier sails to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 1556 First map of New France, by Giacomo Gastaldi, published in Giovanni Ramusio’s Navigationi e viaggi,an account of Cartier’s 1534 voyage 1576, 1577, 1578 Martin Frobisher’s Arctic expeditions 1605 Founding of Port Royal 1606 Marc Lescarbot’s Le Théâtre de Neptune performed in Port Royal harbor 1608 Quebec founded by Samuel de Champlain 1610 Henry Hudson sails to Hudson Jesuit Relations (published Bay 1632–73) begin with Pierre Biard’s letters from Acadia 1613 Les Voyages du Sieur de Champlain Xaintongeois

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1624 First written treaty (Algonquin– French–Mohawk Peace) 1627 Creation of the Compagnie des cent associés 1632 Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyage du pays des Hurons; Marie de l’Incarnation begins her Écrits spirituels (1632–1654) 1642 Ville Marie (Montreal) founded 1639 Marie de l’Incarnation sails for Quebec 1659 Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard Chouart de Groseilliers travel to Lake Superior and Michigan 1664 François du Creux, in Historiae Pierre Boucher, Histoire véritable canadiensis, seu Nova-Franciae, et naturelle des mœurs et describes an “immensity of productions du pays de la woods and prairies” Nouvelle-France 1670 Hudson’s Bay Company begins operations 1680 Death of Kateri Tekakwitha (beatified in 1980) 1694 L’Affaire Tartuffe 1697 Louis Hennepin’s Nouvelle découverte d’un très grand pays features the first published illustration of Niagara Falls 1701 Peace of Montreal 1703 Louis-Armand de Lahontan, Nouveaux voyages de M. le baron de Lahontan dans l’Amérique septentrionale; Mémoires de l’Amérique septentrionale (1703); Supplément aux voyages du Baron de Lahontan (1704) 1713 Treaty of Utrecht 1744 Pierre-François Xavier de Charlevoix, Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle France 1748 Marie-Elisabeth Bégon (1696–1755) writes letters to

xvi

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural her son-in-law, published as Lettres au cher ﬁls (ed. Nicole Deschamps) in 1972 1751 First printing press in Nova Scotia 1753 Peter Kalm’s Travels published in Sweden (English version: 1770) 1755 Deportation of the Acadians 1756 Seven Years’ War begins (1756–63) 1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham 1763 Treaty of Paris 1764 First printing press in Quebec: La Gazette de Québec begins publication 1769 Frances Brooke, The History of Emily Montague 1775 American War of Independence begins (1775–83) 1776 American Declaration of Independence 1778 James Cook in Nootka Sound Gazette littéraire de Montréal begins publication (1778–9) 1792 Captains George Vancouver and Dionisio Alcalà Galiano on the West Coast 1783 An estimated 40,000 Loyalists emigrate from the United States to Maritimes and Canada 1789 French Revolution; Alexander Mackenzie travels to Beaufort Sea (1793 expedition from Canada to Paciﬁc, arriving at the Bella Coola River) 1812 War of 1812; Selkirk Settlement on Red River founded 1819–22 First Franklin overland expedition 1821 Completion of Lachine Canal Thomas McCulloch, Letters of Mephibosheth Stepsure; Julia

xvii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural Hart, St. Ursula’s Convent; or, The Nun of Canada 1825 Oliver Goldsmith, The Rising Village 1829 Shanawdithit (known as Nancy or Nance April), the last known Beothuk, dies 1832 John Richardson, Wacousta; or, The Prophecy 1833 First Canadian steamship, the Royal William, crosses the Atlantic 1836 Catharine Parr Traill, The Backwoods of Canada; Thomas Chandler Haliburton, The Clockmaker, or The Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick of Slickville 1837 Rebellion, Upper Canada, Aubert de Gaspé fils, L’Influence Lower Canada d’un livre 1838 Literary Garland (1838–51); Anna Jameson, Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada 1839 Lord Durham’s Report 1841 Act of Union (Upper and Lower Canada) 1844 Institut canadien founded; Antoine Gérin-Lajoie, “Un Toronto Globe established Canadien errant: le proscrit” 1845 François-Xavier Garneau, Histoire du Canada depuis sa découverte jusqu’à nos jours begins publication: 4 vols. (1845–8) 1845 Last sighting, in July, of Sir John Franklin’s second overland expedition in Baffin Bay; Franklin’s disappearance triggers some forty-two expeditions into the Arctic North between 1847 and 1879 1846 Patrice Lacombe, La Terre paternelle 1847 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Evangeline, a Tale of Acadie

xviii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1848 James Huston, Le Répertoire national, ou Recueil de littérature canadienne; Pierre Boucher de Boucherville, Une de perdue, deux de trouvées 1852 Susanna Moodie, Roughing it in the Bush 1853 Moodie, Life in the Clearings; Olivier Chauveau, Charles Guérin 1854 Seigneurial system abolished; Reciprocity Treaty between Canada and the United States (the ﬁrst international free trade agreement) 1856 Charles Sangster, The St. Lawrence and the Saguenay 1857 Ottawa named capital of Canada; Palliser and Hind- Dawson expeditions to Northwest 1862 Octave Crémazie, “Promenade de trois morts”; Gérin-Lajoie, Jean Rivard, le défricheur canadien 1863 Aubert de Gaspé père, Les Anciens Canadiens; Goldwin Smith, The Empire 1864 Rosanna Leprohon, Antoinette de Mirecourt; Antoine Gérin- Lajoie, Jean Rivard, économiste; Arthur Buies, Lettres sur le Canada; Charles Taché, Forestiers et voyageurs; Revue canadienne begins publication (1864–1922) 1865 Ernest Gagnon, Chansons populaires du Canada 1866 Napoléon Bourassa, Jacques et Marie 1867 British North America Act; Confederation; Constitution Act recognizes English and French as oﬃcial languages in

xix

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural Parliament and Canadian courts; Sir John Macdonald Prime Minister (1867–73; 1878–91) 1868 Canada First Movement Catharine Parr Traill and Agnes founded Moodie Fitzgibbon, Canadian Wild Flowers 1869 Red River Rebellion Canadian Illustrated News begins (led by Louis Riel) publication (1869–83) 1870 Manitoba and Northwest Territories join Confederation 1871 British Columbia joins Confederation 1872 Creation of the Public Archives of Canada 1873 Prince Edward Island joins Confederation 1875 Honoré Beaugrand, Jeanne la Fileuse begins publication in La République 1876 Indian Act 1877 William Kirby, The Golden Dog: A Legend of Quebec 1880 Calixa Lavallée composes Ch. G. D. Roberts, Orion and “O Canada” (words Other Poems Adolphe-Basile Routhier) 1882 Royal Society of Canada founded by the Marquis de Lorne, Governor-General of Canada 1884 Standard Time Zone system Laure Conan, Angéline de introduced; potlatch Montbrun; Isabella Valancy ceremony prohibited; Riel Crawford, Old Spookses’ Pass, Rebellion Malcolm’s Katie and Other (1884–5) Poems 1885 Canadian Paciﬁc Railway completed; Chinese Immigration Act 1887 Louis Fréchette, La Légende d’un peuple; Saturday Night magazine begins publication (1887–2001)

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1888 Archibald Lampman, Among the Millet; James de Mille, A Strange Manuscript Found in a Copper Cylinder; The Week begins publication (1888–95) 1889 William D. Lighthall, Songs of the Great Dominion 1890 Manitoba Schools Act 1892 Louis Fréchette, Originaux et détraqués 1893 Canadian Magazine (combined earlier Massey’s Magazine and Canadian Magazine of Politics, Science, Art and Literature) begins publication (1893–1937) 1895 L’École littéraire de Montréal founded; Jules-Paul Tardivel, Pour la Patrie 1896 Sir Wilfrid Laurier Prime Gilbert Parker, The Seats of the Minister (1896–1911) Mighty; Ch. G. D. Roberts, Earth’s Enigmas; Maclean’s Magazine begins publication; Edmond de Nevers, L’Avenir du peuple canadien-français 1897 Women’s Institute established William Drummond, The Habitant and Other French Canadian Poems 1898 Yukon Territory formed Ernest Thompson Seton, Wild Animals I Have Known 1899–1902 Boer War causes divisiveness between English and French Canadians 1901 Ralph Connor, The Man from Glengarry 1904 Sara Jeannette Duncan, The Imperialist; Émile Nelligan et son œuvre, ed. Louis Dantin; Rodolphe Girard, Marie Calumet; Charles ab der Halden, Études de littérature canadienne-française; Pamphile Le May, Les Gouttelettes

xxi

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1905 Alberta and Saskatchewan become provinces 1906 Camille Roy gives his ﬁrst course in Canadian literature; Alfred Garneau, Poésies 1907 Robert Service, Songs of a Sourdough; Albert Lozeau, L’Âme solitaire; Camille Roy, Essais sur la littérature canadienne; Tableau de l’histoire de la littérature canadienne-française 1908 L. M. Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables; Nellie McClung, Sowing Seeds in Danny; Martin Allerdale Grainger, Woodsmen of the West 1909 Canadian Commission of Conservation established 1911 Pauline Johnson, Legends of Vancouver; “Lettres de Fadette” begin in Le Devoir; Paul Morin, Le Paon d’émail 1912 Public Archives Act Stephen Leacock, Sunshine Sketches of a Little Town 1913 National Gallery of Canada Act Marjorie Pickthall, The Drift of Pinions; Blanche Lamontagne-Beauregard, Visions gaspésiennes 1914 First World War begins; War Adjutor Rivard, Chez nous; Measures Act; Komagata Arsène Bessette, Le Débutant; Maru Incident ﬁlm: Edward Curtis, In the Land of the Head Hunters 1915 John McCrae’s “In Flanders Fields” published in Punch magazine 1916 Voting rights to women in Louis Hémon, Maria Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Chapdelaine, serialized in Le Alberta Temps (France), 1914; Marcel Dugas, Psyché au cinéma 1917 Halifax Explosion; Conscription Crisis; Battle of Vimy Ridge

xxii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1918 First World War ends Albert Laberge, La Scouine; Le Nigog founded (twelve issues); Camille Roy, Manuel d’histoire de la littérature canadienne-française 1919 Winnipeg General Strike; Lionel Groulx, La Naissance Immigration Amendment d’une race; Marie-Victorin, Act Récits laurentiens; Canadian Bookman begins publication (1919–39) 1920 Group of Seven founded; Ray Palmer Baker, A History of English Canadian Literature to Confederation; Jean-Aubert Loranger, Les Atmosphères 1921 Mackenzie King Prime Minister Canadian Authors’ Association (1921–6, 1926–30, 1935–48) founded; Léon Petitjean and Henri Rollin, Aurore, l’enfant martyre 1922 Prix Athanase-David founded 1923 Chinese Exclusion Act 1924 Lionel Groulx, Notre maître le passé 1925 F. P. Grove, Settlers of the Marsh; Martha Ostenso, Wild Geese; McGill Fortnightly Review begins publication (1925–7); Robert Choquette, À travers les vents 1927 Old Age Pensions Act F. P. Grove, A Search for America; Mazo de la Roche, Jalna 1928 Chatelaine begins publication 1929 Persons Case; Wall Street Crash Alfred Desrochers, Àl’ombre de l’Orford 1931 Statute of Westminster Jovette Bernier, La Chair décevante; Albert Pelletier, Carquois 1933 Claude-Henri Grignon,Un homme et son péché (radio serial 1939–62); Alain Grandbois, Né à Québec; Charles G. D. Roberts, Eyes of the Wilderness

xxiii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1932 Jean Narrache, Quand j’parl’ tout seul 1934 Morley Callaghan, Such Is My Beloved; Jean-Charles Harvey, Les Demi-Civilisés; Alain Grandbois, Poèmes; Médje Vézina, Chaque heure a son visage; Simone Routier, La Tentation 1935 John Buchan (Lord Tweedsmuir) Governor- General (1935–40) 1936 Canadian Broadcasting First Governor General’s Corporation established as Literary Awards; Morley independent Crown Callaghan, Now That April’s corporation; Trans-Canada Here and Other Stories;A.J.M. Airlines (changed to Air Smith et al., New Provinces Canada 1965) 1937 Donald Creighton, The Commercial Empire of the St. Lawrence, 1760–1850; Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau, Regards et jeux dans l’espace; Félix-Antoine Savard, Menaud, maître-draveur; Gratien Gélinas, Fridolinades 1938 Ringuet, Trente arpents 1939 Canada enters the Second National Film Board founded; World War Anne Marriott, The Wind Our Enemy; Irene Baird, Waste Heritage; Léo-Paul Desrosiers, Les Engagés du Grand Portage 1940 Unemployment Insurance Act; A. M. Klein, Hath Not a Jew; voting rights granted to E. J. Pratt, Brébeuf and His women in Quebec (the last Brethren province to do so) 1941 Pearl Harbor Emily Carr, Klee Wyck; Sinclair Ross, As For Me and My House; Hugh MacLennan, Barometer Rising 1942 Dominion Plebiscite Act; Earle Birney, David and Other Conscription Crisis; Poems Internment of Japanese Canadians

xxiv

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1943 A. J. M. Smith, News of the Phoenix; Book of Canadian Poetry: A Critical and Historical Anthology;E.K.Brown,On Canadian Poetry; Félix Leclerc, Adagio 1944 Donald Creighton, Dominion of the North; Gwethalyn Graham, Earth and High Heaven; Roger Lemelin, Au pied de la pente douce; Yves Thériault, Contes pour un homme seul; Alain Grandbois, Les Îles de la nuit 1945 Germany capitulates; nuclear Gabrielle Roy, Bonheur bombs dropped on d’occasion (1947 Prix Fémina); Hiroshima and Nagasaki; Hector de Saint-Denys Japan capitulates Garneau, Journal; Germaine Guèvremont, Le Survenant; Hugh MacLennan, Two Solitudes; Elizabeth Smart, By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept 1946 Canadian Citizenship Act Félix Leclerc, Pieds nus dans l’aube; Gilles Hénault, Théâtre en plein air; Berthelot Brunet, Histoire de la littérature canadienne-française; Lionel Groulx founds the Institut d’histoire de l’Amérique française 1947 Chinese Exclusion Act revoked; John Sutherland, Other GATT (General Agreement Canadians; Malcolm Lowry, on Tariﬀs and Trade) Under the Volcano; W. O. Mitchell, Who Has Seen the Wind; Rina Lasnier, Le Chant de la montée;Clément Marchand, Les Soirs rouges; Robert Charbonneau, La France et nous 1948 Japanese Canadians (as last Paul-Émile Borduas et al., Asian Canadians) acquire the Refus global; Gratien Gélinas, right to vote; Universal Tit-Coq; Roger Lemelin, Les

xxv

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural Declaration of Human Plouﬀe; Paul-Marie Lapointe, Rights, United Nations Le Vierge incendié 1949 Asbestos Strike in Quebec; Françoise Loranger, Mathieu; Newfoundland enters Robert Giguère, Faire naître; Confederation Paul Borduas, Projections libérantes; Hector de Saint- Denys Garneau, Poésies complètes 1950 Pierre Trudeau and Gérard Pelletier found Cité libre; Anne Hébert, Le Torrent; Harold Innis, Empire and Communications; Dorothy Livesay, Call My People Home; John Coulter, Riel; Gabrielle Roy, La Petite Poule d’eau; Robert Elie, La Fin des songes; Lionel Groulx, Histoire du Canada français depuis la découverte, 4 vols. 1951 Indian Act; Report of the Royal A. M. Klein, The Second Scroll; Commission on National Marshall McLuhan, The Development in the Arts, Mechanical Bride Letters and Sciences (the Massey Report) 1952 Vincent Massey ﬁrst Canadian Ernest Buckler, The Mountain Governor-General; National and the Valley; E. J. Pratt, Library Act; Universal Towards the Last Spike; Marcel Copyright Act Dubé, De l’autre côté du mur; Emile Nelligan, Poésies complètes, 1896–1899, ed. Luc Lacourcière; Ernest Gagnon, L’Homme d’ici 1953 Historic Sites and Monuments Anne Hébert, Le Tombeau des Act rois; Marcel Dubé, Zone; André Langevin, Poussière sur la ville 1954 Ethel Wilson, Swamp Angel; Mordecai Richler, The Acrobats; Hector de Saint- Denys Garneau, Journal; Yves Thériault, Aaron

xxvi

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1954–75 Vietnam War; Canada receives Margaret Laurence, A Tree for more than 125,000 draft Poverty evaders from the US 1955 Gabrielle Roy, Rue Deschambault; music: Glenn Gould records Bach’s Goldberg Variations; Félix Leclerc records “Moi, mes souliers” 1956 Avro Arrow production Leonard Cohen, Let Us Compare cancelled Mythologies; Adele Wiseman, The Sacriﬁce; Sam Selvon, The Lonely Londoners 1957 Lester Pearson receives the New Canadian Library begins Nobel Peace Prize; Canada publication under the Council Act editorship of Malcolm Ross; Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism; John Marlyn, Under the Ribs of Death;Mordecai Richler, AChoiceofEnemies; Jacques Languirand, Les Grands Départs 1958 Yves Thériault, Agaguk; Norman Levine, Canada Made Me; Marcel Dubé, Un simple soldat; Jacques Ferron, Les Grands Soleils; Michel van Schendel, Poèmes de l’Amérique étrangère; Prix France-Canada founded (1982: Prix Québec-Paris) 1959 Maurice Duplessis, Premier of Canadian Literature begins Quebec, dies, ending “La publication under the grande noirceur”; St. editorship of George Lawrence Seaway completed Woodcock; Liberté established; Mordecai Richler, The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz; Sheila Watson, The Double Hook; Irving Layton, A Red Carpet for the Sun;Hugh MacLennan, The Watch That Ends the Night;Gratien Gélinas, Bousille et les justes; Marie-Claire Blais, La Belle Bête; Gilbert Langevin, Àla gueule du jour

xxvii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural 1960 Quiet Revolution 1960–6; Margaret Avison, Winter Sun; Rassemblement pour Phyllis Brett Young, The l’indépendance nationale Torontonians; Margaret (RIN) founded; Status Indians Laurence, This Side Jordan; acquire the right to vote; Brian Moore, The Luck of regular jet-service Toronto– Ginger Coﬀey; Jean-Paul Vancouver Desbiens, Les Insolences d’un frère untel; Gérard Bessette, Le Libraire; Châtelaine begins publication 1961 Parent Commission begins Margaret Atwood, Double work Persephone; TISH begins publication (1961–9); Jean Le Moyne, Convergences 1962 Trans-Canada highway Marshall McLuhan, The completed Gutenberg Galaxy; Earle Birney, Ice Cod Bell or Stone; Rudy Wiebe, Peace Shall Destroy Many; Gilles Marcotte, Une Littérature qui se fait; Jacques Ferron, Contes du pays incertain 1963 Lester Pearson Prime Minister Solange Chaput-Rolland and (1963–8); Jacques Ferron Gwethalyn Graham, Chers founds the Rhinoceros Party; ennemis / Dear Enemies; the Front de libération du Farley Mowat, Never Cry Québec (FLQ) plants its ﬁrst Wolf; Leonard Cohen, The bomb (at the English- Favourite Game; Margaret speaking CKGM radio Laurence, The Tomorrow- station) Tamer; The Prophet’s Camel Bell; Mordecai Richler, The Incomparable Atuk; Parti pris begins publication (1963–8); Pierre Vadeboncœur, La Ligne du risque; Gatien Lapointe, Ode au Saint- Laurent 1964 Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media; Margaret Laurence, The Stone Angel; Jane Rule, Desert of the Heart; Earle Birney, Near False Creek Mouth; Paul

xxviii

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural Chamberland, L’Afficheur hurle; Terre Québec; Claude Jasmin, Ethel et le terroriste; Jacques Renaud, Le Cassé; Jean Basile, La Jument des Mongoles; film: Gilles Groulx, Le Chat dans le sac; Michel Brault, Pierre Perreault, Pour la suite du monde 1965 Canada adopts the Maple Leaf George Grant, Lament for a flag Nation; Carl F. Klinck et al., Literary History of Canada in English; Hubert Aquin, Prochain épisode; Marie-Claire Blais, Une saison dans la vie d’Emmanuel (Prix Médicis); Claire Martin, Dans un gant de fer; Jacques Godbout, Le Couteau sur la table; Roland Giguère, L’Âge de la parole: poèmes inédits 1949–1960; Jacques Ferron, La Nuit; Jacques Brault, Mémoire; first performance of “Mon pays” by Gilles Vigneault; Prix France-Québec founded (now France-Québec Jean- Hamelin); Edmund Wilson, O Canada: An American’s Notes on Canadian Culture; film: Gilles Carle, La Vie heureuse de Léopold Z; Arthur Lamothe, Poussière sur la ville 1966 Medical Care Act Leonard Cohen, Beautiful Losers; Réjean Ducharme, L’Avalée des avalés 1967 Centennial of Confederation; House of Anansi founded by Expo 67 in Montreal; René Dave Godfrey and Dennis Levesque founds the Lee; Marshall McLuhan, Mouvement souveraineté- The Medium Is the Massage; association George Ryga, The Ecstasy of

xxix

Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural Rita Joe; John Herbert, Fortune and Men’s Eyes; P. K. Page, Cry Ararat!; Scott Symons, Place d’Armes; Jacques Godbout, Salut Galarneau!; Glenn Gould, The Idea of North; Yves Préfontaine, Pays sans parole; André Prévost, Michèle Lalonde, Terre des hommes (oratorio); Michel Brault, Entre la mer et l’eau douce; Gérald Godin, Les Cantouques; Pierre de Grandpré, ed., Histoire de la littérature française du Québec, 4 vols., begins publication (1967–9) 1968 Pierre Trudeau Prime Minister Dennis Lee, Civil Elegies; (1968–79; 1980–4); Parti Margaret Atwood, The Québécois founded Animals in That Country; bill bissett, awake in the red desert; Alice Munro, Dance of the Happy Shades; Mordecai Richler, Cocksure; Margaret Atwood, The Animals in That Country; Hubert Aquin, Trou de mémoire (refuses Governor General’s Award); Pierre Vallières, Nègres blancs d’Amérique; Michel Tremblay, Les Belles-Sœurs; Denis Héroux, Valérie; Roch Carrier, La Guerre yes sir!; Fernand Dumont, Le Lieu de l’homme; Victor-Lévy Beaulieu begins La Vraie Saga des Beauchemin 1969 Oﬃcial Languages Act passed; Harold Cardinal, The Unjust White Paper Society: The Tragedy of Canada’s Indians; George Grant, Technology and Empire; Jacques Ferron, Le Ciel de

xxx