County Climate Risk Profile Series

Climate Risk Profile County Highlights

Kakamega County has a predominantly crop farming economy with livestock farming taking a small portion of the available arable land. Sixty-one percent of households engaged in crop and livestock production. The total hecterage under food crops and cash crops is 255,483 ha. The proportion of people living below the poverty line in the county is 51.3 percent as compared to the national level of 45.9 percent. The high level of poverty has implications on the county’s efforts in development initiatives since no meaningful development can take place with over half of the population still unable to meet their basic needs. Analysis of historic climate data for Kakamega in recent decades shows that both first and second season means temperatures have increased by approximately 0.4 and 0.3°C respectively. These changes have resulted in a moderate increase in heat stress days during those periods. Analysis of rainfall over a 35- year period (1981-2015) showed that average rainfall had increased by over 15 percent in the first season and 30 percent in the second season. However, rainfall variability from year to year has also increased, resulting in an increased risk and uncertainty of occurrence of floods and droughts. Both hazards have had increasing impacts on agricultural production and the livelihoods of the county’s inhabitants over the years. Current and potential adaptation strategies for crop farming include conservation agriculture, soil and water conservation, planting early-maturing and high-yielding crop varieties, agro- forestry and irrigation among others. Improved post-harvest management, and value addition are also practiced as a means of improving incomes and hence resilience to hazards. In the livestock sub-sector adaptation strategies include pasture establishment and conservation, disease control and surveillance, use of ethno-veterinary services (indigenous herbs), use of alternative and resilient fodder varieties, formulation of feeds, use of veterinary services, mass vaccination, rearing of drought-tolerant livestock breeds, adoption of feed conservation. Despite the on-farm and off-farm efforts to increase resilience to climate change, farmers’ adaptive capacity is low and agricultural yields have continued to decrease over the past years. Women and youth are among the most vulnerable groups to climate hazards in the county, yet they also have the lowest adoption rates for adaptation strategies. To fight food insecurity and poverty, efforts should be made to create more off-farm jobs (including in agricultural input supply, processing and marketing) and resilient alternative livelihoods particularly for women and youth. Locally identified and indigenous practices and interventions should be examined closely for potential to be integrated into modern resilience building practices, hence encouraging uptake through a bottom-up approach. This may be achieved by supporting investment projects prioritised by the community to improve livelihood. Successful implementation of climate adaptation strategies requires strengthening of the institutional and financial capacity of the respective stakeholders. This will enable institutions to provide support and incentives to farmers and thus keep them engaged in sustainable agricultural activities. There is need for accurate and reliable early warning information, and improved extension services, so as to adapt to and cope with the effects of climate change. However, the capacity of these institutions to effectively deliver the services is constrained by limited funds and human resource capacity.

Republic of Kenya List of acronyms

ASDSP Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme CBO Community Based Organization CIDP County Integrated Development Plan ERA Economic Review of Agriculture FAW Fall Army Worm FBO Farmers Based Organization FGD Focus Group Discussion FHH Female Headed Households GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change KALRO Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization KAVES Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises KDB Kenya Dairy Board KEFRI Kenya Forest Research Institute KENAFF Kenya National Federation of Farmers KES Kenya shillings KFS Kenya Forest Service KMD Kenya Meteorological Department KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics KWS Kenya Wildlife Service Kakamega MOALF Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries MoWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation MHH Male Headed Households NCCRS National Climate Change Response Strategy NEMA National Environment Management Authority NGO Non-Governmental Organization PSP Participatory Scenario Planning ROP Rural Outreach Programme SID Society for International Development VCC Value Chain Commodity YHH Youth Headed Households

2 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series Foreword

Climate change is becoming one of the most serious are major contributors to the high poverty and food challenges to Kenya’s achievement of its development insecurity in the county. Despite receiving high goals as described under Vision 2030. Kenya is already average annual rainfall, the area is characterised by highly susceptible to climate-related hazards, and in erratic rainfall and environmental degradation with many areas extreme events and variability of weather adverse effects on livelihoods in the county. These are now the norm; rainfall is irregular and unpredictable; effects include declining water availability, drying up while droughts have become more frequent during the of springs and streams1, reduced rainfall intensity, long rainy season and severe floods during the short changes in season onset (and duration), and frequent rains. The arid and semi-arid areas are particularly flash floods. These changes threaten food and water hard hit by these climate hazards, thereby putting the security, increase outbreaks of pests and diseases, lives and livelihoods of millions of households at risk. and decrease sustainability of livelihoods among farmers. For instance, in 2017, the maize crop in In 2010, Kenya developed a National Climate Change was severely threatened by the Fall Response Strategy (NCCRS) which recognized the Army Worm (Spodoptera frugiperda) invasion. The importance of climate change impacts on the country’s rapidly spreading pest occasioned losses in maize of development. This was followed by the National Climate up to 100 percent2. During heavy rains and flooding, Change Action Plan (NCCAP) in 2012 which provided a humans are exposed to water-borne diseases such as means for implementation of the NCCRS, highlighting diarrhea, dysentery, cholera, and typhoid. Reduced a number of agricultural adaptation priorities. The soil fertility has led to conflicts linked to competition focus of these initiatives has been at the national level, for natural resources3. In addition, diseases such as and there is need to mainstream climate change into malaria, typhoid, and upper respiratory tract infections county level policies, programmes, and development have increased; while migration in search of fertile land plans; therefore ensuring locally relevant, integrated have increased. adaptation responses with active involvement of local stakeholders. The profile is organised into six sections, each reflecting an essential analytical step in understanding The Government of Kenya (GoK) through the Ministry current and potential adaptation options in key local of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF), with agricultural value chain commodities. The document funding by the International Development Agency first offers an overview of the county’s main agricultural (IDA-World Bank Group) is therefore implementing commodities key for food security and livelihoods as well the Kenya Climate-Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP). as major challenges to agricultural sector development This projects objective is to increase agricultural in the county. This is followed by identification of productivity and build resilience to climate change the main climate hazards based on the analysis risks in targeted smallholder farming and pastoral of historical climate data and climate projections communities in Kenya, and in the event of an eligible including scientific assessment of climate indicators crisis or emergency, to provide immediate and for dry spells, flooding and heat stress among other effective response. This Climate Risk Profile has been key climate hazards for agriculture. The document conducted within the framework of KCSAP and aims continues with an analysis of vulnerabilities and risks to inform county governments and stakeholders on the posed by the hazards on the respective value chains. climate change risks and opportunities for agriculture Based on these vulnerabilities, current and potential so they are able to integrate these perspectives into on-farm adaptation options and off-farm services are county development. discussed. The text also provides snapshots of the enabling policy, institutional and governance context This document presents the Climate Risk Profile for for adoption of resilience-building strategies. Finally, Kakamega County, which is highly vulnerable to pathways for strengthening institutional capacity to climate hazards. The hazards, mostly drought and address climate risks are presented. occasional floods (e.g. in Namulungu and Likuyani),

1 For example, River Isiukhu which runs through the county and forms part of River Nzoia catchment, has had its land cover reduced due encroachment by communities within and nearby the catchment. Minimal efforts by farmers in conservation activities have led to frequent landslides in Khuvasali village within the catchment (Wekulo, 2017). 2 http://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2017/04/10/armyworm-invasion-in-rift-valley-latest-major-threat-to-grain-basket_c1540238 3 See Wanjala (2016), Wekulo (2017), NAAIAP (2014), Waswa (2012), Diwani (2013), Nambiro (2007), World Agroforestry Center (2006)

Kakamega County 3 Agricultural context exacerbates the challenges brought about by climate variability. The county is a net importer of agricultural produce. Economic relevance of farming Female and male adults provided the largest share Kakamega County is located in the former Western of family labor in crop production, while the youth Province of Kenya and covers an area of 3,050.3 km2. provided the least. For livestock production, male adults The county boarders County to the south, Busia contributed the highest share of labor while the youth and Counties to the west, and Trans provided the least. Hired labor for crop production Nzoia Counties to the north, to was mainly provided by male adults with the youth the north-east and to the east. It lies providing the least share. In livestock production, hired between longitudes 34 and 35° East and latitudes labor was provided largely by the youth. In terms of 0 and 1° North. Administratively; the county has 12 decision making, females dominated for food crops sub-counties with 60 wards consisting of 398,709 such as bean, sweet potato, kale, sorghum, mitoo, and households. It has 12 constituencies, 12 sub-counties, cowpea vegetables as well as for small livestock such 24 divisions, 72 locations, and 233 sub locations as chickens. Males dominated in making decisions (GoK, 2013). on market-oriented crops such as soybean, maize, and groundnut as well as on cattle. The youth did not The economy of Kakamega County is driven mainly have a particular domain in decision-making in crops. by agriculture. According to an ASDSP survey (2014), This stratified decision making helps safeguard the 22.2, 11.2, and 1.7 percent of households’ rear sheep, household’s agricultural production capacity ensuring goats, and pigs respectively. Chicken rearing is pre- sustained food security and recovery from climate dominant with 92 percent of the households keeping shocks. them; while only 0.7 percent keep donkeys. Eggs generated KES 17.7 million while 47.6 MT of poultry People and livelihoods meat had a value of KES 7.13 million. According to the County Livestock Production Annual Report of 2016, According to the 2009 Kenya Population and Housing cattle are reared by 53.2 percent of the population Census, the population of Kakamega County was and produce about 145.8 million liters of milk and 1,660,651, consisting of 797,112 males (48 percent) 364,000 kg of beef per year. Aquaculture is the most and 863,539 females (52 percent) with a projected important fisheries enterprise in the county although it average population density of 665 persons per km2 exists at subsistence level with a few commercial fish by 2017. In 2012 the population was 1,789,989, and farm enterprises. Tilapia and catfish form the main projected to reach 2,028,325 by 2017 at a growth rate fish species cultured. In 2014 there were 6,300 fish of 2.5 percent per annum. This has put great pressure farmers in the county with 6,900 fishponds producing on socio-economic facilities, especially health, 700,000 kg of fish valued at KES140 million annually education, and land resources and environmental (GoK, 2014). degradation (e.g. depletion of water resources and cultivation of marginal lands). On average, annual per capita income was KES 37,429 with salaried employment and farm labour wages The county has 220,880 ha of arable land out of the constituting the highest proportion of the income. total surface area of 3,050,300 ha. Most of this land Female-headed households (FHH) earned KES 28,636 is under subsistence crops (43 percent), commercial while MHH earned KES 42,669. Crop-related on-farm crops (28 percent) and homesteads (15 percent). income was earned by 51, 45, and 44 percent of male- Approximately 40 percent of households had title deeds , female-, and youth-headed households respectively. while 51 percent owned land but did not have titles. Income from livestock activities was earned by 22, 21, The predominant settlement pattern is rural in nature. and 15 percent of male-, female-, and youth-headed This is reflected by a total rural population of around households (YHH) respectively. On-farm income 72.2 percent as compared to an urban population of earned a household an average of KES195,333 27.8 percent. There is need to encourage optimal use annually with fisheries activities contributing the of land through diversification of economic activities largest portion followed by crop activities (GoK, 2014). and reduce over-reliance on land as the main and only Seventy six percent of the households did not have source of livelihood. The Commission on Revenue enough food for their family needs throughout the Allocation states that the proportion of people living year largely due to poverty, small land sizes and lack below the poverty line (defined as people living of market information (FAO, 2016), which further below 1 USD per day) in the county is 51.3 percent,

4 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series above the national level of 45.9 percent, largely due cassava, finger millet, and sorghum. Maize, sugarcane to high dependency ratio, high population growth are generally grown on large-scale farms while bean, rate, sub-division of land, negative cultural practices millet, and sorghum are grown on small-scale farms. and influences, low entrepreneurial base, rural urban The main cash crops are maize, tea, and sugarcane. migration, and overdependence on subsistence and The total acreage under food crops is 114,053.6 ha rain-fed agriculture. Other factors contributing to while the land under cash crops is 141,429.7 ha, the poverty include poor farming methods, overdependence total cropped area being 255,483.30ha. on one cash crop (sugarcane), low-quality livestock breeds and management practices, high population The county has two main ecological zones: the Upper density, poor infrastructure, inaccessibility to quality Medium (UM) and the Lower Medium (LM). The health, low levels of entrepreneurial skills, inadequate Upper Medium covers the central and northern parts capital to invest in enterprises with high returns, and of the county including Ikolomani, Lurambi, Malava, high HIV and AIDS prevalence (GoK, 2013). Navakholo, and Shinyalu, which practise intensive maize, tea, beans, and horticultural production mainly Only 29.5 percent of Kakamega County’s households on small scale; and Lugari and Likuyani where small- have access to potable water, with 61 percent of medium scale farming is practised. The LM covers a residents using improved sources of water, while 84 major portion of the southern part of the county that percent use improved sanitation. The percentage includes , Khwisero, East, Mumias of households with access to piped water is just 5.9 West, and Matungu. In this zone, the main economic percent, far below the national percentage of 44. activity is sugarcane production with some farmers Firewood is the most common cooking fuel; being practising maize, sweet potatoes, tea, ground nut, and used by 86 percent of MHH and 89 percent of FHH. cassava production. Only 6 percent of the inhabitants use electricity as their main source of lighting. Approximately 83 percent Kakamega County is endowed with diverse natural of the population can read and write, although only resources, which include water and natural forests. 19 percent of the inhabitants have secondary school The main water sources include the eight main rivers education while 21 percent have no formal education. in the county: Rivers Nzoia, Yala, Lusumu, Isiukhu, Malnutrition is a challenge in the county, with 28 Sasala, Viratsi, Kipkaren and Sivilie. The county has percent of children under 5 years being stunted and 2 a natural forest covering Shinyalu and Lurambi; other percent being wasted (KNBS, 2013). farm forests have been integrated with agriculture. It has one natural gazetted forest covering 188.7 km2 According to a survey undertaken by the Agricultural and one non-gazetted forest that occupy 26.5 km2. Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP) Commercial forests are found in the northern parts of in 2013, the labor force was estimated at 889,552 in the county. The main forest products include firewood 2012 and projected to reach 1 million people by 2017, and charcoal as fuel, medicinal plants, honey for representing 49.7 percent of the county population commercial and domestic consumption, and timber and comprising 471,779 females and 417,773 males. for construction of houses. These forests are home Agriculture accounts for the greatest employment to indigenous trees, large species of birds, butterflies, at 756,711 people (although this is not full time monkeys, snakes, baboons, hares, and rabbits. They employment). Self-employment is important in the also attract tourism and provide research sites for a county. Sectors that form a substantial number of number of institutions (GoK, 2014). self-employed persons include the Jua Kali, cottage industries and boda boda. Others are engaged in The average farm size is 1.4 ha for small-scale holders mining, forestry, brick making, and construction (GoK, while large-scale holders have an average of 4 ha, the 2014). small land sizes attributed to high population density. However, land holding tends to be bigger in Likuyani Agricultural activities and Lugari sub-counties compared to the other sub- counties. Crop yields are generally low; with maize The primary occupation of the inhabitants of the county and bean yields being below 0.9 tons per ha. These is crop and livestock production, in which 61 percent issues form part of the multifaceted vulnerability of the of the households are engaged. However, changes in county’s reliance on rain-fed agricultural production climate coupled with declining soil fertility in the county and reduce the capacity of households to respond have an impact on crop production, and hence affect to climate shocks. However, crop productivity of food security especially among small-scale farmers. horticultural crops was high. The livestock department The main crops grown are sugarcane, maize, bean, is encouraging dairy farming and upgrading the local

Kakamega County 5 Livelihoods and agriculture in Kakamega breeds to improve quality and quantity of milk through Agricultural value chain commodities the one dairy cow per household policy. Of the broad diversity of crops grown in the county, With the exception of basal and top dressing fertiliser, various value chains have been prioritised as being technology adoption and input use have relatively low strategic for the county as indicated in the County adoption rates. The three major inputs farmers used Integrated Development Plan (CIDP) and the were planting fertiliser (67.8 percent), organic manure Agriculture Sector Development Support Programme (42.7 percent), and foliar feed (37 percent). Farmers (ASDSP) as well as by government institutions such often experience constraints in acquiring seed, planting as the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research fertiliser, and foliar feed fertiliser respectively. Youth- Organization (KALRO). For the development of this headed households used more planting fertiliser in tea County Climate Risk Profile, four major value chain growing than male- and female-headed households. commodities (VCCs) were selected for in-depth In sugarcane production, male-headed households analysis based on: prioritisation in county frameworks used more fertiliser than female and youth-headed and programmes; economic value (KES/bag or KES/ households. About 48 percent of the households4 livestock or KES/unit livestock product)5; resilience to had contractual arrangements for marketing their current weather variability and future climate change6; agricultural produce, mostly for sugarcane, while and number of economically active people engaged individual farmers funded and marketed horticultural in the commodity’s value chain (including vulnerable crops- mainly capsicum, tomato, and watermelon on groups, women, youth, and the poor7). The VCCs their own. Contract farming allows access to support selected are; maize, local chicken, cattle (milk), and services (Kweyu, 2013) and also facilitate the adoption local vegetables of coping and adaptation strategies (Azumah, 2016). Grading and packaging were the most practiced Maize methods of value addition for most of the crops, especially flowers, vegetables, pulses, and roots and Maize is the staple food for the county and is the tubers. Milling was commonly practiced for grains predominant annual crop; being produced by 81- and to a very small extent, for roots and tubers. Value 100 percent of the households. The crop is produced addition on fiber crops was conducted by 25 percent, on small to medium scale for both subsistence and chopping by 9 percent, fire wood by 9 percent, and commercial purposes in the north-eastern part of the charcoal by 7 percent of the households. county including Nzoia catchment area. Commercial production at medium scale, is found in the north- The main input related constraints experienced by eastern part of the county. Small-scale or subsistence farming households included high input prices, production is practiced throughout the county. Maize timely access to inputs and long distances to input production is characterised by mixed cropping with markets. Other constraints were limited access to women providing the bulk of both skilled and unskilled desired brands and types of inputs, inadequate labor. Agro-dealers sell inputs to farmers at market inputs packaged in inappropriate quantities that are prices while the county government provides subsidized unaffordable by farmers and poor quality of inputs. prices for seed and fertiliser. Some farmers are able to Use of inputs in livestock production is low with the access loans from banks and other financial institutions exception of acaricides, de-wormers and vaccines. Half to support their maize farming. Transporting and households accessed agriculture-related services from marketing is mostly done by the farmers themselves, public providers and were satisfied with the services middlemen and hired transporters. Milling is done provided. However, market information, value addition both by farmers and local processors. technologies, formal savings, and agricultural credit are generally limited in the county. Access to climate The crop is grown mostly in the Upper Medium (UM) information is generally high, mostly from radio and Ecological Zone covering the central and southern traditional knowledge, however capacity to respond to parts of the county. At least 70 percent of maize farmers climate shocks and early warnings is still low. use improved varieties. In 2014, 70,993 ha were under

4 This is disaggregated as 46 percent of male-headed, 52 percent of female-headed, and 51 percent of youth-headed households. 5 As stated in the 2015 Economic Review of Agriculture (ERA). 6 Resilience is as defined in IPCC (2012); where we consider the general risks posed by climate change in the county. Value chains that are perceived to survive the local conditions under the current production systems holding other things constant (including variations in technology adoption rates among farmers/pastoralists) are considered more resilient. 7 Categorisation of “poor” people was based on workshop participant perceptions and not on any standard index normally used to measure poverty.

Kakamega County 7 maize cultivation and produced 2,026,635 bags of exist for poultry and are conventionally referred to maize. This is the equivalent to 30 bags8 per hectare as the free range or traditional poultry system; the (GoK, 2015). About 6.9 per cent of the maize crop semi intensive or backyard production system; and is harvested for home consumption while still green. the commercial intensive production system. Most This reduces the final tonnage of maize harvested and local poultry are generally owned and managed by exposes many households to hunger (GoK, 2013). women and children. Free range chicken places few or no additional burdens on owners apart from Over 80 percent of the households in the county grew the provision of household food scraps; the chicken improved (high yielding) varieties of maize9 using seed finds their own feed and require little supervision. from local agro-dealers. Use of planting fertiliser and Improved local chicken are produced in the north- organic manure is common in growing maize, however eastern part of the county such as Nzoia catchment sometimes lack knowledge on good agronomic area, central and southern parts of the county that practices such as proper plant spacing and fertiliser include Kakamega town and the environs on small to application rates. Where pH is below the critical level, medium scale levels. The average flock sizes for large- there is often need for application of manure, compost scale production are 100 and above. Commercial or agricultural lime. production of chicken at medium scale (flock size of 20-100), is found in the north eastern as well as central Pest and disease control is very important for high and southern parts of the county. The small-scale, grain quality. The main maize pest is helicoverpa (corn mixed farming (flock size 1-20) is found throughout earthworm) which affects the tasseling stage, but can be the county. In the local poultry value chain, farmers tackled using an integrated pest management system mainly engage in feeding, cleaning, vaccination, such as a naturally occurring nucleopolyhedovirus deworming, slaughtering, processing, collection, (NPV). Maize stem borer (Buseeola fusca) and fall transportation and selling. Simple value addition to armyworm are also major pests which can result in a chicken includes de-feathering, differentiation of parts significant reduction in yields. Diseases such as maize and packaging. Value addition to eggs is achieved by streak virus (MSV), and Maize Lethal Necrosis Disease10 boiling, fertilisation, and packaging (GoK, 2014). (MLND), are also common, but can be controlled by ensuring plant health through good agricultural In the free-range production system, the chickens are practices as well as through regular scouting for insect left to gather their own food in the open (free range). vectors and early appearance of the diseases. A survey The system is broadly divided into two sub systems: on the prevalence of MLND in Kenya stated that the mixed farming systems, which include both crop and severity in the county was ‘mild’ (Wangai, 2013). poultry production; and rearing of improved breeds and crosses. The free-range system forms about 89 Post-harvest management is assisted through the use percent of the total poultry production in Kakamega of the AgroZ and PICS storage bags which do not County and is largely a low input system. Under this require use of chemicals before cereal storage. Some system there is limited breed or age selection, as well farmers have also invested in modern storage facilities as limited feed supplementation. Despite the minimal such as household metallic silos. Major constraints supplementation, feeding of indigenous chicken is affecting the value chain are inadequacy of financial important in order to increase production of meat and capacity to promote the produce, and exploitation by eggs, as well as increase resilience to pests, diseases brokers. In addition weather variability and climate and climate related hazards such as heat waves and change have affected maize production by changing droughts. Improved chicken are also utilised. Such pest and disease patterns; reduced soil infertility improved chicken is dual purpose (egg and meat), caused by leaching; yield losses due to extended dry laying the first egg around 4.5 months of age, and spells; and; floods that cause soil erosion (Barasa, producing 180-280 eggs in a lifetime. The males 2015). are fast growing and can attain a weight of 2kg by 5 months. The high productivity will reduce greenhouse Chicken (local) gas (GHG) emissions per unit of product. In 2016, the County Government of Kakamega provided KES22 Chicken is one of the ceremonial meals of the Luhya million to local farmer groups in Khwisero, Mumias people, hence the importance of local chicken farming West, Lugari, Navakholo, Mumias East, Lurambi, in the county. Three distinct production systems Malava, Shinyalu, Butere, Ikolomani, Matungu and

8 Each bag is approximately 90kgs in weight 9 They include: High Altitude Composite (HAC) (KH600-11D, H600-15A, KH600-16A, KH600-14E, KH600-17A, KH600-18A, KH600-19A, H600-20A, KH600-21A, KH600-22A, H600-23A, KH600-24A, KH600-25A, H600-26A, KH600-27A, H6218, H6213, H6210, 614D, H625, H626, H627, H628, and H629 10 Also referred to as Corn Lethal Necrosis (CLN)

8 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series Likuyani sub-county for chicken production. A total of the county´s population is engaged in the cattle of 60,500 improved indigenous poultry, supplied milk value chain, and these are mostly smallholder by KALRO, were distributed in the financial years subsistence farmers. Farmers are involved in activities 2015/2016 and 2016/2017. such as feeding, milking, spraying, transportation, storage, and marketing at small scale. Both private Breeding management has also become more and government veterinary services are available in the important, and includes practices such as serial county. The Kakamega Dairy Cooperative plays a role hatching, synchronised hatching, and artificial in processing and marketing milk. Feeds are sourced incubation. Pests and disease management is largely through farmer groups in Lugari and Likuyani important in local chicken farming. Important diseases as well as from KALRO Kakamega source feeds. include: Newcastle Disease, pullorum disease, Dairy cattle raised for commercial purposes are found coccidiosis and fowl typhoid. Vaccination technologies mainly in the north-eastern part of the county, while include; Thermostable New Castle Disease vaccine – production at medium scale is practised in the eastern Avivax I and Strategic worm control for local chicken. parts of the county.

Poultry production is one climate change coping Other cattle breeds available in the county include: strategies, especially through diversification from crop Friesian (average 7,800 kg milk annually); Ayrshire production to poultry farming (Mulinya, 2017). Poultry (5,400-7,800 kg milk); Guernsey (average 6,650 kg also play a crucial role in addressing food insecurity milk), Jersey (average 6,800 kg milk), Sahiwal (1,500- and malnutrition in rural households as a source of 2,200 kg milk) and their crosses. Several breeding income generation, asset accumulation and protein. options are available, these include: in-calf heifer and cull cow replacement, artificial insemination (AI), Cattle (milk) bull services, and assisted reproduction technology (ART). Zero-grazing, stall feeding is used to increase The dairy sub-sector in Kenya is projected as the milk productivity, while also providing opportunities most developed in sub-Saharan Africa. At the for manure management and collection. Other national level, this sector contributes 3.5 percent of management issues that are important in daily the total GDP. Many of the stakeholders in the dairy production include feeding strategies such grass sector are subsistence farmers. However, despite selection11; use of feed concentrates such as dairy its sound performance, Kenya’s dairy industry is meal, sunflower seed cake, cotton seed cake, bran, bedeviled by several challenges including inadequate and brewer’s waste (all of which are sources of energy feeds, prevalence of diseases, unavailability of quality and protein); use of fodder legumes such as Leucaena replacement stock, low adoption of technologies, high spp., Calliandra spp, and Sesbania spp; and use of costs of farm inputs, and low value addition to milk home-made rations. EM-Fortified milk replacer diets among dairy producers. There is need to encourage are available at commercial outlets and KALRO dairy farming and upgrade the local breeds to improve centers including molasses-urea mineral blocks and quality and quantity of milk through the one dairy cow multi-nutrient supplements. per household policy and access to modern breeding methods. Modern methods of livestock keeping Animal health management is important for the should be encouraged to enhance production and treatment and control of many diseases of dairy cattle. raise farmer incomes. Zero-grazing is now emphasised Some of the notable diseases are East Coast Fever as a strategy for commercial farming. (ECF) and Foot and Mouth disease. Immunisation against ECF, routine vaccination and de-worming are Milk yields in Kakamega average 3.8 liters per cow necessary while scheduled farm visits by a veterinarian per day from local cattle during the dry season and in early lactation and during the breeding period is 6.1 liters per cow per day from cross-breed cattle. important. Trypanosomes and ticks are also challenges During the wet season, milk yields for male headed for production in the county, and can greatly reduce households can be as high as 4.2 liters per cow per ruminant productivity. day from local cattle and 7.2 liters per cow per day from cross-breed cattle. Only 1 percent of MHH The majority (60%) of the farm systems in the county sold milk to processors; FHH sold more milk to are small-mixed subsistence (Birnholz C, 2017) that institutions such as schools and hospitals. About 47 rely on rains for livestock feed and ultimately for good percent of households’ boiled milk while 38 percent milk production. As such, variability in rain directly fermented it as a value addition method, however affects milk production, with increased milk supply only 2 percent made higher value products such as during the rainy season as compared to the dry season yoghurt (GoK, 2014). Between 41 and 60 percent (GoK, 2014).

11 Efficient easily digestible feed is important both for productivity as well as for reducing methane emissions.

Kakamega County 9 Local Vegetables on local vegetables compared with exotic ones. Most of the vegetables have a bitter taste and a strong These include Amaranthus (Terere), African nightshade smell, so they repel some pests. Farmers practising (Managu), spider plant (Chisaga), cowpeas (kunde) organic conservation farming in parts of western and Jute mallow (Mrenda) (See Annex 1 for more Kenya incorporate leaves and stems of bitter plants in information on the vegetables). Until the introduction the soil like Tithonia diversifolia and Solanum nigrum of county governments, production of these local with the aim of keeping off nematodes in vegetable vegetables was mainly on a subsistence basis, often gardens. With this treatment, farmers have reported by intercropping with other crops. However, some reduced nematode attack on their exotic vegetables. farmers have seen the economic benefits of local In commercial farming of indigenous vegetables, vegetables due to availability of markets and have pests and diseases such as viral, bacterial and fungal started allocating substantial portions of their land diseases, nematodes, weeds, and insect pests (aphids, for production. This has also changed the formerly moths, thrips, leaf miners boll worms, bugs, mites) rain-fed local vegetable farming to include planting may occur. Combinations of attractants, sanitation along riverbanks and/or supplementary watering in and traps, bio-pesticides and chemical application some areas during dry seasons. Most farmers still have been developed for use by farmers. Post-harvest adopt traditional management practices where seeds handling, solar drying and processing technologies to are broadcast and end up being closely spaced in the prolong shelf life to maintain quality of local vegetables field. This provides good ground cover, which reduces are available. These include: recipes on utilisation, the impact of rain water on the soil12. During land enhanced utilisation, and continuous availability of preparation, the un-harvested parts are ploughed back vegetable food products and utilisation of by-products into the soil, thus adding to the soil organic matter such as compost to enhance soil fertility and quality of content. the environment. However, more research is required on product development and marketing for food and About 81-100 percent of the county´s population is nutrition security. engaged in the local vegetables value chain. Farmers are involved in activities such as buying seeds, land Agricultural sector challenges preparation, planting, weeding, harvesting, and marketing. Local vegetables are produced on a Agricultural sector growth and development is crucial semi- commercial and small-scale basis in the south to Kenya’s overall economic and social development. western parts of the county. Commercial semi-small- In particular, agriculture significantly contributes to the scale vegetable farming is practiced across the county; national economy; supports food security and nutrition; mixed farming is practiced in Mumias and Butere sub- generates incomes; and provides employment both Counties. Seed companies, agro-dealers, KALRO, and directly and indirectly for the population. Sustained NGOs such as the Rural Outreach Programme provide agricultural growth is therefore critical to uplifting the seeds and other inputs. Extension agents and NGOs standards of living of Kakamega people. Kakamega provide small-scale support to on-farm production. County, however, faces a number of challenges that need to be overcome for this growth to occur. The main The popularity of local vegetables arises from their high challenges to agricultural production in the county nutritive and medicinal value as well as the large market include: inability of farmers to afford the optimum use demand and adaptability to the local environment. of inputs, technology, agricultural information, financial Some vegetables like grain Amaranth are currently services, and insurance. Other challenges are: low being incorporated by milling companies into making crop productivity due to declining soil fertility; small, composite flours due to their nutritive value. However, uneconomical sizes of land; lengthy land adjudication the fact that most species are open pollinated and their processes; poor gender equity in land tenure system; seeds are therefore easily saved by farmers over many poor farming methods; over-dependence on one cash seasons has discouraged commercial investment in crop; lack of storage facilities; inadequacy of capital to their seed systems. invest in high- yielding areas; high prevalence of HIV and AIDs; poor road infrastructure, livestock diseases Farmers use inorganic fertilisers, organic fertilisers, especially tick-borne diseases; and trypanosomiasis. and manure in local vegetable production. Pest and disease management is important, although farmers Farm produce has been reported to go bad due to have reported fewer incidences of insect pest attack inadequate storage facilities in the county; post-harvest

12 Local vegetables production is itself considered an adaptation strategy (Stöber 2017) but it still lacks technical information on optimal production and appropriate cropping systems. There has been lack of agronomic packages and access to technical information has been very limited, therefore extension workers have, limited knowledge to advise farmers (Abukutsa-Onyango, 2010).

10 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series Agricultural value chain commodities in Kakamega

storage is often handled poorly. Although there are among the local populations. Poor infrastructure private storage services, very few farmers are able to increases transportation costs and leads to inflated use these due to inadequate knowledge and inability prices of food and other basic commodities. Poor to transport their produce to these facilities. This may infrastructure and low market access also hinder be due to the low income levels of the farmers and to effective delivery of perishable livestock products such the fact that most of the farm produce is mainly for as milk and meat. The poor state of roads, and lack of subsistence in a large number of households. modern abattoirs and livestock holding grounds show that government and donors alike give this sector little The key constraints to input use are: high prices, attention. insufficient income to buy inputs, distance to input markets, and lack of access to inputs at the right It is estimated that 60 per cent of the population in the time. These challenges have increased food insecurity county do not have title deeds for the land they occupy.

Kakamega County 11 This may be attributed to the lengthy adjudication of rainfall trends over a 35-year period (1981-2015) processes, ignorance, poverty, and the land tenure showed that average rainfall had increased by over 15 system. Moreover, cultural beliefs also do not allow percent in the first season and 30 percent in the second women to own family land in their own names. These season. Most of the increase has occurred since 2000. factors limit investment in adaptation technologies, Rainfall variability from year to year has also increased, particularly for women and youth. resulting in an increased risk and uncertainty of the occurrence of both floods and droughts. The impact of both hazards on agricultural production and the Climate change-related risks and livelihoods of the county’s inhabitants have been vulnerabilities increasing over the years. Climate change and variability: historic Climate projections for the period 2021-2065 based and future trends on two representative concentration pathways (RCPs15) indicate that in the future, moisture stress, extreme rainfall, and changes in the seasons are expected to Kakamega County has a cool, wet climate; mean occur depending on the emissions pathway. A common annual temperatures over most of the county are projection between the two scenarios is for a moderate around 21°C. There is a strong east-west divide in increase in mean temperatures during both seasons. temperatures. The eastern two-thirds of the county have In addition, under both scenarios, no significant mean annual temperatures ranging from 21 to 23°C; change is expected in the start of the growing season. the remaining section in the west has mean annual However, under the low emissions scenario, the start temperatures below 21°C most of the time. January, of both seasons is expected to become more variable February, and March are the hottest months, with other and the length of the second season is expected to months having relatively similar temperatures except increase. Under the high emissions scenario, season July and August, which have relatively cold spells onset becomes more stable and second season (GoK, 2013). Annual average rainfall in most parts of length decreases. Second season rainfall is expected the county ranges between 1,250 and 1,750 mm. The to increase and become more intense under the low average is higher than 1,750 mm in the central and emissions scenario, while under the high emissions western parts of the county and decreases gradually scenario, rainfall amount and intensity are expected towards the north-eastern extremity. The rains are to decrease. The projections under the two GHG evenly distributed all year round with March and July emissions scenarios show some differences. However, receiving heavy rains while December and February both indicate the possibility of increased variability receive light rains. and uncertainty in rainfall quantity and intensity, increased temperatures, increased drought stress, Floods represent a major risk to crop production and and changes in season duration. These changes are livelihoods in Kakamega, particularly in the lower likely to contribute to agricultural risk in the county reaches of the Nzoia River Basin where frequent floods and present some of the main considerations for have resulted in loss of lives and properties13. Droughts adaptation responses. occur and affect large sugar-cane plantations as well as on crop and livestock production. Landslides caused Climate Perceptions by the farmers by a combination of intense rainfall, soil erosion, deforestation, and encroachment of agricultural Understanding farmers’ perception of climate change activities onto hillsides have also been experienced14. impacts on natural resources is key in informing policies to make smallholder agriculture in the county Analysis of historical temperature trends in the county more resilient climate change. Frequent crop failures over 25 years (1981 to 2005) shows that both first and as a result of droughts or high temperatures increase second season mean temperatures have increased people’s susceptibility to food insecurity and poverty. by approximately 0.4 and 0.3°C respectively. These Changes and variations in climate have caused increases in temperature have resulted in a moderate important economic and social consequences. increase in heat stress days over the periods. Analysis Farmers’ knowledge about climate change is key and

13 http://www.westernkenya.go.ke/index.php/project-areas/kakamega/19-flood-management 14 http://www.humanitarianleadershipacademy.org/the-need-for-disaster-preparedness-in-kakamega-county/ 15 The two RCPs, RCP2.6 and RCP8.5, are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values (+2.6 and +8.5 W/m2, respectively). The pathways are used for climate modelling and research. They describe two possible climate futures, considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come. RCP 2.6 assumes that global annual GHG emissions (measured in CO2-equivalents) peak between 2010 and 2020, with emissions declining substantially thereafter. In RCP 8.5, emissions continue to rise throughout the 21st century.

12 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series Past and future impacts of climate hazards in Kakamega largely determines what strategies they adopt in their were identified as the most problematic hazards, both attempt to reduce adverse effects of climate change. currently and in the future. These hazards affect the prioritised value chain commodities differently as seen From the farmers’ perspective, there has been a in the following discussion. remarkable variation in the climate conditions in Kakamega County over the years. Farmers noted Maize changing seasonality, i.e., delayed onset of rains, for instance from March to April; unreliability and variability For effective maize farming, maximum utilisation of of the rains; reduced or increased amounts of rainfall; available moisture is necessary under any weather higher temperatures during the hot season; and conditions. Most maize is grown by small-scale much lower temperatures in the cold season. Farmers farmers who either consume it at household level attested to receiving more erratic rainfall, including or sell it. The major climate hazards affecting the unusual early rains followed by weeks of dry periods. maize value chain are moisture stress and increased Moreover, the intensity of rainfall has increased while temperature. The areas that are mostly affected are delays are being observed in rainfall onset dates. the north eastern, western, and southern parts of the county. These hazards impose a number of challenges Moreover, water availability for agricultural production on the maize value chain. Maize grown during a dry is reported to be under threat from the changing spell with no moisture is normally of poor quality due climate given a possible decrease in precipitation. to poor germination and withering and often results in Farmers also indicated the presence of periods of poor yields. This reduces the final tonnage of maize intense rainfall resulting in more frequent mudslides. harvested, thus exposing many households to hunger. However, such hazards are said to have been affected On the other hand, the county is characterised by a high not only by climate change but also by conversion of population density, poor infrastructure, and limited land from forest or fallow to agricultural production. access to markets; thus raising transaction costs and reducing incentives for both growers and buyers. Overall farmers stated that the weather has become Other challenges associated with moisture stress and more unpredictable than in the past, mostly as a increased temperature include: unavailability of and consequence of human activities and land degradation. increased expenditure on production inputs (seeds, High temperatures are reported to have brought about fertilisers); poor germination; crop failure; reduced increased incidences of pests and diseases in crops. access to extension services; high transportation Outbreaks of diseases and emergence of disease costs; increased crop infestation by pests; lack of vectors are more common than they were in the past. good storage facilities; capacity to add value; reduced market linkage; and hampered marketing. Moreover, These changes are affecting agricultural production heat stress affects land preparation activities since and making farmers more vulnerable to climate farmers work for few hours per day, when temperatures change. In light of these uncertainties, there is a are still low. The land area cultivated therefore looming threat to food security, water security, and decreases, leading to reduced harvest. Women sustainable livelihoods among farmers. Farmers and youth are generally the group most affected by indicated that access to climate information through these consequences. Accessibility of seeds, climate extension officers or radio enhances their knowledge information alerts, and extension services at the right on climate change. The government should therefore time are essential for ensuring good crop production formulate programmes that can help to disseminate and food security16. climate change information to farmers, as a key strategy for building resilience to climate hazards. Chicken (local)

Climate vulnerabilities across agriculture The major climate hazards affecting local chicken value chain commodities include intense rainfall and drought. The entire county is affected by these hazards. The notable consequences Expected future climate change and variation pose of drought and intense rain include: an increase in the serious threats to the value chain commodities price of poultry feeds17 and drugs; reduced extension prioritised for analysis in this study. Hazards including services as the roads are rendered impassable by drought, moisture stress, increased temperatures, floods; reduced egg production; reduced shelf life of intense rainfall, and uncertainty in the start of the season eggs due to high temperatures; reduced returns from

16 Appropriate mechanization technologies (provided by Bukura Agricultural College and others) can transform smallholder agriculture with spill over benefits including timely operations, reduced cost of production and higher yields more so if used with other productivity enhancing inputs 17 Farmers are encouraged to produce On-farm poultry Feed mixes that can include maize, cotton seed cake, kales, omena and sunflower to increase farmer profits as it is cheaper than commercial feeds but still nutritious.

14 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series eggs and birds due to reduced output and marketing stress hazards are the northern and south western as well as transportation constraints; high prices of parts while central parts of the county experience input due to decreased availability; water shortages; normal rainfall. Delayed start of rainy season occurs in and increased bird mortality due to increased disease the south-eastern part of the county. prevalence. Women and youth remain highly vulnerable to climate impacts on poultry production, given their The consequences of moisture stress and delayed scarce resources to buy feeds and lack of access to start of rainy seasons cut across the entire VCC from vaccines. production to marketing stages. Unavailability of and increased expenditure on production inputs (seeds, Cattle (milk) manure), poor germination, crop failure, reduced access to extension services, and increased crop The main climate hazards affecting milk include dry infestation from the incidence of pests increase the spells, moisture stress, and increased temperature. prices of local vegetables affecting consumers across The areas affected the most by these hazards are all gender, age, and economic status. Adoption of high- the north-eastern and south-eastern parts of the yielding as well as disease- and pest-resistant varieties county. Dry spells , moisture stress, and increased to increase production is also recommended especially temperatures caused by low and poorly distributed during times of reduced production due to drought. rainfall are the major cause of low cattle milk Farmers are encouraged to form farmer groups and production in the county. Moisture stress and associations that will develop appropriate storage and increased temperature lead to reduced pasture for sales facilities for fresh produce. Efficient use of water the animals; hence milk production is reduced as application technologies through minimum tillage and the body condition of the animals deteriorates. Milk irrigation is recommended. However, more research is sensitive to high temperatures both at production is required on product development and marketing and value addition (transportation) levels. As a result, for food and nutrition security. Value addition to milk output is affected, and the produced milk often local vegetables is also considered as an adaptation spoilt before reaching the market. The consequences strategy and can increase their shelf life. The high of moisture stress and increased temperatures range perishability of the vegetables poses major challenges from destruction of fodder crops and pasture, and in their marketing and distribution, particularly in high increases in livestock diseases such as East Coast temperatures. Simple post-harvest handling practices Fever (ECF) and Foot and Mouth disease, and pests such as bicarbonate wash can help minimize quantity (including ticks). and quality losses and enables availability during the periods when they are in short supply such as during High ambient temperatures result in milk spoilage the dry season (Acedo and Weinberger, 2010 in as there is no effective refrigeration available to Omulo, 2016). Value addition by applying appropriate the farmers. Consumers receive less milk when production and postharvest techniques such as production decreases as a result of prolonged dry blanching and freeze drying can extend the shelf life of spells. Low milk production affects the farmers’ food the processed vegetables. security and livelihoods. Transporters are also affected by the decreased demand for transportation. On- farm feed supply and water decreases, thus leading to Adaptation to climate change reduced production and reproduction, and increased and variability disease outbreaks. There will be a high cost of overall management of the cow such as calf feeding, Following the adverse impacts of the climate hazards vaccination, deworming and disease control. There are identified along the different value chains, adoption of post-harvest losses because farmers compromise on measures that enhance resilience of the value chains the quality and quantity of the milk and milk products, is paramount. Some of the adaptation strategies the reducing their marketability. The ongoing coping farmers in the county are using to cope with climate strategies for this hazard include training farmers on change and variability are specific to certain value milk handling, storage, processing, packaging, and chains whereas others cut across value chains. The transporting. Such trainings are conducted by farmers, measures employed to deal with climate change extension officers, and the Kenya Dairy Board. include provision of environmental education that addresses issues of sustainable utilisation of Local vegetables natural resources, and conservation and protection of catchment areas. For crop farmers, adaptation The major climate hazards affecting local vegetables entails adoption of improved early-maturing crop include drought and delayed start of rain seasons. Areas varieties; use of inputs such as fertilisers, manure, of the county that are most affected due to moisture and pesticides; use of irrigation; consulting extension

Kakamega County 15 agents; practising conservation agriculture and good communal seed banks, established food storage agricultural practices and soil and water conservation; facilities, bought insurance cover, leased extra land, planting early-maturing crops; planting-high-yielding and sought employment as adaptation strategies. seed varieties; upscaling appropriate modern storage Overall, the survey results indicate a need for farmers facilities; adopting water-efficient application of to improve the levels of input use and improve use irrigation technologies; bulking and cereal banking; of methods for sustainable land use, which include trickling early warning information to the grassroots; reduction in subdivision of farms, agroforestry, and upscaling power-drawn small-scale machinery; soil and water conservation, in order to increase promoting post-harvest management and marketing; agricultural productivity and food security in the planting pest-tolerant crop varieties; harvesting early; county. Programmes geared towards improving access practising agro-forestry; and practicing value addition. to financial and other agriculture-related services will increase productivity and commercialisation, leading For livestock keepers, adaptation entails: conserving to increased household incomes. fodder; rearing improved breeds; and vaccinating livestock. Additional capacity building of the youth The county government should strengthen training in is recommended to promote milk and milk products. adaptation to climate change, access to agricultural Establishment of farmer groups and cooperatives gives insurance services, and access to socially inclusive the farmer groups a platform to avoid their exploitation. financial services. Training on crop species and Adoption of modern veterinary technologies (including livestock breed suitability should be emphasized to training of trainers approach) as well as the use of enhance technology adoption in the county. In building ethno-veterinary services is useful in the control and resilience to the shocks of climate change, popular prevention of diseases. Sensitisation of farmers on media such as radio and television and membership adoption of technologies such as hay conservation, in groups should be encouraged in disseminating silage, urea with molasses, and crop residue information in the county. Interventions that boost management are important strategies for resilience of food security should be undertaken. It is also important livestock value chains as well as for natural resources to boost entrepreneurship, diversify investment in all conservation. There is need for the development of sectors, increase employment opportunities for the plans and policies on resilient breeds and adoption of growing number of youth, and invest in high value technologies such as heat/ estrous synchronization, crops. sexed semen, and embryo transfer. Continued lobbying for adherence to the Kenya Dairy Board regulations On-farm adaptation practices and their enforcement is on-going and needs to be stepped up. For women main adaptation strategies The main sources of household income were on-farm include production diversification and post-harvest crop and livestock sales. According to an ASDSP strategies such as food storage facilities. For women- survey, on average of 63.3 percent of households headed households, savings and empowerment were employed on-farm and derived their livelihood groups could also play an important role in raising the from on-farm activities. Disaggregated by gender, 65 adaptive capacity of women while raising their decision percent were male-headed households, 68 percent making ability. For youth-headed households soil and were female-headed households, and 57 percent water conservation technologies, crop diversification, were youth-headed households. Six percent of both agroforestry / tree planting are important adaptation male-headed and female-headed households earned strategies, although the youth also have an important from three income sources while 64 and 66 percent role to play in off-farm livelihoods diversification respectively of male- and female-headed households including value addition and product marketing. For earned from a single source. About 40 percent of all financially able male-headed households a noteworthy households adapted to the perceived climate change. resilience strategy is the leasing of extra land to The main source of climate-related information increase and diversify production in the face of climate was radio at 36 percent, and traditional indigenous hazards (GoK, 2014). knowledge at 30 percent of all households. Television provided information to about 12, 14, and 13 percent According to the ASDSP (2013), those farmers who of male-, female-, and youth-headed households noticed climate change planted trees, practiced respectively. The main on-farm adaptation strategies crop rotation, increased soil and water conservation used in Kakamega County were: planting trees measures, staggered cropping, undertook value (77.1 percent), changing crop type (62.1 percent), addition, increased irrigation, practiced water increasing soil and water conservation (50.4 percent), harvesting, changed crop type, changed livestock staggering cropping (47.9 percent), and undertaking type and breed, practiced feed conservation and value addition (31.7 percent). diversification, diversified enterprises, established

16 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series Soil and water conservation is an important adaptation related shocks. Farmers also harvest runoff water and strategy in the county. It involves preserving soil create water pans for irrigation. Western Water Services conditions, maintaining water content with mulching, Company is the main water company in the county. It is tree planting and agroforestry, and using manure. High supplemented by other water users’ associations that adoption of soil and water conservation measures by are mainly managed by the community members. The youth-headed households may be attributed to the concept of Water Action Groups is slowly coming up fact that the youth-headed households are more likely to complement community efforts. The World Bank in to adopt strategies compared to male- and female- collaboration with the Ministry of Water and Irrigation headed households, given their increased interest is in the process of implementing a huge water project in new technologies. Value addition increases the in Mumias at a cost of Kes1.4 billion. Tindinyo Water market value of a product as opposed to selling a raw Project also provides water to Shinyalu and Kakamega product. Milk is boiled and fermented while chicken Town. is de-feathered to add value. Value addition for crop production (and mostly in the maize value chains) Off-farm adaptation practices refers to sorting, grading, transporting, bulking, and processing. These are mostly farmer group initiatives. “Off-farm activities” refers to farming activities Farmers are encouraged to form marketing groups or undertaken outside the household farm setting. The associations to set their own prices and sustainably activities could be farming or non-farming in nature. manage their production levels. Off-farm activities include salaried employment, businesses, marketing of produce that is not of the Awareness creation by extension agents on the household, and remittances. On average, 65 percent importance of local vegetables can go a long way in of the households had one source of income with 22 helping farmers to adapt to uncertainties in promoting percent having two. About 12 percent of the household local vegetables. Value addition was found to be a heads were in formal salaried employment as their common adaptation strategy carried out by crop main occupation. Besides crop and livestock farming, farmers in the county. The biggest challenge to value the youth embarked on formal salaried occupation addition in the livestock and crop sectors is lack of (15 percent) and self-employment (16 percent). Fewer capacity in terms of knowhow, equipment, and financial female adults were involved in self-employment (4 resources. It helps increase the shelf life of agricultural percent) compared to male adults (11 percent), and the products while enabling an increase in farmers´ youth (16 percent). Sixty-four percent of the individuals bargaining power especially through activities such were employed on the farm while 36 percent were as bulking. The challenge of poor access to markets employed off-farm. On average, 65 percent of the has not been addressed satisfactorily by the on-going households had one source of income with 22 percent adaptation strategies such as selling individually, value having two. Thirteen percent of the households had addition (given that it is minimal) and premature more than two sources of income. Disaggregated harvesting. These strategies can be complemented by gender, 14, 9, and 10 percent of male-, female-, with options such as collective selling, training farmers, and youth-headed households, respectively had more and providing the required resources for value addition, than one income source. Most MHH had between one as well as engaging farmers in contract farming. and three income sources. Only three percent of all households had more than four income sources (GoK, Crop farmers also opt for change in the crop types 2014). and varieties they cultivate as a response to increased extreme events. A major impediment to using this Off-farm services such as provision of early warning strategy is poor access to improved seeds given systems, insurance schemes, extension and training, high prices, but also low productivity of the new storage facilities, and market information are offered crop types and varieties. Using crop residues on to farmers in Kakamega County to increase their the farm after harvesting rather than purchasing climate adaptive capacity. Such services are offered manure is recommended. Cooling facilities for milk by a variety of stakeholders from local government are necessary to avoid exploitation of the farmer. (such as KMD, veterinary, agriculture, fisheries, and Adaptation strategies within the livestock sub-sector livestock departments) and organisations such as GIZ, vary depending on climate hazard. For drought and Rural Outreach Programme (ROP), Technoserve, and increased temperatures, the farmers consider water Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises (KAVES). conservation through construction of dams, water pans, Extension services are provided by the government drilling boreholes and shallow wells, or rearing more and other organisations. It involves field visits, focus tolerant animals such as indigenous livestock breeds group discussions, and workshops on aspects related and local poultry that are more resilient to climate- to the entire value chain. The areas covered include:

Kakamega County 17 Adapting agriculture to changes and variabilities in climate: strategies across major value chain commodities

crop planting and growing times, input utilisation and water harvesting and management techniques, protection, value addition, and amount of product to sell on the conservation and sustainable management of forest market. resources, and rehabilitation of water towers as among the key climate change response strategies for the agriculture Extension training includes fodder conservation, post- sector. harvest handling, proper storage, and marketing. In the livestock sector, farmers have been trained on The Agricultural Sector Development Support Programme the importance of disease control and feed storage, (ASDSP) was formulated by the government in 2011 which helps increase production. It was reported that in collaboration with development partners and other the number of farm visits by agricultural officers has stakeholders to support implementation of the strategies been significantly reduced in the past years due to low identified in the Agriculture Sector Development Strategy, budgetary allocation. Establishing farmer associations, ASDS (2010 – 2020) and the Comprehensive African marketing groups and cooperatives to pool resources Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) Kenya will help set their own prices and sustainably manage Compact. The programme focuses on improved their production levels and improve on transportation agricultural sector coordination and harmonization; systems. Using household labor rather than hiring strengthening of the environmental resilience and social external help is often used as strategy to reduce the inclusion of Value Chains (VC); and promotion of viable high cost of labor. and equitable commercialisation of the agricultural sector through Value Chain Development (VCD). The main purpose of ASDSP is to increase equitable income, Policies and Programmes employment, and food security of male and female target groups as a result of improved production and productivity Climate change is a relatively new entrant in the policy in the rural smallholder on-farm and off-farm sectors (GoK, agenda in Kenya. The broad policy objective of the 2014). However, in spite of the importance of the sector agricultural sector in Kenya is to contribute to the overall and the programmes, agriculture has for many years been national development goals of poverty alleviation and predominantly small scale, rain-fed and poorly mechanised. equitable income distribution, food security and elimination In addition, institutional support and infrastructure have of malnutrition, and creation of employment and generation been inadequate. The development of agribusiness is critical of income opportunities, foreign exchange earnings, and to the commercialisation of agriculture and realisation import substitution. Contributions to these policy goals will of Vision 2030 due to their enormous contribution to be realised through increased and concerted government employment creation and improvement of the economic support to the farming communities for improved status of players along the agricultural value chains. management of the basic, natural and man-made resources necessary for sustainable agricultural development. Policy The National Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS), documents are yet to be mainstreamed at the county level. is the framework that guides integration of climate concerns Currently Kakamega County is using National policies as into development priorities, government planning and described below. budgeting (GoK 2010a). It highlights various measures for adaptation to and mitigation of the impacts of climate In 2010, the Kenya government adopted the Agriculture change on agriculture. These include use of a range of Sector Development Strategy (ASDS, 2010-2020) replacing innovative technologies such as irrigation; early-maturing the Strategy for Revitalization of Agriculture (2004). ASDS and high-yielding crop varieties as well as drought- and sets out a detailed plan to ‘position’ the agriculture sector as pest-resistant crop varieties and disease-resistant livestock. a key driver for delivering the 10 percent annual economic The NCCRS also advocates diversification of livelihoods; growth rate envisaged under the economic pillar of Vision adaptation of agricultural technologies from analogue 2030. The ASDS Policy proposes the establishment of a environments; and enhancing early warning systems with national irrigation framework to: (i) reduce the vulnerability drought monitoring and seasonal forecasts with respect to of the agricultural sector to drought as it practices mainly food security. NCCRS is meant to guide the national and rain-fed agriculture; (ii) enable rehabilitation of forests and local government in all activities and interventions aimed at water catchment areas; and (iii) improve food security, addressing issues related to climate change. as well as address desertification. ASDS recognizes that reforms in the agricultural sector require drastic actions The agricultural subsidy and diversification programmes to take into account the existing and emerging concerns have greatly contributed to food security in Kakamega about sustainable agriculture and climate change County. Priority programmes in agriculture include adaptation in Kenya. ASDS also identifies improvement subsidisation programmes on farm inputs and farm of livestock breeds, development of pastures and forage, mechanisation. Diversification programmes such as dairy, reducing livestock pests and diseases, improvement of banana, tea, poultry, and fish farming have resulted in

22 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series improved food security. Maize production has increased and effective response when disaster strikes in the county. by 40 percent while maize prices have notably stabilised. Implementation may also require policy dialogue resulting The One Cow initiative coupled with extensive Artificial in institutional reforms and new governance structures that Insemination services and regular vaccination services have are necessary to achieve resilience in the county. improved the quality of stock and milk output. Under the Poultry Development Programme, ten groups per ward have been given improved chicks to ensure quality stocks. Governance, institutional In the Tea Development Programme, tea tree nurseries resources, and capacity have been established and distributed to ensure adequate production to sustain the supply of tea leaves to the tea factory that is under construction besides ensuring regular There are various governmental and non-governmental incomes to farmers. The national government through organizations (NGOs), community-based organizations the Economic Stimulus Programme (ESP) has facilitated (CBOs), Farmer based organizations (FBOs), Self Help setting up of school gardens within the county. These Groups, Faith Based Organizations, and youth and efforts have, among others, contributed to improved farmer women groups as well as private organisations in the incomes and reduced poverty levels from 51 percent in county that directly or indirectly deal with climate risks. 2013 to 49 percent in 2016 20. County-level government and research institutions include local offices of the Ministry of Agriculture, Several factors undermine the success of climate risk Livestock, and Fisheries (MOALF), the Ministry of interventions in the county. There is limited availability and Water and Irrigation (MoWI), the Ministry of Lands, the effectiveness of early warning information and emergency Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), the Kenya preparedness that is necessary for averting the impacts Forest Service (KFS), Kenya Forest Research Institute of climate change, drought, floods, diseases, and other (KEFRI), National Environmental Management disasters affecting the agriculture sector. These limit efforts Authority (NEMA), the Kenya Wildlife Service by the government and other service providers to identify (KWS), Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research and profile key characteristics of the vulnerable groups and, Organization (KALRO), the Kenya Dairy Board (KDB), hence, hinder the ability to design appropriate intervention Department of Cooperative and Marketing, the programmes, and the necessary resource mobilisation. A County Economic Planning Department, farmers’ main challenge that hampers enforcement of the above organizations, and development partners. The county policies and programmes is lack of awareness about also hosts large companies such as West Kenya Sugar, the policies, programmes, and norms. The vastness of Butali Sugar Milling and Mumias Sugar Companies the county also poses a challenge as it requires a bigger that also influence its growth. institutional arrangement with wider reach for effective risk management and resilience building, while also affecting Active NGOs in the county include; GIZ, Rural the ability to conduct monitoring and evaluation of Outreach Programme (ROP), Technoserve, Grass Root agricultural adaptation programmes. Community Development, Muma Rural Development Forum, and Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises Importantly, the county has no local level legislation on (KAVES) among others. GIZ supports the county’s climate change which reduces the degree of coordination agricultural sector to increase employment, food and collaboration on climate change activities. Attention security, and drought resilience. A new priority area should be placed on identifying and introducing a is technical and vocational education and training for climate-compatible strategy or policy or localising existing young people, to equip them with appropriate skills policy tailored to the agricultural sector in Kakamega. to meet the demands of the labour market, especially Improving the enabling environment through policy the private sector. Technoserve supports small-holder action and governance reform for climate adaptation also producers of indigenous chicken by improving their requires synergies that are horizontal (across ministries livelihoods, through among others expanding access and government agencies) and vertical (between public to financial services and improving access to poultry and private sectors, especially between government and markets. Kenya Agricultural Value Chain Enterprises vulnerable stakeholders, including small-scale farmers, (KAVES) works with smallholder farmers, businesses, women and young groups). Among the systems that and national and county government partners to need to be put in place are the disaster risk reduction address constraints up and down the value chain (such preparedness plan, a contingency plan, and disaster as agro-processors, input suppliers, transporters, preparedness plans. There is a need for proper management exporters, retailers, financiers) and develop fully- of the County Emergency Fund to ensure an immediate functioning, competitive value chains. KAVES aims to

20 Kakamega County Projects Implementation Report 2013-2017

Kakamega County 23 increase the productivity and incomes of smallholder diversifying enterprises, and establishing communal farmers and other actors along the value chain, who seed banks and food storage facilities as adaptation are working in the dairy, maize (and other staples), and strategies. In addition, off-farm services and horticulture sectors, through smallholder enterprise programmes have been provided enable uptake of development. adaptation options. Such services and programmes include provision of early warning systems and public Community-based organisations also exist, and are and private extension services. normally incorporated in the implementation phase of adaptation since they are grassroots organisations Off-farm adaptation support activities also exist that are more able to engage with the farmers within including as early warning information, extension their mandate. For example, The Rural Outreach services, and microfinance support. Crop and livestock Programme (ROP) has, as its main objective, to insurance, land leasing, and employment creation, undertake development activities aimed at improving particularly for youth, could also be supported. A long- the livelihoods of the rural poor in Kenya. The term vision is needed that addresses the underlying activities of the organisation have since expanded to factors affecting farmers’ vulnerability and diminishing include fostering literacy, physical, and mental health. their capacity to carry out climate adaptation activities. Coordination among these organisations exists at some These include education investments in basic public stages of intervention design and implementation, but services such as potable water, electricity, and could be improved for more effective and sustainable education which could help curb persistent, high interventions. poverty among farmers while providing a basis for investment in resilience building initiatives. The major hindrance to these organisations and the communities they serve is lack of timely and sufficient Areas that are suitable for growing maize, such as Lugari funding. Insufficient funds contribute to inadequate and Likuyani, ought to be supported with irrigation, human capacity, while also limiting sustainability transportation, storage, and marketing infrastructure of interventions beyond available project funding. to improve resilience along the entire value chain. Another area of interest realized was that the status Such investments also need to be considered along of agribusiness and agricultural entrepreneurs though t entire value chains for other key commodities in the active in the county, requires support in accessing county including milk, chicken, and vegetables among financial services if they are to compete favorably at others. Crop diversification (cassava, sweet potatoes, international levels. Overall the national level policies soya beans, and horticulture) as well as value chain and regulations regarding risk reduction and resilience diversification and employment creation in the county in agriculture are available, however there is need to will also go a long way to improving resilience. Policy support local level implementation through finance support at local level as well as financial (subsidies and capacity building. and ready markets) and non-financial incentives (e.g. agricultural inputs) will play a key role in supporting Synthesis and Outlook adaptation activities in the county.

As moisture stress, extreme rainfall and changes in the Climate hazards are expected to affect not just the seasons are foreseen to occur with greater frequency production stages of agriculture but also, input supply, in Kakamega County, enhanced capacity of farmers storage, processing and marketing; hence investments to cope with these new conditions is needed. The in resilience building have to be strategically made at capacity should involve critical short-term and long- all stages of the value chain, while also taking into term adaptation measures that target production consideration the specific needs and constraints of men, systems and value chains key for the population’s food women and youth. There is also a need to encourage security and livelihoods, including livestock and crop adoption of improved breeds and modern stall fed systems. Significant initiatives to increase resilience dairy systems that can help improve productivity, in the agricultural sector have been evident in the while also contributing to reduced methane emissions county. These include on-farm practices that target and environmental degradation. Training on overall water and soil conservation and management such good agricultural practices including animal health as crop rotation, agro-forestry systems, planting early- management will also be key to building the resilience maturing crops, staggering cropping, undertaking of agriculture in the county to climate and other value addition, increasing irrigation, practicing water hazards. harvesting, changing crop type, changing livestock type and breed, conserving and diversifying feed,

24 Kenya County Climate Risks Profiles Series An enabling institutional and policy environment and at local level will also be crucial, particularly in a vast a broader governance mechanism are also critical county like Kakamega. This includes the strengthening for addressing climate vulnerabilities of farmers. The of the Kenya Meteorological Department, particularly formulation and implementation of county-level climate on community engagement and tailoring the message change action plans that are grounded in assessment to the needs of smallholder farmers in the county. In of local needs and resources could represent an addition, the improvement of coordination among important step towards the operationalisation of the agricultural climate change adaptation and value country’s climate change strategy. The provision chain actors is needed, along with enhancement of of appropriate financial and human resources and the monitoring and evaluation system for their work equipment to implement these strategies and policies within the county.

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This study is the product of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries of Kenya (MoALF), with assistance from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and the CGIAR Research Programme on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food Security (CCAFS), as part of the Kenya Climate Smart Agriculture Project (KCSAP), supported by the World Bank (WB).

The document has been developed under the coordination of Robin Buruchara (CIAT) and Francis Muthami (National Project Coordinator, MoALF-KCSAP), under the technical leadership of Evan Girvetz (CIAT) and with contributions from (in alphabetical order): Harold Achicanoy, Colm Duffy, Sebastian Grey, Eddah Kaguthi, Peter Kimani, Ivy Kinyua, Jessica Koge, Miguel Lizarazo, John Yumbya Mutua, Caroline Mwongera, An Notenbaert, Andreea Nowak, Jamleck Osiemo, Julian Ramirez-Villegas, Jaime Tarapues, and Boaz Waswa. Infographics and layout: Fernanda Rubiano.

We acknowledge the contribution of the KCSAP team: Edwin Caleb Ikitoo, Jane Ngugi, Mary Maingi, Naomi Migwi, Gilbert Muthee and John Nginyangi. We also acknowledge the contribution of the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO): Anthony Esilaba, David Kamau, Michael Okoti and Jane Wamuongo. We also express gratitude for the following institutions for providing information to this study: Agricultural Finance Corporation (AFC), the Agriculture Sector Development Support Programme (ASDSP), Agricultural Technology Development Centre – Bukura (ATDC), German Corporation for International Cooperation – Kakamega (GIZ) Centre, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organisation (KALRO), Kenya Forestry Service (KFS), Kenya Meteorological Department (KMD), Kenya Seed Company (KSC), Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology (MMUST), the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and Cooperatives (MoALF&C), the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MENR), Ministry of Water and Irrigation and the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA).

This document should be cited as:

MoALF. 2017. Climate Risk Profile for Kakamega County. Kenya County Climate Risk Profile Series. The Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MoALF), Nairobi, Kenya.

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