Contributions in New World Archaeology 8: 7-44
LATE PRE-COLONIAL AND EARLY COLONIAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAS AVES ARCHIPELAGOS, VENEZUELA
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1 /HLGHQ8QLYHUVLW\)DFXOW\RI$UFKDHRORJ\32%R[ /HLGHQ5$1HWKHUODQGV and Unidad de Estudios Arqueológicos, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela. E-mail: [email protected] 2/HLGHQ8QLYHUVLW\)DFXOW\RI$UFKDHRORJ\32%R[ /HLGHQ5$1HWKHUODQGV and Unidad de Estudios Arqueológicos, Universidad Simón Bolívar, Caracas, Venezuela. E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract 7KLVLVWKH¿UVWWKRURXJKUHSRUWRQWKHSUHFRORQLDODUFKDHRORJ\RIWKHWZRFRUDOOLQHDUFKLSHODJRVRI/DV$YHVVLWXDWHGFD NLORPHWHUVRIIWKHQRUWKZHVWHUQFRDVWRIWKH9HQH]XHODQPDLQODQG%\DQDO\]LQJWKHDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHPDLQVDQGIHDWXUHV recovered on these islands this paper aims at shedding light on the nature of social, political, and economic phenomena that may have underlain the mobility of Amerindians who bore stylistically distinctive pottery both from the mainland coast to the islands and from one group of islands to another, during late pre-colonial times. The 16th-and 17th-century documentary data is also reviewed to assess how the arrival of the European colonizers impacted traditional Amerindian mobility and interactions in this region. The results of the research indicate that diverse social-political and economic strategies and negotiations were used by the late pre-Hispanic societies of the north-central Venezuelan mainland coast and from the islands of Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire to gain access to the natural resources of these oceanic islands. They also suggest how the mainland polities controlled the access to the island territories through time. Two decades after the arrival of the Spanish conquerors, violent slave raids led E\6SDQLVKSHDUO¿VKHU\HQWUHSUHQHXUVIURPWKHHDVWHUQFRDVWRI9HQH]XHODDVZHOODVIURP6DQWR'RPLQJRDQG3XHUWR5LFR permanently halted the traditional indigenous mobility that oscillated between the islands and between the mainland and the islands.
.H\ZRUGV SUH+LVSDQLF DUFKDHRORJ\ 9HQH]XHODQ DUFKDHRORJ\ /DV $YHV DUFKLSHODJRV islands of Venezuela, Valencioid archaeology, Dabajuroid archaeology, Southern Caribbean archaeology
Resumen (VWHHVHOSULPHULQIRUPHVREUHODDUTXHRORJtDSUHKLVSiQLFDGHORVGRVDUFKLSLpODJRVFRUDOLQRVGH/DV$YHVVLWXDGRVDXQRV NLOyPHWURVDOQRUWHGHODFRVWDQRURFFLGHQWDOGH9HQH]XHOD0HGLDQWHHODQiOLVLVGHORVUHVWRV\ODLQIRUPDFLyQDUTXHROyJLFD UHFXSHUDGDHQGLFKDVLVODVHOSUHVHQWHWUDEDMRSUHWHQGHDUURMDUOX]VREUHODQDWXUDOH]DGHORVIHQyPHQRVVRFLDOHVSROtWLFRV\ HFRQyPLFRVTXHSXHGDQH[SOLFDUODPRYLOLGDGGHORVJUXSRVDPHULQGLRVSRUWDGRUHVGHXQDFHUiPLFDHVWLOtVWLFDPHQWHGLVWLQWD GHVGHODFRVWDFRQWLQHQWDODODVLVODV\GHXQJUXSRGHLVODVDORWURGXUDQWH¿QDOHVGHODpSRFDSUHFRORQLDO(QHOFXUVRGHOD LQYHVWLJDFLyQVHDQDOL]DURQWDPELpQODVIXHQWHVGRFXPHQWDOHVGHORVVLJORV;9,\;9,,SDUDHYDOXDUFyPRODOOHJDGDGHORV FRORQL]DGRUHVHXURSHRVDIHFWyODPRYLOLGDG\ODVLQWHUDFFLRQHVWUDGLFLRQDOHVHQHVWDUHJLyQ/RVUHVXOWDGRVGHODLQYHVWLJDFLyQ indican que las sociedades prehispánicas de la costa continental venezolana y de las islas Aruba, Curaçao y Bonaire utilizaban 8 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak
GLYHUVDVHVWUDWHJLDV\QHJRFLDFLRQHVSROtWLFDVVRFLDOHV\HFRQyPLFDVSDUDORJUDUHODFFHVRDORVUHFXUVRVQDWXUDOHVGHHVWDV LVODVRFHiQLFDV7DPELpQVXJLHUHQFyPRORVLQGtJHQDVGHOFRQWLQHQWHFRQWURODEDQHODFFHVRDORVWHUULWRULRVLQVXODUHVDWUDYpV GHOWLHPSR'RVGpFDGDVGHVSXpVGHODOOHJDGDGHORVFRQTXLVWDGRUHVHVSDxROHVODVYLROHQWDVDUPDGDVHVFODYLVWDVOLGHUDGDVSRU ORVHPSUHQGHGRUHVHVSDxROHVLQYROXFUDGRVHQODSHVFDGHSHUODVHQODFRVWDRULHQWDOGH9HQH]XHODDVtFRPRSURYHQLHQWHVGH 6DQWR'RPLQJR\3XHUWR5LFRLQWHUUXPSLHURQODPRYLOLGDGWUDGLFLRQDOGHORVLQGtJHQDVTXHRVFLODEDHQWUHODVLVODV\HQWUHHO continente y las islas. Palabras clave DUTXHRORJtDSUHKLVSiQLFDDUTXHRORJtDGH9HQH]XHODDUFKLSLpODJRVGH/DV$YHV islas de Venezuela, arqueología Valencioide, arqueologia del Caribe Meridional
INTRODUCTION
7KH UHVHDUFK GLVFXVVHG LQ WKLV SDSHU LV SDUW RI WKH ORQJWHUP 3URMHFW RQ 9HQH]XHODQ ,VODQG Archaeology that has been advanced by the authors since 1982. To the present, more than 60 islands located off the Venezuelan coast have been surveyed and dozens of pre-colonial sites located. More than 900 m² have been excavated, distributed over 200 test pits and 14 trenches. At nine sites, V\VWHPDWLFµEORFN¶H[FDYDWLRQVKDYHEHHQFDUULHGRXW $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN F 2006, 2008, in press). This study focuses on the pre-Hispanic and early colonial archaeology of two small coral DUFKLSHODJRVORFDWHGRIIWKHFHQWUDOFRDVWRI9HQH]XHOD WKH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRDQGWKH/DV$YHVGH %DUORYHQWR1RGDWDUHJDUGLQJWKHDUFKDHRORJ\RIWKHVHLVODQGVZDVNQRZQEHIRUHWKHSUHVHQWSURMHFW EHJDQ7KHDXWKRUVYLVLWHGWKHDUFKLSHODJRVRQIRXURFFDVLRQVDQGWKH¿HOGZRUNODVWHGIRUDWRWDORI GD\V7KHPDLQJRDORIWKH¿HOGZRUNZDVWRORFDWHDQGPDNHDQLQYHQWRU\RIWKHDUFKDHRORJLFDOVLWHV and to generate, from the insular perspective, hypotheses concerning the mobility of Amerindians who were the bearers of stylistically diagnostic pottery between the mainland coast and the islands. We also DLPHGWRHVWDEOLVKWKH¿UVWFKURQRORJ\RIWKHSUHVHQFHRIWKHGLVWLQFWLYHSRWWHU\EHDUHUVRQWKHVHJURXSV of islands. The last part of this paper is dedicated to discussion of a possible political and economic rationale lying hidden behind the pottery bearers’ movements in space and time. We envisage the role of this study as one stimulating and opening paths for future systematic research into the nature and dynamics of interisland and island-mainland sociocultural interactions, rather than one providing FRQFOXVLYHUHPDUNVRQWKHSUH+LVSDQLFDQGHDUO\FRORQLDOSDVWRIWKH/DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRV
THE OCEANIC ISLANDS
The Southern Caribbean islands situated off the mainland coast of Venezuela are located within an arid belt stretching along the southern Caribbean and the northern part of South America (Trewartha /DKH\ >)LJXUH@ 7KHDUFKLSHODJRVRI/DV$YHV/RV5RTXHVDQG/D2UFKLODWKHLVODQGV /D7RUWXJD/D%ODQTXLOODDQG/RV+HUPDQRVDVZHOODVWKH1HWKHUODQGV$QWLOOHVRI$UXED%RQDLUH and Curaçao (ABC islands) are largely calcareous formations. They are considered an independent SDUWRIWKH$QWLOOHDQRURJHQHVLV 6WRFN 7KHPRVWLPSRUWDQWQRQFDOFDUHRXVJURXSVDUH/RV 7HVWLJRV/RV0RQMHV/RV)UDLOHVDQG0DUJDULWDZKLFKLVRQO\LQSDUWDFDOFDUHRXVLVODQG,WKDVEHHQ VXJJHVWHGWKDWWKLVZKROHLQVXODUUHJLRQµPD\EHDFUXVWDOEORFN %RQDLUHEORFN ZHGJHGDQGURWDWHG between the Caribbean and South American plates’ (Silver et al. 1975). The igneous-metamorphic FRPSOH[ZKLFKRXWFURSVRQVRPH9HQH]XHODQLVODQGVVXFKDV*UDQ5RTXHDQG/D2UFKLODLVSUREDEO\ RI &UHWDFHRXV DQG 8SSHU &UHWDFHRXV DJH 6FKXEHUW DQG 0RWLFVND 7KHVH LVODQGV DUH separated from the mainland by channels several hundred meters deep and by a distance of dozens RI NLORPHWHUV 6FKXEHUW DQG9DODVWUR 7KLV LQGLFDWHV WKDW WKH\ ZHUH QHYHU FRQQHFWHG WR WKH Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 9
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FRQWLQHQW E\ ODQG EULGJHV ,Q FRQVHTXHQFH WKHVH LVODQGV DV ZHOO DV WKH DUFKLSHODJRV RI /DV$YHV discussed here, can be considered ‘oceanic’ islands. )URP WKH ELRJHRJUDSKLF SRLQW RI YLHZ WKH WHUUHVWULDO ELRWD RI WKH /DV$YHVLVODQGV HPHUJLQJ from deep waters) is composed of species settled by means of long-distance transoceanic dispersion DV ZHOO DV E\ PDQ 3LHORX 1R LQGLJHQRXV PDPPDOV URGHQWV RU RSKLGLDQV KDYH EHHQ UHSRUWHG RQ WKHVH LVODQGV 7KH\ ODFN SHUPDQHQW VRXUFHV RI IUHVK ZDWHU FOD\ GHSRVLWV DQG VRLOV VXLWDEOHIRUDJULFXOWXUDOSXUSRVHV'XULQJWKHPRGHUQSHULRGWKH/DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRVKDGSHUWDLQHG DGPLQLVWUDWLYHO\WR7HUULWRULR)HGHUDO&ROyQVLQFHXQWLO ZKHQWKH\ZHUHLQFOXGHGLQWKH 'HSHQGHQFLDV)HGHUDOHVGH9HQH]XHOD &DVDQRYDV 6LQFHWKH\KDYHEHHQLQWHJUDWHGLQWR WKH7HUULWRULR,QVXODU)UDQFLVFRGH0LUDQGD
Las Aves de Sotavento Archipelago 7KLVDUFKLSHODJRLVORFDWHGNPWRWKHQRUWKRIWKHFHQWUDOZHVWHUQFRDVWRI9HQH]XHODDQG NPWRWKHHDVWRIWKHLVODQGRI%RQDLUH )LJXUH ,WVWUHWFKHVDERXWQLQHNLORPHWHUVIURPQRUWK WRVRXWKDQGDFRUDOUHHIRINLORPHWHUVLQOHQJWKERUGHUVLWRQWKHHDVW *LQpV *LQpVDQG
([FHSWIRUWKH9HQH]XHODQQDYDORXWSRVWDW$YH*UDQGH,VODQGDQGDIHZWHPSRUDU\¿VKHUPHQ¶VKXWV ORFDWHGRQ,VOD5DPyQDQG,VOD3DOPHUDVWKHRWKHULVODQGVDUHXQLQKDELWHG
Las Aves de Barlovento Archipelago $GLVWDQFHRINPVHSDUDWHV/DV$YHVGH%DUORYHQWRIURP/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR DQGDSSUR[LPDWHO\NPVHSDUDWHLWIURPWKH/RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJRWRWKHHDVW )LJXUH ,WLV FRPSRVHGRILVOHWVZLWKDWRWDODUHDRIDERXWVTXDUHNLORPHWHUV *LQpVDQG DOCUMENTARY ACCOUNTS Before discussing the pre-Hispanic remains, we will review the documentary sources in search of LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKH$PHULQGLDQSUHVHQFHRQWKH/DV$YHVLVODQGVIURPWKHWKFHQWXU\RQZDUGV It seems probable that some of the islands located off the central coast of Venezuela, including the /DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRVZHUHVHHQGXULQJWKHYR\DJHRI-XDQGH/D&RVDDQG$ORQVR2MHGDLQ %DUDQGLDUiQ ± +RZHYHUWKH\DUHQRWGHSLFWHGRQWKHPDSPDGHE\-XDQGH/D&RVDLQ 2OLYHU )LJ ,QIDFWWKHHDUO\6SDQLVKPDSVRIWKLVSDUWRI$PHULFDVHHPWRGLVWLQJXLVK RQO\VOLJKWO\EHWZHHQWKH/RV5RTXHVDQG/DV$YHVLVODQGVZKLOHHQWLUHO\QHJOHFWLQJWKHVHSDUDWLRQ EHWZHHQWKH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRDQGGH%DUORYHQWRJURXSV $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DNDQG :H suppose that even by 1528, when the Spanish Crown made the primitive territorial ordinance of this Figure 2. 0DSV RI WKH /DV$YHV GH 6RWDYHQWR DQG %DUORYHQWR DUFKLSHODJRV LQGLFDWLQJ WKH LVODQGV ZKHUH WKH archaeological sites described in the text are located. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 11 part of the New World ( Capitulación de los Welser WKH/DV$YHVLVODQGVUHPDLQHGODUJHO\XQH[SORUHG 7KLVRUGLQDQFHFRQFHGHGWKHLVODQGVWRWKH3URYLQFHRI9HQH]XHOD 2MHU ± EXWQRWWRZDUGV WKHPLGWKFHQWXU\ZHUHWKH\PRUHFORVHO\²DOWKRXJKVWLOOVXSHU¿FLDOO\²VXUYH\HGE\WKH6SDQLDUGV %\WKDWWLPHDIWHUWKHFROODSVHRIWKHSHDUO¿VKHU\RQ&XEDJXD,VODQGWKLVSUHFLRXVUHVRXUFHZDVEHLQJ frenetically sought out in almost all the Venezuelan islands though without success (Arellano Moreno )DUtDV 2WWH 'XULQJ WKH PLGWK FHQWXU\ WKH 3URYLQFH RI &DUDFDV FRPSULVHG WKH FRDVWDO UDQJH RI QRUWK central Venezuela, stretching between Cabo Codera to the east and the village of Borburata, near 3XHUWR &DEHOORWR WKH ZHVW %DUEXGR >±@ 7RWKH QRUWK LW HPEUDFHGWKH LVODQGV RI /DV$YHV/RV5RTXHVDQG/D2UFKLODDVZHOODV/D7RUWXJD,VODQGVLWXDWHGWRWKHQRUWKHDVW7RWKH VRXWKWKH3URYLQFHLQFOXGHGWKH&RUGLOOHUDGHOD&RVWDPRXQWDLQUDQJHDQGWKHYDOOH\VRI&DUDFDV DQG7X\ 3LPHQWHO >@ 7KHERUGHURIWKH3URYLQFHRI&DUDFDVZDVQRWGH¿QHGLQDQ\OHJDO DGPLQLVWUDWLYHWHUPVLQFRQWUDVWWRWKH3URYLQFHRI9HQH]XHODWKHODUJHUHDUO\FRORQLDODGPLQLVWUDWLYH XQLWRIWKLVUHJLRQ7KLVERUGHULQVWHDGHPSKDVL]HGWKHJHRJUDSKLFKRPRJHQHLW\RIWKH3URYLQFHRI Caracas and also the cultural and linguistic unity of its inhabitants (Biord 1995). (YHQDVODWHDVLQWKHWLPHRI*RYHUQRU3LPHQWHOWKHNQRZOHGJHRIWKHJHRJUDSK\WRSRJUDSK\ DQGELRWDRIWKHLVODQGVORFDWHGRIIWKHFRDVWRIWKH3URYLQFHZDVYHU\LPSHUIHFW3LPHQWHOZDVWKH *RYHUQRUDQG*HQHUDO&DSWDLQRIWKH3URYLQFHRI9HQH]XHODEHWZHHQDQGDQGZURWHWKH Relación de Nuestra Señora de Caraballeda y Santiago de León DVDVHULHVRIUHVSRQVHVWRWKHRI¿FLDO TXHVWLRQQDLUHVHQWE\.LQJ)HOLSH,,7KHDLPRIWKLVVHWRITXHVWLRQVZDVWRJDWKHUDQGV\VWHPDWL]H NQRZOHGJHFRQFHUQLQJWKHUHVRXUFHVSRWHQWLDOLWLHVDQGOLPLWDWLRQVRIWKHRYHUVHDVWHUULWRULHVRIWKH Spanish Crown (Biord 1995: 107). The following fragment of the Relación QRWRQO\FRQ¿UPVWKLV LPSHUIHFWNQRZOHGJHEXWDERYHDOOFDOOVDWWHQWLRQWRDOLWWOHNQRZQSDVVDJHUHJDUGLQJWKH$PHULQGLDQ presence on these islands: “The islands that are facing this coast are located about 15 or 20 OHDJXHV LQWR WKH VHD 7KHVH DUH /D 2UFKLOD DQG WKH$YHV ,VODQG >LH $UFKLSHODJRVRI/DV$YHV@/RV5RTXHV/D7RUWXJDDQGWZRRWKHUVWKDW DUHIXUWKHUWRWKHZHVW>WKH\@DUHORZLVODQGVDQGQRWODUJH/D2UFKLOD >@ KDV D VPDOO KLOO DQG WKH$YHV,VODQG DOVR KDV WZR RU WKUHH KLOOV EXWQRWDVKLJK /D2UFKLODDQG,VODGH$YHVKDYHVRPHZDWHU>SRWDEOH EUDFNLVKZDWHU@DQGLQRQHRUWZRRIWKHPWKHUHLVDORWRIVDOW>PDQ\@ UDEELWV>"@DQGDQDEXQGDQFHRI¿VKLQDOORIWKHPWKH\>WKHLVODQGV@ DUHPRUHPRXQWDLQRXVWKDQÀDW>FRYHUHGE\WKHPDQJURYH@WKHEXVK>LV@ ZRUWKOHVVDQGVPDOO,WLVXQGHUVWRRGWKDWLQ/RV5RTXHVDQGWKH$YHV Island, and also in the other islands, there are pearls. The caravel of &RXQWGH1LYD9LUUH\RI3HUXZDVORVWDWQLJKW>QHDU@/DV$YHV,VODQG 0DQ\ORVWWKHLUOLYHVEHFDXVHWKH\FRXOGQRW¿QGUHIXJH7KURXJKWKH QDWLYHV > por vía de naturales @ &DSW )D[DUGR >)DMDUGR@ UHFHLYHG WKH QHZVRIWKH>VKLSZUHFN@DQGWKXVVHQWWKHUHSLURJXHVEULQJLQJEDFN VRPHRIWKHSHRSOHDQG>RWKHU@ORVWWKLQJV´ 3LPHQWHOLQ1HFWDULR 0DUtD ± 3LPHQWHOGLGQRWGLVWLQJXLVKEHWZHHQWKH$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRDQGWKH%DUORYHQWR$UFKLSHODJRV +RZHYHUZHVXVSHFWWKDWWKHVKLSZUHFNKHUHIHUUHGWRRFFXUUHGRQ/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRVLQFHLWV reefs proved to be much more threatening than those of the Barlovento group. The quote above clearly LQGLFDWHVWKDWDWWKHWLPHZKHQWKHVKLSZUHFNRFFXUUHGDQXQLGHQWL¿HG$PHULQGLDQJURXSZDVSUHVHQW RQWKHVHLVODQGVRUQDYLJDWHGWKHZDWHUVWKDWVXUURXQGHGWKHP6LQFH3LPHQWHOUHIHUUHGWR)DMDUGRDV 12 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak a person who ordered the rescue, the event must have happened between 1555 and the beginning of WKHVZKHQ)DMDUGRZDVDFWLYHO\HQJDJHGLQWKHFRQTXHVWRIWKH3URYLQFHRI&DUDFDV 2YLHGR\ %DxRV >@ :KRZHUHWKHVH$PHULQGLDQV" In another passage of the Relación, 3LPHQWHO >@ QRWHGWKDW³WKHDERULJLQHV>IURP WKHFHQWUDOFRDVW@JRWKHUH>WR/RV5RTXHV/DV$YHVDQG/D2UFKLODLVODQGV@GXULQJWKHPRQWKVRIIDLU ZHDWKHUIRUVDOWDQGIRUWKHWXUWOHVWRHDWWKHPDQGWRPDNHRLOIURPWKHP´%\WKHPLGWKFHQWXU\WKH central coast and both slopes of the Cordillera de la Costa were inhabited by the Caraca Amerindians %DUEXGR >±@ 3LPHQWHO >@ $JUHGD >@LQ%LRUG 2YLHGR \%DxRV >@ 7KH Caraca ZDVWKH¿UVW$PHULQGLDQJURXSRIWKH3URYLQFHFRQWDFWHGE\WKH 6SDQLDUGVHYHQWKRXJKLWZDVQRWWKHPRVWQXPHURXVLQWKDWUHJLRQ 2YLHGR\%DxRV >@ 7KHVH GDWD VHHP WR LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH$PHULQGLDQV WKDW SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ WKH UHVFXH RI WKH VKLSZUHFN LQ/DV$YHVPLJKWKDYHEHHQDVHJPHQWRIWKH Caraca +RZHYHUWKH\PLJKWKDYHEHHQ)DMDUGR¶V Guayquerí $PHULQGLDQVIURP0DUJDULWD,VODQGRUIURPWKHLUHQFODYHVRQWKHFHQWUDOFRDVW 0F&RUNOH $\DOD/DIpH:LOEHUWDQG:LOEHUW RUWKH Caquetío who inhabited the islands of Curaçao, $UXEDDQG%RQDLUHDQGRQWKHPDLQODQGSUHVHQWGD\)DOFyQ6WDWHWRWKHZHVW 2OLYHU +DYLVHU *DVVyQ =XFFKL $ERXWWKLUW\\HDUVDIWHUWKH/DV$YHVVKLSZUHFNLQ6HSWHPEHURI E\RUGHURIWKH*RYHUQRU RIWKH3URYLQFHRI9HQH]XHODGRQ'LHJR2VRULRWKHLVODQGVVLWXDWHGRIIWKHFHQWUDOFRDVW EURDGO\ VSHDNLQJ ZHUHIRUPDOO\SRVVHVVHGE\WKH6SDQLVK&URZQ'XULQJWKLVDFW³LQDOOWKHVHLVODQGV>/DV $YHV/RV5RTXHV/D2UFKLODDQG/D7RUWXJD@PDVVZDVFHOHEUDWHGDQGFUXFL¿[HVZHUHHUHFWHGDVZHOO DVRWKHUDFWVRISRVVHVVLRQWKDWZHUHFDUULHGRXWLQWKHQDPHRIWKH.LQJ2XU/RUG´ $FWDVGHO&DELOGR GH&DUDFDV 'XULQJWKHVHRI¿FLDOYLVLWVWRWKHLVODQGVWKH6SDQLDUGVZHUHDVVLVWHGE\³DX[LOLDU\ ,QGLDQV´ ,QGLRVDX[LOLDULHV 7KHHQWLUHPLVVLRQQDYLJDWHGLQ³RQHFDQRHDQGWKUHHSLURJXHV´,WFDQ EHVXJJHVWHGWKDWWKH³DX[LOLDU\,QGLDQV´VHUYHGQRWRQO\DVSDGGOHUVEXWDOVRDERYHDOODVJXLGHV WRWKHVHODUJHO\XQNQRZQDQGGDQJHURXVFRUDOLVODQGV:HUHVRPHRIWKHVHJXLGHVWKHµROG¶ Caraca QDYLJDWRUVZKRNQHZWKHURXWHIURPWKHLUWUDGLWLRQDOIRUD\VWRWKHVHLVODQGV"8QGRXEWHGO\WKH¿UVWKDQG LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHLQVXODUHQYLURQVWKDWKDGEHHQJDWKHUHGGXULQJWKHVHRI¿FLDOYLVLWVZDVGHWDLOHG and improved considerably the exactitude of the later Spanish maps of this region. In consequence, the information available to sailors in the New World seas from 1592 onwards was accompanied by VHSDUDWHWKRXJKVLPSOHPDSVDQGUHODWLYHO\SUHFLVHGHVFULSWLRQVRIDOOWKHLVODQGVRIWKH3URYLQFHRI 9HQH]XHOD 9HOOHULQRGH9LOODORERV > @ :HFDQFRQFOXGHWKDWWKH/DV$YHV/RV5RTXHV/D2UFKLODDQG/D7RUWXJDLVODQGVZHUHFRQVLGHUHG DQLQWHJUDOSDUWRIWKH3URYLQFHRI9HQH]XHODGXULQJWKHWKFHQWXU\)XUWKHUPRUHWKHGDWDLQGLFDWH WKDWLQWKHVVRPHFXOWXUDOO\XQLGHQWL¿HG$PHULQGLDQJURXSVYLVLWHGWKH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR $UFKLSHODJR5HPDUNDEO\WKH\GLGQRWFRPPXQLFDWHWKHQHZVDERXWVXFKDQLPSRUWDQWVKLSZUHFNWR WKH6SDQLVKVHWWOHGLQ%RUEXUDWDRU&RURWRWKHZHVWEXWLQVWHDGWR)DMDUGRZKRRSHUDWHGRQWKHFHQWUDO coast but assisted by the Guaiquerí Amerindians from the Margarita Island to the east. Were these island visitors the remnants of the Caraca $PHULQGLDQVZKRDFFRUGLQJWR3LPHQWHOVWLOOQDYLJDWHGWR WKHRIIVKRUHLVODQGVLQWKHHDUO\GHFDGHVRIWKHWKFHQWXU\",IVRWKHTXHVWLRQUHPDLQV &RXOGWKH Caraca have navigated to these islands so distant from their mainland homeland in the turbulent times RIWKH6SDQLVKVODYHUDLGV 2WWH -LPpQH] DQGWKHSRVWHULRUXQFRPSURPLVLQJZDUZLWKWKH 6SDQLVKFRQTXHURUVRIWKH3URYLQFHRI&DUDFDV":HZLOOUHWXUQWRWKLVTXHVWLRQLQWKH¿QDOVHFWLRQRI WKLVSDSHU)LQDOO\ZHZRXOGDOVRLQGLFDWHWKDWDFFRUGLQJWRGLYHUVHFRQVXOWHGVRXUFHVQRPHQWLRQ of Amerindian presence on the islands off the central Venezuelan coast from the late 16th century RQZDUGV ZDV IRXQG /DHW >@ 'DPSLHU $OFHGR >± @ &RGD]]L >@ $SSXQ >@ 6SHQFH >@ $UHOODQR0RUHQR +DGJLDO\ -DPDQG%XUJDxD %DUDQGLDUiQDQG&DVWLOOR 9LOD &DUGRW &DUULOOR%DWDOOD )DUtDV 2MHUQG Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 13 THE SURVEY 7KHDXWKRUVYLVLWHG/DV$YHVGH%DUORYHQWRIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQ 7KHVLWH,7$RQ,VODGHO 7HVRUR ZDV ORFDWHG DQG H[FDYDWHG GXULQJ WHQ GD\V RI ¿HOGZRUN $QWF]DN DQG$QWF]DN $ VXUYH\DQGH[FDYDWLRQVZHUHFDUULHGRXWLQWKH$UFKLSHODJRGH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRRYHUWHQGD\V LQ0DUFKDQG$SULORI $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN ,Q-XQHDQG-XO\RI QHZIRXUZHHN ORQJH[FDYDWLRQVZHUHFDUULHGRXWLQERWKDUFKLSHODJRV $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN 7KHVLWHVLQERWK archipelagos were again revisited in 2006, but no archaeological excavations were carried out on this occasion. 7KH¿HOGZRUNPHWKRGVHPSOR\HGLQFOXGHDV\VWHPDWLFSHGHVWULDQVXUYH\DQGVXUIDFHDQGVKRYHO VDPSOLQJRIHDFKLVODQGDVZHOODVUDQGRPDQGQRQUDQGRPVDPSOLQJLQWHVWSLWV2QO\DWWKH$YH*UDQGH VLWH $*$ ZHUH V\VWHPDWLF µEORFN¶ H[FDYDWLRQV FDUULHG RXW )LQH VLHYLQJ RQHVTXDUHPLOOLPHWHU mesh) mainly designed to recover zooarchaeological remains was employed in the excavations at the $*$DQG,7%VLWHV IRUVLWHFRGHVVHH7DEOHV± ZKLOHIRXUVTXDUHPLOOLPHWHUPHVKZDVXVHGLQ the excavation of all other sites. In addition, comparative collections of local fauna were created and GDWDDERXWFRQWHPSRUDU\WUDGLWLRQDO¿VKLQJSUDFWLFHVFROOHFWHG 'XULQJ WKH ¿UVW VWDJH RI WKH ¿HOGZRUN WKH HPSKDVLV ZDV SODFHG RQ SHGHVWULDQ VXUYH\ RI DOO the islands of both archipelagos. To systematize the survey, an imaginary grid of parallel transects VHSDUDWHGE\DSSUR[LPDWHO\PHWHUVZDVVHWRXWRYHUDOOUHODWLYHO\ÀDWSDUWVRIHDFKLVODQG7KH¿HOG ZDONLQJXVXDOO\EHJDQDORQJWKHFRDVWDQGFRQWLQXHGLQWKHIRUPRIDVSLUDOLQSDUDOOHOFRQFHQWULF lines toward the center of the island. Special attention was paid to the observation of the island surface from the tops of storm terraces and higher dunes, since these topographic features offer the only KLJKSHUVSHFWLYHVDYDLODEOHRQWKHPDMRULW\RIWKHVHLVODQGV$OOVHDVRQDOO\ÀRRGHGDUHDVDVZHOODV WKRVHFRYHUHGE\PDQJURYHVZHUHVXUYH\HGE\UDQGRPZDONLQJ7RGHWHUPLQHVLWHORFDWLRQGXULQJ WKH¿HOGZDONLQJVSHFLDODWWHQWLRQZDVSDLGWRIHDWXUHVLGHQWL¿HGRQDHULDOSKRWRJUDSKVDQGUHODWHGE\ informants. However, all conspicuous topographic features, changes in type, composition and density RIQDWXUDOYHJHWDWLRQVXUIDFHVRLOFRORUVXUIDFHVHGLPHQWQDWXUHDQGWKHSUHVHQFH RUODFN RIFXOWXUDO UHPDLQVRQWKHVXUIDFHZHUHWDNHQLQWRDFFRXQWLQWKHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIVLWHORFDWLRQ Test pits of 1 x 1 meters and 0.5 x 0.5 meters were excavated randomly in arbitrary levels of 20 centimeters. This was combined with observation of natural stratigraphy. The pits were not only H[FDYDWHGLQWKHDUHDVZKHUHFXOWXUDOPDWHULDOZDVIRXQGRQWKHVXUIDFHRUVHYHUDOVSHFL¿FQDWXUDO features were observed. They were also excavated intuitively in areas where no cultural material was found on the surface, and no natural indication of the potential presence of archaeological site was GHWHFWHG$IHZVLWHVVXFKDV&8$ $YHVGH6RWDYHQWR DQG,7$ $YHVGH%DUORYHQWR ZHUHVHOHFWHG in that manner. The test pits excavated within the boundaries of archaeological sites only are listed in Tables 1 and 2, although many more pits were excavated during the survey. 7KHUHODWLYHO\WKLFNOHYHOV FP LQZKLFKWKHKRUL]RQWDOH[FDYDWLRQSURFHHGHGZHUHXWLOL]HGDW all sites. The majority of island sites have great numbers of Lobatus gigas shells incorporated within their cultural deposits. It is noteworthy that a single adult shell could achieve a length between 25 and 30 centimeters, and when disposed vertically in the cultural matrix, could extend beyond one layer of 20 centimeters. In consequence, attempts to distinguish tiny layers within those deposits dominated by Lobatus gigas shells were often unrealizable. Surface sampling was random, and assessment of the quantity and density of collected artifacts was largely intuitive. However, emphasis was placed on the exhaustive representation and documentation of the different types of cultural materials found at each site, their state of preservation, spatial associations, ecofacts when present, and the characteristics of the soil matrix on which they were lying. 2QWKHEDVLVRIWKHUHVXOWVRIWKHVXUIDFHDQGWHVWSLWVDPSOLQJVRPHVLWHVZHUHFKRVHQIRUH[WHQVLYH excavation in a process of a judgment or purposeful sampling (Redman 1979). We selected sites that 14 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak revealed quantitatively abundant and qualitatively diverse cultural remains. The deposits featuring stylistically diagnostic pottery, rich zooarchaeological remains and potential for recovery of activity areas were especially important. The possibility of obtaining good samples for radiocarbon dating was also an important criterion. However, several non-artifact and non-context-related criteria were also DSSOLHG)RUH[DPSOHWKHSUREDEOHVWUDWHJLFSRVLWLRQRIWKHVLWHZLWKLQWKHLVODQG DQGRIWKHLVODQG within the archipelago), its proximity to a good landing beach, and its ease of access to abundant and diverse marine or terrestrial resources, were also assessed. The site on Ave Grande Island was selected for extensive excavation because the test-pit sampling yielded, from the beginning, relatively diverse and abundant archaeological material. The potential for the recovery of activity areas at this site was also considerable. Additionally, this site was excavated due to its proximity to the most important UHVHUYRLURISRWDEOHEUDFNLVKZDWHULQWKHHQWLUH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR THE SITES AND MATERIALS Ave Grande (AG/A) 7KH$*$VLWHLVORFDWHGRQWKHQRUWKHUQFRDVWRI$YH*UDQGH,VODQGRQO\WZHOYHPHWHUVIURPDQ DFWLYHVDQG\EHDFK,WLVWKHPDMRULVODQGZLWKLQWKH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRJURXS)DFLQJWKHVLWHDQG parallel to the beach stretches a coral reef of over 100 meters in length. Grasses and shrubs cover the VXUURXQGLQJVRIWKHVLWH2QHWUHQFKRIVTXDUHPHWHUVDQGVHYHUDOWHVWSLWVZHUHH[FDYDWHGDWWKLVVLWH 7DEOH)LJXUH 7RWKHZHVWRIWKHWUHQFKWKHUHH[WHQGORZVFDWWHUVRI Lobatus gigas shells covered by shrub. These scatters form an integral part of the site and the shells were collected and processed by the Amerindian occupants. In the trench, the cultural deposit, characterized by grey-colored soil, begins between 10 and 15 centimeters below the surface and reaches a maximum depth of 43 centimeters (Table 1). Six hearth IHDWXUHVZHUHIRXQGLQWKHPDLQWUHQFKO\LQJDWGHSWKVEHWZHHQDQGFHQWLPHWHUV2QHZHOO preserved hearth measuring 50 centimeters in diameter with many fragments of Lobatus gigas shell LQFRUSRUDWHGLQWRLWVEDVHZDVUHFRYHUHGEHWZHHQDQGFP7KHVDPSOHWDNHQIURPWKLVKHDUWKZDV UDGLRFDUERQGDWHGWR%3 $QWF]DN 7DEOH Lobatus gigas shells are among the most numerous non-ceramic components of the cultural deposit of this site. They appear on the surface and below it. The shells are particularly abundant in the Table 1. $PHULQGLDQVLWHVDQGH[FDYDWLRQVLQ/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR . Island Site code Site area Site max. 3LW Trench Total Stylistic (m²) depth excavated DI¿OLDWLRQ (cm) (m²) # m² # m² Dabajuroid Ave Grande 450 45 12 10.5 1 33 43.5 $6$*$ (Valencioid) Ave Grande $6$*% " 43 2 4 - - 4 Dabajuroid ,VOD3DOPHUDV $6,3$ 168 40-55 7 14 - - 14 Dabajuroid ,VOD3DOPHUDV $6,3% 375 45-50 5 5 - - 5 Dabajuroid Curricai $6&8 450 45-50 9 12 - - 12 Dabajuroid Total 1443 35 45.5 1 33 78.5 Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 15 western part of the trench but almost absent in its eastern part. The Amerindians discarded the majority of these shells after removing the meat. The shells exhibit circular opening holes in their spires which IDFLOLWDWHGWKHH[WUDFWLRQRIWKHDQLPDOIURPLWVVKHOO $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN 1XPHURXVMXYHQLOH and adult shells with heavily battered apexes were found at the site. This suggests that they were used WRPDNHWKHRSHQLQJKROHVLQRWKHUVKHOOV)RXUVPDOOKHDSVFOXVWHULQJIURPIRXUWRVL[RXWHUOLSVRI adult individuals of Lobatus gigas shells, were also found in the trench. In total, the trench yielded 397 (MNI) Lobatus gigas VKHOOVDQGVHSDUDWHGOLSV7KHVHGDWDLQGLFDWHWKDWWKH$*$VLWHRFFXSDQWV used not only the meat but also the shell of this gastropod. Non- Lobatus gigas shells were scarce and included Cittarium pica , Astraea , Chama, and Codakia VSS(YLGHQFHRIVKHOOZRUNDWWKH$*$VLWH LVVFDUFH VL[VPDOOEHDGVWKUHHURXJKO\PDGHGLVNVDQG DERYHPHQWLRQHGVHSDUDWHGOLSVZHUH UHFRYHUHG )LJXUH $PRQJVWRQHDUWHIDFWVWKHUHVWDQGVRXWDTXDUW]KDPPHUVWRQHWZRÀDWVDQGVWRQHV ZLWKRQHEHYHOHGHGJHHDFKDFRXSOHRIURXJKO\ZRUNHGFRUDOVWRQHREMHFWVRIXQGHWHUPLQHGIXQFWLRQ DQGRQHEXWWRQOLNHREMHFWZLWKRQHSHUIRUDWLRQRQRQHVLGHDQGWZRRQWKHRWKHUVLGH )LJXUH A few allochthonous mammal bone artefacts were recovered: one unipoint and another bi-pointed DUURZKHDGDQDZORUVSDWXODDQGDIHZRWKHUSRVVLEOHPDQXIDFWXUHUHMHFWV )LJXUH ,QGHHGWKH Figure 3. 3DUWLDOYLHZVRIWKHWUHQFKH[FDYDWHGDW$*$VLWHDQG¿QHVLHYLQJ RQHVTXDUHPLOOLPHWHUPHWDOPHVK /DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRDUFKLSHODJR Table 2. 5DGLRFDUERQGDWHVIURP$PHULQGLDQVLWHVLQ/DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRV ,VODQG$UFKLSHODJR Site code Sample code Sample type, context, depth Figure 4. 0LVFHOODQHRXVREMHFWVUHFRYHUHGLQ/DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRV IURP left to right , top to bottom ): a stone D[H,3$VLWH OHQJWKFP ÀDWVDQGVWRQHZLWKRQHEHYHOHGHGJH,3$VLWH OHQJWKFP WZRURXJKO\ZRUNHG FRUDOVWRQHREMHFWV$*$VLWH OHQJWKVDQGFP DTXDUW]KDPPHUVWRQH OHQJWKFP VKHOOGLVNPDGHRXWRI Lobatus gigas RXWHUOLS GLDPHWHUFP DVKHOOEHDG$*$ GLDPHWHUFP EXWWRQOLNHREMHFWZLWKRQHSHU - IRUDWLRQRQRQHDQGWZRRQRWKHUVLGH GLDPHWHUFPWKLFNQHVVFP DQGVDPSOHRIVHSDUDWHG Lobatus gigas outer lips and discoidal objects. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 17 Figure 5. $OORFKWKRQRXVPDPPDOERQHDUWHIDFWVIURP/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRV IURP left to right , top to bottom ): WZRDUURZKHDGVIURP$*$VLWH OHQJWKVDQGFP DQDUURZKHDGDQGDVSDWXODSHUIRUDWRUIURP,7%VLWH OHQJWKVDQGFP DQGWKUHHSRVVLEOHPDQXIDFWXUHUHMHFWVIURP$*$VLWH OHQJWKVDQGFP 18 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak PRVWQXPHURXVQRQFHUDPLFDUFKDHRORJLFDOPDWHULDOVWKDWKDYHEHHQUHFRYHUHGIURPWKH$*$VLWH are bird remains. No other site on the islands of Venezuela surveyed by the authors has yielded such a KLJKGHQVLW\RIELUGUHPDLQV$WRWDORI 1,63 VSHFLPHQVLQFOXGLQJIUDJPHQWVRIDOOVNHOHWDO elements of a bird, were found. Though bird remains were scattered all over the site, they were more frequent in the eastern part of the trench. In this sector, two small heaps were found separated by a distance of 1.7 m. They contained 860 and 625 bird remains respectively. Even though a detailed study of these remains is not available, the most abundant species are Sula sula and, much less commonly, 3HOHFDQXV RFFLGHQWDOLV and )UHJDWD PDJQL¿FHQV . The birds seem to have been largely consumed in situ WKHKHDSVUHSUHVHQWSRVWFRQVXPSWLRQUHIXVH+RZHYHULQVLGHWKHKHDSVDVZHOODVLQWKHLU VXUURXQGLQJVWXEXODUEHDGVIURPWKUHHWR¿YHFPORQJPDGHIURPWKHPLGVHFWLRQVRIELUGXOQDV were found. The proximal and distal fragments of these bones were discarded with one extremity FOHDUO\VHYHUHGVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHEHDGPDNLQJWRRNSODFHDWWKLVVLWH )LJXUH )LVK UHPDLQV DUH UHODWLYHO\ VFDUFH DW WKH VLWH 7KH PDQGLEXODU IUDJPHQWV DQGRU RWROLWKV RI 3RPDGDV\LGDH6FDULGDHDQG/XWMDQLGDHLQRUGHURIDEXQGDQFHZHUHLGHQWL¿HG7KHRYHUDOOVFDUFLW\ RI¿VKUHPDLQVDQGWKHDEVHQFHRI¿VKLQJGHYLFHVFRQVWUDLQLQIHUULQJWKH¿VKLQJWHFKQLTXHVXVHGE\WKH $*$RFFXSDQWV+RZHYHULWPD\EHVXJJHVWHGWKDWSRFNHWVHLQHQHWVZHUHXVHGDVZHOODVSRVVLEO\ ERZVDQGDUURZVRUVSHDUV $QWF]DN Claw elements dominate the sample of crab remains. The most common species represented are Cardisoma guanhumi IROORZHG E\ 3DJXULGDH *LO DQG 6XiUH] DOVR LGHQWL¿HG UHPDLQV RI Grapsus, a common species in the area. The preliminary analyses of crab remains indicate the under- representation or absence of such species as 0LWUD[VSLQRVLVVLPXV and Carpillius coralinus . These crabs are valuable food resources, commonly caught by trap and bottom gill nets by the present-day ¿VKHUPHQRIWKH/RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJRWRWKHHDVW 3RVDGD 3RVDGD et al. 6DOD\D et al. 7KHVHGDWDPD\VXJJHVWWKDWWKH$*$VLWHRFFXSDQWVGLGQRWXVHWUDSVDQGERWWRPJLOOQHWV $WRWDORIWXUWOHUHPDLQVZHUHUHFRYHUHG$OPRVWDOOSDUWVRIWKHWXUWOHVNHOHWRQDUHUHSUHVHQWHG DOWKRXJKLQXQHYHQTXDQWLWLHV RYHURILGHQWL¿HGHOHPHQWVDUHXSSHUVKHOO FDUDSDFH IUDJPHQWV The absence of head remains indicates that all turtle heads were cut off and discarded off-site, as may be suggested by ethnographic data and evidence from other sites in the Caribbean (i.e. Hamblin 1984: 7KHWXUWOHUHPDLQVZHUHQRWKHDWGDUNHQHGLQGLFDWLQJWKDWWKHWXUWOHVZHUHQRWURDVWHGLQVKHOOV GLUHFWO\RYHUD¿UHRUKRWFRDOV6HYHUDOWXUWOHERQHVKDGEHHQFDUQLYRUHFKHZHGVXJJHVWLQJWKDWGRJV might have been present at the site. However, the action of large crabs on these bones should not be GLVFDUGHG )HZ KXPHUL DQG IHPXUV KDYH FXW PDUNV UHVXOWLQJ IURP ÀHVK VHSDUDWLRQ:KHWKHU VKHOO (Codakia shell), bone or stone cutting tools were employed in butchering was not determined. 7KH FKLWRQ $PSKLQHXUDQV SODTXHV WKH H[RVNHOHWRQV DQG VSLQHV RI VHD XUFKLQV IDPLO\ (FKLQRPHWULGDH DQGWKHVROLGIUDJPHQWVRIWKHH[RVNHOHWRQVRIEDUQDFOHV Balanus spp.) were also recovered. Whether the remains of these animals were collected ashore or captured alive and used as marginal food cannot be determined. The remains of lobsters are absent . 7KHSRWWHU\UHFRYHUHGDWWKH$*$VLWHLVFRDUVHWHPSHUHGZLWKVDQGDQGPLFDDQGSUREDEO\GXH WRWKHZHDWKHULQJKDVUDWKHUURXJKVXUIDFHV2QO\ RIVKHUGVDUHGHFRUDWHGZLWKFRUUXJDWLRQ SDLQWLQJLQFLVLRQRUDSSOLTXp )LJXUHV± 7KHPRVWFRPPRQGHFRUDWHGVKHUGVDUHFRUUXJDWHGULPV WKDWUDQJHIURPRQHWRVL[FRLOV7KHVHRFFXUZLWKRUZLWKRXWWKXPELPSUHVVLRQV IRUVSHFL¿FGH¿QLWLRQV RIWKLVGHFRUDWLYHWHFKQLTXHVHH2OLYHU $UYHORDQG2OLYHU 7KHFRUUXJDWLRQVRFFXU exclusively in the ‘ordinary ware’ vessel types such as medium- and large-sized semi-globular and KHPLVSKHULFDOFRRNLQJDQGVWRUDJH ollas with the mouth diameter ranging from 26 to 34 centimeters )LJXUH 3DLQWLQJLVGRPLQDWHGE\DFRPELQDWLRQRIUHFWLOLQHDUDQGVHPLFLUFXODUEURDGDQGQDUURZSDUDOOHO DQGGLDJRQDOEDQGV LWLQFOXGHVWKHUDGLDOµVXQ¶PRWLI VHH2OLYHU YRO)LJ& ,WLVH[HFXWHG LQEODFNDQGUHGRQZKLWHRURQEXII QDWXUDO DQGLVIRXQGRQWKHH[WHUQDODQGLQWHUQDOVLGHVRIUHVWULFWHG Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 19 Figure 6. Bird ulnas ( Sula sula and 3HOHFDQXVRFFLGHQWDOLV ) with one extremity severed and beads made from the PLGVHFWLRQVRIWKHXOQDVVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHEHDGPDNLQJWRRNSODFHDWWKH$*$VLWH ORQJHVWVSHFLPHQFP /DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR DQGXQUHVWULFWHGERZOVZLWKVLPSOHDQQXODURUVKDIWHGDQQXODUULQJEDVHV )LJXUH )UDJPHQWVRIDW least four such bowls were recovered. The most conspicuous among them is a medium-sized unrestricted bowl with shafted annular ring base, with internally and externally painted red on white lines, bands DQG WKH UDGLDO µVXQ¶PRWLI DQG VPDOO SURWXEHUDQFHV GLVSRVHG V\PPHWULFDOO\ RQ LWV ULP )LJXUH 7KLV ERZO KDV H[FHSWLRQDOO\WKLFN ZDOOV PRUH WKDQ RQH FHQWLPHWHU WKLFN DQG LWV RYHUDOO VKDSH LV KHDYLO\GHIRUPHG8QOLNHDOORWKHUSRWWHU\UHFRYHUHGLQWKH/DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRVDQGE\H[WHQVLRQ DOONQRZQ'DEDMXURLGSRWWHU\WKLVERZOZDVWHPSHUHGZLWKVLOLFHRXVVSRQJHVSLFXODHDQGSLULWH )H6 2) DQGKDVDSRURVLW\RI 3RLULHUDQG*XWLpUUH] 1LHYHV UHSRUWHGWKHSUHVHQFHRI freshwater sponge FDX[t LQSRWWHU\OLQNHGZLWKWKH9DOHQFLRLG$UDXTXLQRLGVHULHVDWWKH&KXSDTXLUH 20 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak Figure 7. The most common decorated sherds are corrugated rims that range from one to six coils with or without thumb impressions. The corrugations occur in the medium- and large-sized semi-globular and hemispherical FRRNLQJDQGVWRUDJH ollas PRXWKGLDPHWHUV±FP $*$VLWH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR site, in the Barlovento region, in the north-eastern corner of the Valencioid Sphere of Interaction (see also Cruxent and Rouse 1958). Although this temper was considered as one of the characteristics of WKHSRWWHU\PDGHE\WKH&DULEDQVSHDNLQJDQFHVWRUVRIWKH9DOHQFLRLGVWKH$UDXTXLQRLGVIURPWKH 0LGGOH2ULQRFRDUHD =XFFKL LWZDVDOVRDGRSWHGE\VRPHQRQ&DULEDQVSHDNHUV %RRPHUW 2000: 120). The Valencioids could have indeed introduced this temper to their Dabajuroid neighbors. 7KHVWULNLQJEOHQGRIFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDKLJKO\GHFRUDWHGDQGVNLOOIXOO\HODERUDWHGYHVVHOPDGHZLWK DQDW\SLFDOWHPSHUDQGZLWKWKLFNZDOOVDQGGHIRUPHGVKDSHPD\LQGLFDWHWKHXQXVXDOFRQGLWLRQVRI its manufacture, most probably related to the distensions brought about by early colonial times when Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 21 Figure 8. An open bowl on shafted annular ring base, painted externally in lines and bands and with applied SURWXEHUDQFHVV\PPHWULFDOO\GLVWULEXWHGRQULPWRS PRXWKGLDPHWHU FP $*$VLWH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR Archipelago. Figure 9. A medium-sized unrestricted bowl (mouth diameter 28 cm) with shafted annular ring base, with externally painted red on white lines, bands, the radial ‘sun’ motif, and small protuberances disposed symmetrically on its ULP7KLVERZOLVYHU\OLJKWKDVH[FHSWLRQDOO\WKLFNZDOOVDQGLWVRYHUDOOVKDSHLVGHIRUPHG$*$VLWH/DV$YHV de Sotavento Archipelago. 22 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak Figure 10. 3ODVWLF GHFRUDWLRQV LQFOXGH IURP left to right , top to bottom µFRIIHHEHDQH\H¶ IRUP VPDOO SURWXEHUDQFHV DQWKURSRPRUSKLFIDFH PXOWLWXEXODUDSSHQGL[ LQFLVHGNQRE DQGRZOH\HOLNHPRWLIVDSSOLHGRQ WKHH[WHUQDOZDOOVRIYHVVHOVRQULPWRSVDQGRQVKDIWHGDQQXODUULQJEDVHV)LUVWHLJKWVKHUGV±$*$VLWH$YH *UDQGH,VODQG SHQXOWLPDWHVKHUG±,3$VLWH,VOD3DOPHUDV ODVWVKHUG±&8$VLWH&XUULFDL,VODQG/DV$YHVGH 6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR WKHODUJHVWVKHUGLQWKHFHQWUHRIWKH¿UVWURZLVFPORQJ the traditional Amerindian conditions of pottery manufacture were disrupted. The deformation of the VKDSHDQGWKHWKLFNHQLQJRIWKHZDOOVKDSSHQHGGXULQJWKH¿ULQJSURFHVV%HDULQJLQPLQGWKDWWKH YHVVHOZDVXQXVDEOHLQLWV¿QDOGHIRUPHGVKDSHZHPD\VSHFXODWHWKDWWKLVVWDWHGLGQRWHUDVHGLWV SRVVLEO\FHUHPRQLDOV\PEROLFYDOXHDQGWKLVPLJKWKDYHEHHQWKHUHDVRQZK\LWZDVEURXJKWWRWKH &XUULFDLFDPSVLWH$FFRUGLQJWRDPRGHUQSRWWHUH[SHULHQFHGLQLQGLJHQRXVSRWWHU\PDNLQJWHFKQLTXHV (PLOLR6SyVLWRSHUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ WKHFRQVSLFXRXVFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKLVYHVVHOEULQJWR PLQGDQXQVXFFHVVIXOµH[SHULPHQWDWLRQ¶SHUIRUPHGE\DVNLOOIXO$PHULQGLDQSRWWHUZKRHPSOR\HGDQ H[FHVVLYHTXDQWLW\RIXQNQRZQWHPSHUWRPDNHWKHZKROHYHVVHOFRQVLGHUDEO\OLJKWHU The plastic decoration of the pottery recovered at this site, combined with painting, is expressed in the form of small protuberances applied on the external walls of vessels, on shafted annular ring bases, DQGRQULPWRSV )LJXUHVDQG 7KUHHRSHQERZOULPVDUHGHFRUDWHGZLWKPRWLIVRIYHUWLFDOO\ FRPSUHVVHGKXPDQIDFHVUHDOL]HGWKURXJKWKHWHFKQLTXHVRIDSSOLTXpDQGLQFLVLRQ DOODUHUHGVOLSSHG Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 23 Figure 11. Three open bowls red-slipped in zones with rims decorated with motifs of vertically compressed human IDFHVUHDOL]HGWKURXJKWKHWHFKQLTXHVRIDSSOLTXpDQGLQFLVLRQDQGDERZOULPVKRZLQJDVLPSOHELRPRUSKLF DSSOLTXp$*$VLWH$YH*UDQGH,VODQG/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR WKHODUJHVWVKHUGLVFPORQJ LQ]RQHV$QRWKHUULPLVVLPLODUWRWKHSUHYLRXVRQHVEXWIHDWXUHVRZOH\HOLNHPRWLIV,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJ to note that each of these generally similar decorations has a different row of incisions above the µIDFH¶ DQRWKHUERZOULPVKRZVDVLPSOHELRPRUSKLFDSSOLTXp )LJXUH The lower half of one globular olla with everted rim was externally red-slipped. Annular bases, vertical strap handles of different sizes and four fragments of griddle were also recovered at this VLWH7KHH[DPSOHVRISDLQWHGµ¿QHZDUH¶DUHYHU\VFDUFHLQFRPSDULVRQWRWKHµRUGLQDU\ZDUH¶ZLWK FRUUXJDWHGULPV7KHYLUWXDODEVHQFHRIQHFNHGMDUV OLTXLGFRQWDLQHUV LVVWULNLQJDQGVXJJHVWVWKDW perishable bottle gourd containers might have been used for water storage in this island environment. 9HVVHOIRUPV GHFRUDWLYH WHFKQLTXHV DQG PRWLIV RI WKH SRWWHU\ UHFRYHUHG DW WKH$*$ VLWH IDOO ZLWKLQWKHUDQJHRIYDULDWLRQDFFRUGHGWRWKH'DEDMXURLGVXEVHULHV 2OLYHU 8QIRUWXQDWHO\ WKH VKHUGV UHFRYHUHG DW WKH$*$ VLWH DUH RI ORZ GLDJQRVWLF YDOXH DV LQGLFDWRUV RI VXEWOHU VSDWLDO FKURQRORJLFDOGLYLVLRQVZLWKLQWKLVVXEVHULHV2QWKH'DEDMXURLGPDLQODQGDWWKH7~FXDVLWHWKHW\SH of painted open bowl with shafted base featuring a thin (lenticular in cross-section) ‘ring’ was present LQERWK7~FXDDQG(DUO\8UXPDFRFRPSRQHQWV 2OLYHU YRO $SSHQGL[&)LJV&D WRI )LJE 7KHFRUUXJDWLRQDQGDQQXODUDQGORZVWDQGULQJEDVHVDUHDOVRFRPPRQHOHPHQWVRI 'DEDMXURLGSRWWHU\IURP&XUDoDRDQG%RQDLUH +DYLVHU %RWKWKHIRUPDQGWKHW\SLFDO EDQGGHVLJQZLWKDVHULHVRIZKLWHUKRPEXVHVSDLQWHGRQDZLGHUHGEDQGRQWKHQHFNRIWKHQHFNHGMDU DUHW\SLFDORIWKHPDLQODQG'DEDMXUDQVXEVHULHV 2OLYHU YRO)LJ& F & However, fragments of rims decorated with motifs of human faces found at this site are typical GHFRUDWLYHWUDLWVRIWKH9DOHQFLDVW\OH .LGGHU 3O 7KHULPZLWKµRZOH\HV¶GHFRUDWLRQ 24 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak LVLGHQWLFDOWRDULPIRXQGLQWKH&HPHQWHULRGH7XFDFDVZKLFKPDUNVWKHZHVWHUQPRVWVW\OHRIWKH 9DOHQFLRLGVHULHV &UX[HQW DQG 5RXVH YRO 3O 7KH$*$ µRZOH\HV¶¿QG LV DOVR LGHQWLFDOWRDULPIRXQGDWWKH/D&DEUHUDVLWHDPRQJLWV9DOHQFLDVW\OHDVVHPEODJH .LGGHU 3O 2: 28). The ‘coffee-bean-eyes’ are also typical Valencioid traits. All these Valencioid rim sherds are GH¿QLWHO\GDWHGSRVW$' 8QIRUWXQDWHO\WKHVFDUFLW\RIGDWDDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHVPDOOVKHOOPLGGHQ that yielded the artifacts of the Cementerio de Tucacas style, limits the inferences that can be made DERXWWKHQDWXUHRIWKHVRFLDOSROLWLFDOUHODWLRQVKLSVRIWKHEHDUHUVRI'DEDMXURLG9DOHQFLRLGSRWWHU\RQ WKHQRUWKZHVWHUQ9HQH]XHODQFRDVWDQGLQFRQVHTXHQFHRQWKH,VODQGVRIWKH/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRV The admixture of Dabajuroid and Valencioid elements in the Cementerio de Tucacas site may be attributed to—probably non-coercive—‘marginal contacts’ in which the bearers of these potteries maintained their distinctive cultural characteristics on top of their ethnolinguistic differentiation: SXUSRUWHGO\WKH'DEDMXURLGVZHUH$UDZDNDQVSHDNHUVDQGWKH9DOHQFLRLGV&DULEDQVSHDNHUV &UX[HQW DQG5RXVH YRO 5LYDV $QWF]DN +RZHYHUHYHQWKRXJKWKHDUHDRI7XFDFDV FDQEHFRQVLGHUHGWKHZHVWHUQSHULSKHU\RIWKH9DOHQFLRLGVSKHUHRILQWHUDFWLRQ $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN LWGRHVQRWVHHPWRPDUNWKHHDVWHUQERUGHURIFRDVWDO'DEDMXURLGLQÀXHQFH'DEDMXURLGUHODWHG SRWWHU\DSSHDUVGLVFRQWLQXRXVO\DORQJWKHHDVWHUQFRDVWDWWKH*XDUDJXDR3XQWD$UHQDVDQG3OD\D *XDFXFRVLWHV &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH 7KHFHUDPLFVIURPWKHVHVLWHVFDQOLNHO\EHFODVVL¿HGDVD VXEVHULHVGLVWLQFWWRWKH'DEDMXUDQ DVGH¿QHGE\2OLYHU DQGUHÀHFWFKURQRORJLFDOGLYHUJHQFHV VHH:DJQHU $WWKH3OD\D&KXDRVLWHRQWKHFHQWUDOZHVWHUQFRDVW'DEDMXURLGSRWWHU\ZDV recovered associated with Valencioid sherds (Morales 1984). The same combination was observed at WKH9DOHQFLRLGVLWHRI'RV0RVTXLVHVLQWKH/RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJR $QWF]DN D 2WKHUFRDVWDO sites also yielded admixtures of late pre-Hispanic pottery, and this fact indicates the existence of a dynamic and multifarious interrelationship of the people along the coast with those situated between WKHFRDVWDQGWKHKLQWHUODQG $OYDUH]DQG&DVHOOD 1LHYHVGH*DOLFLD 0DUWtQ $QWF]DN 5LYDV 6êNRUD $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN +HUUHUD0DODWHVWD :HFRQVLGHU WKDW WKH PDWHULDO VLJQDWXUHV RI WKHVH9DOHQFLRLG'DEDMXURLG LQWHUDFWLRQV LQ QRUWK FHQWUDO 9HQH]XHODDUH VLJQL¿FDQW LQDVPXFK DV WKH\ PD\ LQGLFDWH H[WHQVLYH PRELOLW\ DQG WUDGH RU RFFDVLRQDOVRFLDOµIXVLRQ¶RIWKHPDULQHEDVHGFRDVWDO'DEDMXURLGDQG9DOHQFLRLGVRFLHWLHV2XUJXHVV is that during late pre-Hispanic times, groups of the bearers of Valencioid and Dabajuroid pottery PDGHFRPPRQFDXVHIRUFHUWDLQVSHFLDOL]HGDFWLYLWLHVHJ¿VKLQJSDUWLHVDQGWKHLUFKLHIVVWUHQJWKHQHG the social-political interaction through intermarriage and ritual exchange. The presence of Valencioid sherds in the Dabajuroid assemblage of Ave Grande Island can be considered a result of some of WKHVHXQGHWHUPLQHGVRFLDOLQWHUDFWLRQVWKDWZHUHDOVRVXJJHVWHGE\3HGUR5LYDV IRUVLPLODU SKHQRPHQDREVHUYHGLQRWKHUQRUWKFHQWUDO9HQH]XHODDUFKDHRORJ\FDVHVWXGLHV VHH$QWF]DN :HZLOOUHWXUQWRWKHVHK\SRWKHVHVLQWKH¿QDOSDUWRIWKLVSDSHU Ave Grande (AG/B) 7KHVLWH$*%FDOOHG/DV'XQDVLVORFDWHGLQWKHVDQGGXQHDUHDDERXWPHWHUVWRWKHVRXWKRI WKHEHDFKFORVHWRWKH$*$VLWH2QO\DERXWPHWHUVVHSDUDWHWKHGXQHVIURPDODUJHLQQHUODJRRQ VXUURXQGHGE\PDQJURYHVWRWKHVRXWK$PRQJWKHGXQHVFRQWHPSRUDU\¿VKHUPHQKDYHH[FDYDWHG VHYHUDOSLWVLQVHDUFKRIEUDFNLVKEXWSRWDEOHZDWHU WKHPRVWLPSRUWDQWRIWKHVHSLWVSURYLGHVZDWHU throughout the year. A few eroded sherds and chiton plaques were recovered from the surface of the site. Several sherds were found clustered on the surface, close to the dunes, and permitted the reconstruction of a large globular olla IRUFRRNLQJRUVWRUDJHRUERWK )LJXUH The grey-colored soil layer begins about 12 centimeters below the surface, and the bottom of the cultural deposit was reached at the depth of 45 centimeters. In these pits the water table level was found between 120 and 130 centimeters. At the depth of 43 centimeters, one well-preserved hearth 70 Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 25 Figure 12. 6HYHUDOVKHUGVFOXVWHUHGRQWKHVXUIDFHZHUHIRXQGFORVHWRWKHGXQHVDW$*%VLWHSHUPLWWLQJWKH reconstruction of a large globular olla KHLJKWPRXWKGLDPHWHUFP /DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR FHQWLPHWHUVLQGLDPHWHUDQGDERXWFHQWLPHWHUVWKLFNZDVUHFRYHUHG,WLQFOXGHGWKUHHOLSVRIDGXOW Lobatus gigas shells, a great many fragments of the same shells, and several sherds and fragments RI PDULQH WXUWOH FDUDSDFHV7KH VDPSOH WDNHQ IURP WKLV KHDUWK ZDV UDGLRFDUERQ GDWHG WR %3 7DEOH ,Q WKH ZDOOV RI WZR ZDWHU SLWV H[FDYDWHG E\ WKH ¿VKHUPHQ WZR RWKHU KHDUWKV ZHUH observed lying at a depth of 10 and 27 centimeters beneath the surface. Both of them contained charred soil, pottery, charcoal, and Lobatus gigas shell fragments and bone debris. All the hearths were well- preserved. Their differential vertical distribution, as well as refuse areas associated with them, may indicate a few brief reoccupations of the site, probably to search for potable water. The only decorated sherds recovered at this site are four corrugated rims with thumb impressions. These decorations, as well as forms of the ‘ordinary ware’, can be related to the Dabajuroid assemblage IURPWKHQHDUE\$*$VLWH+RZHYHUWKHTXHVWLRQUHPDLQVZKHWKHUWKH$*%VLWHZDVLQGHHGUHODWHG WREUDFNLVKZDWHUH[SORLWDWLRQ,IVRZK\ZHUHQHFNHGMDUVWKHW\SLFDO'DEDMXURLGZDWHUFRQWDLQHUV UHFRYHUHGQHLWKHUIURPWKLVQRUIURPWKHDGMDFHQW$*$VLWH"-RVp2OLYHU SHUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQ VXJJHVWHG WKDW WKH SDLQWHGQHFNHG MDU ZRXOG KDYH EHHQ XVHG H[FOXVLYHO\ DV D FRQWDLQHU IRU masato (manioc beer), while water could have been transported by canoe in light and versatile bottle JRXUGV7KHQHFNHGMDUPLJKWDOVRKDYHEHHQXVHGDVDWXUWOHRLOFRQWDLQHU Isla Palmeras (IP/A) 7KLVVLWHLVORFDWHGQHDUWKHFHQWHURI,VOD3DOPHUDV,VODQGDERXWPHWHUVIURPWKHHDVWHUQ shore and 80 meters from the small sandy beach on the western shore. About 110 meters separate the VLWHIURPWKHEUDFNLVKZDWHUVRXUFHORFDWHGWRZDUGWKHHDVW$ODUJHQXPEHURI Lobatus gigas shells, 26 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak FUXVKHGLQWRSLHFHVHPHUJHRQWKHVXUIDFHLQWKHIRUPRIDVKDOORZEDQNDERXWPHWHUVORQJDQGRQH WR¿YHPHWHUVZLGH$IHZSRWVKHUGVDUHVFDWWHUHGDPRQJWKHVKHOOIUDJPHQWV )LJXUH The site was located in 1988 and excavated in 1992. The cultural deposit extends from the surface to a maximum depth of about 45 centimeters where the sterile stratum begins. Apart from the omnipresent Lobatus gigas shell fragments and few long turtle bones, other faunal remains include 21 chiton plates and 19 Cittarium pica shells. 6WRQHDUWLIDFWVLQFOXGH¿YHPHGLXPDQGWZRODUJHVL]HGKDPPHUVWRQHVWZRIUDJPHQWVRIWKLQSODLQ sandstone ‘sheets’ beveled on one of their borders, one petaloid axe with polished surface, beveled HGJHDQGKHDY\XVHZHDUWUDFHVRQERWKZRUNLQJH[WUHPLWLHVDQGVPDOOTXDUW]LWHÀDNHV )LJXUH The raw material of all these artifacts is of allochthonous origin. In the main pit (eight square meters) 58 lips separated from the shells of adult and old Lobatus gigas individuals, often deposited in groups of two to six, were recovered. Both the large quantity and the spatial clustering of these lips indicate that they were intentionally separated from the shells in situ WREHSUREDEO\VKLSSHGRXWRIWKH/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRIRUIXUWKHUPDQXIDFWXUHLQWKHFRQWLQHQWDO RU LQVXODU %RQDLUH&XUDoDR SHUPDQHQW 'DEDMXUDQ YLOODJHV$W WKLV SRLQW ZH VKRXOG VWUHVV WKDW WR separate the lip of the Lobatus gigas shell, it is not necessary to crush the entire shell. The separation SURFHVVLVTXLFNDQGVLPSOHDQGQRVSHFLDOL]HGWRROVDUHQHFHVVDU\$QDGXOW Lobatus gigas shell can even successfully substitute a hammerstone during this process, if the latter is not available. If the lip separation process does not account for such a high quantity of small shell fragments at the site, three alternative explanations can be proposed: 1) crushing the shells was not a lip separation but a PHDWH[WUDFWLRQWHFKQLTXH WKHVKHOOVZHUHFUXVKHGLQRUGHUWRREWDLQLQQHUFROXPHOODSDUWVDVDUDZ PDWHULDO RWKHUXQNQRZQLGHRORJLFDOIDFWRUVLQZKROHRULQSDUWXQGHUOLHWKHVHSURFHVVHV:HIDYRU the latter two hypotheses even though we are fully aware that only new problem-oriented contextual excavations can shed light on this issue. It should be noted that complete shells and large fragments are predominant in the deeper levels (20 to 40 and 40 to 60 centimeters) of the site. In the level of the ±FHQWLPHWHUUDQJHWKHTXDQWLW\RIVPDOOVKHOOIUDJPHQWVEHFRPHVGRPLQDQWDQGH[FOXVLYHRQWKH VXUIDFH1DWXUDOIDFWRUVFDQEHLQYRNHGWRDFFRXQWIRUWKLVSKHQRPHQRQ6HDZDYHVIRULQVWDQFHFRXOG intrude into the site occasionally during storms, and can be cautiously suggested as responsible for this ‘reverse sieving’ effect. 2QO\ WZR WUDFHV RI SRRUO\ GH¿QHG KHDUWKV ZHUH UHFRYHUHG DW WKH ,3$ VLWH ERWK LQ WKH VDPH pit at a depth of 35 centimeters. This evidence, together with the low abundance and diversity of faunal remains, seems to indicate that the site was not a multifunctional campsite where Amerindians Figure 13. 3DUWLDOYLHZRIWKHH[FDYDWLRQDW,3$VLWH,VOD3DOPHUDV/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJRDQG a close up of a scatter of Lobatus gigas shells crushed into pieces typical at this site. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 27 OLYHGSURFHVVHGIRRGDQGZRUNHGRQVKHOOVEXWUDWKHUDVSHFL¿FSXUSRVHVLWH7KLVUHDOL]DWLRQPD\ EH UHLQIRUFHG E\ RWKHU HYLGHQFH 3RWWHU\ LV UHODWLYHO\ VFDUFH DW WKH VLWH FRQVLVWLQJ RI SODLQ VKHUGV SHUWDLQLQJWRPHGLXPDQGODUJHJOREXODUDQGKHPLVSKHULFDOFRRNLQJ ollas VRPHIHDWXUHVWUDSKDQGOHV DQGFRUUXJDWHGULPV$IHZUHGVOLSSHGVKHUGVZLWKµFRIIHHEHDQH\H¶DSSOLTXpZHUHIRXQGVFDWWHUHGRQ the surface. However, these are of low diagnostic value and can be considered either Valencia-related intrusions or Dabajuroid imports. ,WVKRXOGEHQRWHGWKDWWKHRQO\GHFRUDWHGVKHUGVIRXQGDWWKH,/5$VLWHZHUHDOVRFRUUXJDWHG ULPVZLWKWKXPELPSUHVVLRQVDVDWWKH,3$VLWH7KLVGDWDFDQEHFRQVWUXHGWRVXJJHVWDSRVVLEOH cultural relationship between these two sites, despite the low diagnostic value of corrugated rims. 2QO\DIHZSODLQVKHUGVZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHGHSRVLWRIFUXVKHGVKHOOVRQ'RV0RVTXLVHV,VODQG /RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJR 7KLVOHDYHVRSHQWKHTXHVWLRQZKHWKHUWKH'RV0RVTXLVHVGHSRVLWFDQEH considered part of the Valencioid component which dominates this site, or demonstrates an independent FXOWXUDODI¿OLDWLRQ)RUQRZWKHVFDUFLW\RIDYDLODEOHGDWDSUHFOXGHVDQ\UHOLDEOHFRQFOXVLRQVIURPWKH FRPSDUDWLYHDQDO\VLVRIWKHVHWKUHHGHSRVLWV RQ,/5$,3$DQG'RV0RVTXLVHV,VODQG ,QFRQFOXVLRQWKHGDWDVXJJHVWWKDWVLWH,3$ZDVDVSHFLDOSXUSRVHFDPSVLWHRIORZRFFXSDWLRQDO density, in part dedicated to the rough processing of Lobatus gigas shells. The occupants of the site PD\EHUHODWHGWRWKHEHDUHUVRIWKH'DEDMXURLGSRWWHU\IURPWKHVLWH$*$7KHSUHFLVHFDXVHVDQG QDWXUHRIFXOWXUDODQGQDWXUDOSURFHVVHVWKDWLQWHUYHQHGLQWKHIRUPDWLRQRIWKH,3$VLWHHVSHFLDOO\LWV shell deposit, remain to be elucidated. Isla Palmeras (IP/B) 7KLVVLWHLVVLWXDWHGRQO\PHWHUVIURPWKHVDQG\EHDFKRIWKHLVODQG3DWFKHVRIGDUNJUH\VRLO are clearly visible on the surface of the site and semi-buried Lobatus gigas shells are scattered among WKHJUDVVHVLQDVWULSDERXWPHWHUVORQJDQG¿YHWRHLJKWPHWHUVZLGH7KHVKHOOVDUHSUHGRPLQDQWO\ whole except for the opening holes in their spires which indicate the technique of meat removal. The cultural deposit begins only a few centimeters below the surface and ends at a depth between DQG FHQWLPHWHUV )DXQDO UHPDLQV RWKHU WKDQ Lobatus gigas shells are scarce at this site and LQFOXGHWXUWOHERQHVFKLWRQSODWHVDQGRWKHUPROOXVNVVXFKDV Cittarium pica , Codakia orbicularis and Strombus costatus $IHZ¿VKVSLQHVDQGYHUWHEUDHDVZHOODVWZRGHQWDULHVRI Scarus guacamaya were also recovered. Although carbonized organic particles are scattered throughout the deposit, no GH¿QHGKHDUWKZDVORFDWHG 7KHUHFRYHUHGVKHUGVDUHIURPPHGLXPWRODUJHXQGHFRUDWHGFRRNLQJ ollas 7KH,3%VLWHFDQEH considered as a typical locus for queen conch meat extraction and, probably, processing. The ceramic DVVHPEODJHVRI,3$DQG,3%VLWHVZHUHSUREDEO\URRWHGLQWKH'DEDMXURLGWUDGLWLRQEXWWKHSUHFLVH chronological and functional relationship between these sites has to remain, for now, undetermined. Curricai (CU) &XUULFDLLVRQHRIWKHVPDOOHULVODQGVRIWKH$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRJURXS,WLVÀDWFRYHUHGE\JUDVVHV DQGSUHVHQWVDVHULHVRIGXQHVDORQJWKHVDQG\EHDFKRQWKHVRXWKHUQFRDVW7KHVLWH&8$LVVLWXDWHG in the western part of the island, about 10 meters from the coast well protected by patches of reefs QHDUE\7KHVLWHZDVGLVFRYHUHGWKDQNVWRURXWLQHWHVWSLWH[FDYDWLRQV$UWLIDFWVZHUHQRWREVHUYHGRQ the surface nor did changes in topography, soil color or vegetation indicate the existence of cultural deposit beneath the surface. 7KHFXOWXUDOVWUDWXPEHJLQVDERXW±FHQWLPHWHUVEHORZWKHVXUIDFHDQGHQGVDWDPD[LPXP GHSWKRIDERXWFHQWLPHWHUVLQWKHFHQWHURIWKHPLGGHQ2QHSODLQVDQGVWRQHµVKHHW¶EHYHOHGRQRQH RILWVERUGHUVDQGVLPLODUWRVSHFLPHQVUHFRYHUHGIURPWKH,3%VLWHZDVIRXQG$IHZVKHUGVDQG 28 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak faunal remains were loosely distributed both vertically and horizontally in the sandy matrix. Turtle remains, chiton plates and Scarus spp PDQGLEXODUIUDJPHQWVZHUHDOVRUHFRYHUHG2QHKHDUWKRIDERXW 35 centimeters in diameter was located at a depth of 40 centimeters in what seemed to be the central SDUWRIWKHVLWH7KHUDGLRFDUERQGDWHGVDPSOHIURPWKLVKHDUWK\LHOGHG%3 The pottery found here is coarse, and one large open bowl of rough manufacture especially attracts DWWHQWLRQIRULWVDV\PPHWULFDOIRUPDQGWKLFNZDOOV )LJXUH 7KHGHIRUPDWLRQKDGWRRFFXUEHIRUH WKH¿ULQJRIWKHYHVVHOZKDWLQGLFDWHVSRRUFUDIWVPDQVKLSWKDWPD\SUREDEO\EHUHODWHGWRWKHHDUO\ FRORQLDOFRQGLWLRQVRISRWWHU\PDQXIDFWXUH7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWKHGUDPDWLFVLPSOL¿FDWLRQRIWKH vessels’ forms and the manufacturing process on one side and the early colonial impacts, on the other VLGHKDVDOUHDG\EHHQGLVFXVVHGLQ9HQH]XHODQDUFKDHRORJ\ &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH 5LYDV 7KH RQO\ GHFRUDWLYH PRWLIV RQ SRWVKHUGV IURP WKH &8$ VLWH DUH FRUUXJDWLRQV ZLWK WKXPE LPSUHVVLRQV7KHVHDUHOLPLWHGWRWKHULPVRIFRRNLQJRUVWRUDJHYHVVHOVRUERWKRIPHGLXPWRODUJH size. The site can be considered a low occupational intensity campsite, probably culturally related to WKHEHDUHUVRI'DEDMXURLGSRWWHU\RUKLVWRULFDOO\NQRZQ Caquetío Amerindias. Isla del Tesoro (IT/A) 7KHVLWH,7$GLVFRYHUHGDQGH[FDYDWHGLQ DQGUHH[FDYDWHGLQ LVORFDWHGRQDJUDVV\ area in the narrow central-eastern part of the Isla del Tesoro in the Aves de Barlovento group (Table 3). 7RZDUGWKHVRXWKWKHVLWHLVVHSDUDWHGE\DGLVWDQFHRIRQO\¿YHWRVHYHQPHWHUVIURPDVKRUHFRYHUHG E\PDQJURYHV VDQG\EHDFKLVIRXQGPHWHUVWRWKHQRUWK1RFXOWXUDOUHPDLQVFDQEHREVHUYHGRQ WKHVXUIDFHRIWKLVVLWH VHYHUDOQHVWVRIERRE\ELUGV Sula sp.) are scattered on the surface and the uppermost 20 centimeters are densely covered by guano. The cultural deposit reaches a depth of 57 centimeters and is composed of potsherds, quartzite ÀDNHVKDPPHUVWRQHVDQGIDXQDOUHPDLQV7XUWOHERQHVDQGFDUDSDFHIUDJPHQWVFKLWRQSODWHV¿VK vertebrae and bird bones were also recovered. Among 118 shells are 49 Cittarium pica fragments (16 MNI), 42 Lobatus gigas fragments (7 MNI), three Strombus raninus fragments (2 MNI), and representatives of the Astraea (14 MNI), Conus (9 MNI), Fissurella (5 MNI), and Voluta (2 MNI) JHQHUD $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN 2QO\RQHSUHPD[LOODU\DQGWZRGHQWDU\SODWHVRIODUJH specimens of Scarus guacamaya ZHUHUHFRYHUHG,QWKHDEVHQFHRIVPDOO¿VKUHPDLQVWKLVHYLGHQFH Figure 14. 5RXJKO\PDGHYHVVHOZLWKGHIRUPHGVKDSHIURP&8$VLWH&XUULFDL,VODQG/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR $UFKLSHODJR KHLJKWFPPRXWKGLDPHWHUFPPD[ZDOOWKLFNQHVVFP Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 29 Table 3. $PHULQGLDQVLWHVDQGH[FDYDWLRQVLQ/DV$YHVGH%DUORYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR Island Site code Site extension Site max. depth 3LWV Stylistic (m²) (cm) DI¿OLDWLRQ # m² Isla del Tesoro $%,7$ 60 57 10 8.5 Dabajuroid Isla del Tesoro $%,7% 340 45 13 23.5 Dabajuroid ,VODGHO)DUR $%,)$ 250 35 10 10.0 8QGH¿QHG ,VODGHO)DUR $%,)% " 0 - - Dabajuroid Total 650 33 42 LQGLFDWHVWKDW¿VKLQJZDVVPDOOVFDOHDQGRSSRUWXQLVWLF%RZDQGDUURZVRUVSHDUVRUERWKZHUHXVHG LQVWHDGRIQHWVDQGWUDSVWRWDNHODUJHSDUURW¿VKHVLQWKHVKDOORZUHHIV Nine lips separated from Lobatus gigas shells, three of them deposited together and retouched as preforms for celts or pendants, DQGWZRIUDJPHQWVRIVKHOOGLVNVPLJKWVXJJHVWWKDWVPDOOVFDOHURXJK VKHOOZRUNZDVFDUULHGRXWDWWKLVVLWH$OOWKHVHUHPDLQVDUHORRVHO\GLVWULEXWHGLQJUD\LVKVDQGWKDW contains many carbonized particles. 6RPH FHUDPLF VKHUGV ZHUH UHFRYHUHG UHSUHVHQWLQJ PHGLXP WR ODUJH FRRNLQJ DQG VWRUDJH ollas 7KHSRWWHU\LVVDQGWHPSHUHGDQGLVRIUDWKHUFRDUVHPDQXIDFWXUH DIHZRIWKHVHVKHUGVZHUH RYHURQHFHQWLPHWHUWKLFN'HFRUDWLRQLVDEVHQWH[FHSWIRUFRUUXJDWHGULPV ZLWKRUZLWKRXW thumb impressions. Two pedestal bases were also found. Two hearths were recovered at the site. The lower one rests at a depth of 57 centimeters. This KHDUWK\LHOGHGWKHUDGLRFDUERQGDWH%3 $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN 7DEOH 7KHVHFRQG shallower hearth lay at a depth of 38 centimeters. The site can be interpreted as a campsite reoccupied over time by small groups of people, probably bearers of Dabajuroid pottery. It is noteworthy that the emphasis on Lobatus gigas lip separation and the presence of corrugated rims, combined with the radiocarbon dates, suggests a cultural-functional OLQNEHWZHHQWKLVVLWHDQG,3$LQWKH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR Isla del Tesoro (IT/B) The second archaeological site on Isla del Tesoro is located about 500 meters to the southwest of ,7$)HZPHWHUVVHSDUDWHWKHVLWHIURPWKHVDQG\EHDFKWRWKHQRUWKDVZHOODVIURPWKHWKLFNHWRI PDQJURYHVWRWKHVRXWK )LJXUH 7KHFXOWXUDOOD\HUEHJLQVEHWZHHQDQGFHQWLPHWHUVEHORZ the surface and becomes sterile at a depth of 45 centimeters. Ceramic sherds, stone artifacts and faunal remains are loosely scattered vertically and horizontally within the sandy matrix. 3RWWHU\LVGRPLQDWHGE\IUDJPHQWVRISODLQFRRNLQJDQGVWRUDJH ollas RQO\ RXWRI VKHUGVZHUHGHFRUDWHG6HYHQ GHFRUDWHGVKHUGVDUHSDLQWHGZKLOHWKHUHVWDUHFRUUXJDWHGULPV ZLWKDQGZLWKRXWWKXPELPSUHVVLRQV7KHSDLQWLQJFRQVLVWVRIVWUDLJKWSDUDOOHOZLGHDQG¿QHOLQHVLQ EODFNDQGUHGRQEXII QDWXUDO 2QHULPRIDQRSHQERZOLVLQWHUQDOO\SDLQWHGZLWKDZLGHEDQGWKDW JRHVDURXQGWKHYHVVHOZLWKWKLQQHUEDQGVGLVSRVHGSHUSHQGLFXODUO\2QWKHH[WHUQDOVLGHDVPDOO DSSOLTXpDSSHDUVEHORZWKHULPDQGWZRµDSSHQGLFHV¶DUHDSSOLHGGLUHFWO\WRWKHULP¶VWRS$QRWKHU RSHQERZOULPLVSDLQWHGZLWKQDUURZEODFNEDQGVLQWKHPRWLIRIDQµLQYHUWHG7¶ FRPSDUHWR2OLYHU YRO )LJ& LQDGGLWLRQDVPDOOµHDUOLNH¶DSSOLTXpUXQVGRZQYHUWLFDOO\IURPWKH rim’s top. A few sherds permitted the reconstruction of an open bowl with a shafted annular ring base ZKLFKRULJLQDOO\IHDWXUHGSUREDEO\EDQGVRIUHGSDLQWRQERWKWKHLQVLGHDQGRXWVLGH )LJXUH 7ZR 30 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak Figure 15. 3DUWLDOYLHZRIWKHH[FDYDWLRQVDW,7%VLWH,VODGHO7HVRUR/DV$YHVGH%DUORYHQWR$UFKLSHODJRDQG fragments of an open bowl with a shafted annular ring base which originally featured, probably, bands of red paint RQERWKWKHLQVLGHDQGRXWVLGH DSSUR[LPDWHPRXWKGLDPHWHUFP ,7$VLWH vertical strap handles and three fragments of pedestal bases were also recovered. No griddle fragments were found. 6WRQHDUWLIDFWVDUHRIORZGLYHUVLW\DQGSRRUTXDOLW\LQFOXGLQJVHYHUDOTXDUW]LWHÀDNHVDQGVHYHQ roughly made medium-sized hammerstones. Two bone artifacts were recovered: one unipoint, probably an arrow head and the other a possible spatula fashioned from a large mammal bone—possibly a deer— EHYHOHGLQRQHRILWVH[WUHPLWLHV )LJXUH )DXQDOUHPDLQVDUHYHU\VFDUFH WXUWOHERQHVGRPLQDWHWKH VDPSOHIROORZHGE\¿VKUHPDLQVLQFOXGLQJYHUWHEUDHVSLQHVDQGWZRPDQGLEXODUIUDJPHQWVRI 6FDULGDH6KHOO¿VKDUHUHSUHVHQWHGE\ Cittarium pica VKHOOV2QO\DIHZIUDJPHQWVRIWKH Lobatus gigas , Arca zebra and Chama, Codakia and Spondylus species are present. )LYHKHDUWKIHDWXUHVZLWKGLDPHWHUVYDU\LQJEHWZHHQDQGFHQWLPHWHUVZHUHUHFRYHUHGDW GHSWKVEHWZHHQDQGFHQWLPHWHUV IRXUZHUHFRQFHQWUDWHGLQDQDUHDRIDERXWWZRVTXDUHPHWHUV The relatively narrow range of the vertical hearth distribution, as well as spatial horizontal clustering suggest that this site was not as frequently reoccupied over long time periods as were other insular sites. Given its size, it also seems to have been occupied by a small group of persons, perhaps just one canoe crew. $OO SDLQWHG VKHUGV IURP WKH ,7% DUH UHODWHG WR WKH 'DEDMXURLG VXEVHULHV7KLV UHODWLRQVKLS LV LQGLFDWHG IRU H[DPSOH E\ WKH SDLQWHG ULP ZLWK DSSOLTXp ZKLFK LV YHU\ VLPLODU WR WKH PDLQODQG 'DEDMXURLGVSHFLPHQVHVSHFLDOO\WKH8UXPDFRVW\OHFRPSOH[ VHH2OLYHU YRO)LJ&N C-67M, C-17). The forms, especially the bowls with shafted annular ring bases, also have their ‘twin’ FRXQWHUSDUWVZLWKLQWKH'DEDMXUDQVXEVHULHVIURPWKHPDLQODQG 2OLYHU DVZHOODVZLWKLQ the Dabajuroid ceramic assemblages from Bonaire and Curaçao (Haviser 1991). Isla del Faro (IF/B) This site is situated adjacent to the tiny sandy beach on the northern coast of the island. This beach is one of two or three natural openings in the line of mangroves that today cover the major part of the QRUWKHDVWHUQFRDVWRIWKHLVODQG7KHVHRSHQLQJVSHUPLWDFFHVVWRWKHLQWHULRURIWKHLVODQG2QO\DIHZ small and heavily eroded sherds were observed on the surface of this site. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 31 7KHGLPHQVLRQRIWKHFXOWXUDOOD\HULVSRRUO\GH¿QHG LWVWDUWVDERXW±FHQWLPHWHUVEHORZ WKHVXUIDFHDQGHQGVDWDGHSWKRI±FHQWLPHWHUV$UWHIDFWVPDLQO\FHUDPLFVKHUGVDUHVFDWWHUHG loosely both horizontally and vertically. Sixty-seven plain sherds correspond to medium and large FRRNLQJRUVWRUDJH ollas , and only three sherds are decorated with corrugated rims. Hearths were not UHFRYHUHG KRZHYHUJUH\FRORUHGSDWFKHVRIVDQGFRQWDLQLQJVPDOOFDUERQL]HGSDUWLFOHVPD\VXJJHVW their original existence at the site. This ephemeral site can be tentatively related to the Dabajuroid sites from Isla del Tesoro. DISCUSSION: 75$&.,1*'$%$-852,'µ&211(&7,216¶ 7KH UHVXOWV RI WKH DERYH UHVXPHG LQYHVWLJDWLRQV LQGLFDWH WKDW WKH /DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRV ZHUH not frequented by indigenous people until late ceramic times (see Versteeg et al. 1990 for the earliest $PHULQGLDQUHPDLQVRQ$UXED &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH¶V'DEDMXURVW\OH ZDVUHGH¿QHGE\2OLYHU LQWRWKUHHGLIIHUHQWFHUDPLFFRPSOH[HVRUVW\OHV 7~FXD $'WR 8UXPDFR $' WR DQG/RV0pGDQRV $'WR LQWKHFRUHDUHDRIPRGHUQ )DOFyQ 6WDWH 2I WKHVH WKH 8UXPDFR FRPSOH[ SDUWLDOO\ HQFRPSDVVHV WKH RULJLQDO µ'DEDMXUR VW\OH¶ GH¿QHGE\&UX[HQWDQG5RXVH VHHDOVR5RXVHDQG&UX[HQW %HWZHHQ$'DQG WKH'DEDMXUDQVUDSLGO\H[SDQGHGDFURVVSUHVHQWGD\FRDVWDO)DOFyQ6WDWHDQGE\(DUO\8UXPDFRWLPHV $'± WKHLVODQGVRI$UXED&XUDoDRDQG%RQDLUHZHUHDOUHDG\FRORQL]HG 2OLYHU D VHH+DYLVHU 9HUVWHHJ @2Q$UXEDWKHVW\OHVGHVLJQDWHGDV6DQWD&UX]DW 7DQNL)OLS GX5\ VHHDOVR+HLGHFNHUDQG6LHJHO %RHUVWUD 9HUVWHHJDQG5RVWDLQ 1997) and the succeeding Savaneta style are in close stylistic relationship (if not equivalence) to the PDLQODQG¶V8UXPDFRDQG/RV0pGDQRVVW\OHV 2OLYHU 7KHDUFKDHRORJLFDODVZHOODVWKH ethnohistoric data indicate close relationships between the Dabajurans from Aruba and their ancestral KRPHODQGLQWKHFRDVWDO)DOFyQ 2OLYHU 2Q&XUDoDRDQG%RQDLUH'DEDMXURLGFHUDPLFVDUHVRPHZKDWPRUHGLYHUJHQWVW\OLVWLFDOO\IURP PDLQODQGDQG$UXEDQSRWWHU\ 2OLYHU +DYLVHU VXJJHVWHGWKDWEHWZHHQ$'DQG WKHVHLVODQGVUHFHLYHGSRWWHU\EHDUHUVRIDSUH'DEDMXURLGWUDGLWLRQUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKH:DQDSD De Savaan styles of pottery, which he portrayed as unique to Bonaire and Curaçao. The painting WUDLWVLGHQWL¿HGE\+DYLVHUDV³XQLTXH´WRWKH'H6DYDDQVW\OHDUH³SDLQWHGGRWV RIUHGDQGEURZQ DQGDOWHUQDWHFRORUSDUDOOHOOLQHSDWWHUQV PRVWRIWHQWZRUHGOLQHVERUGHUHGE\WZREODFNRUEURZQ OLQHV ERWKSDLQWHGRQDEXIIEDFNJURXQG´ +DYLVHU )LJDE /DUJHO\RQWKLVEDVLV Haviser (1991: 54, 61, 65) argued for a pre-Dabajuroid early ceramic tradition on Bonaire and Curaçao GHULYLQJIURPWKH2FXPDURLGVHULHV+HVSHFXODWHVWKDWDERXW$'±2FXPDURLGVVSUHDGIURP WKH9HQH]XHODQFRDVWLQWRWKHDUHDRIWKH7RFX\R$URD +RZHYHUWKHGDWH%3REWDLQHGIURPWKHVDPSOHZLWKLQWKHVDPHEORFNDUHDH[FDYDWLRQLV related to a Dabajuroid deposit. He argued that both samples could not be related to Dabajuran deposits VLQFH³WKHFHUDPLFVDW:DQDSDGRQRWVKRZWKHNLQGRIVW\OLVWLFDQGGHYHORSPHQWDOFKDQJHVWKDWZRXOG EHH[SHFWHGLQ \HDUVRISXUSRUWHG'DEDMXUDQRFFXSDWLRQDWWKLVVLWH´ 2OLYHU 7KHDERYHGHEDWHLVSHUWLQHQWWRWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHDUFKDHRORJ\RIWKH/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRV and other offshore Venezuelan islands. This is because Haviser (1991: 53) stated that the only ceramic VLPLODULWLHVQRWHGEHWZHHQWKH/DV$YHVDQGWKH/RV5RTXHVDUFKLSHODJRVDUHZLWKWKRVHSXUSRUWHG ³HDUOLHVWFHUDPLFVW\OHV´RI%RQDLUHHVSHFLDOO\WKH:DQDSDVW\OH $QWF]DN +DYLVHUVXJJHVWHG WKDWWKHSRWWHU\IURPWKH'RPXVN\1RUWH,VODQGFODVVL¿HGDV2FXPDURLG &ROPHQDUHV $QWF]DN DQG $QWF]DN D E KDG DQ ³HDUO\ FRPSRQHQW´ OLQNHG WR :DQDSDVW\OH SRWWHU\ IURP %RQDLUH (Haviser 1991: 65). He further argued that this ‘early component’ could be indicative of an earlier 2FXPDURLGPRYHPHQWZKLFKDERXW$'UHDFKHGWKHLVODQGVRI/RV5RTXHV/DV$YHV%RQDLUHDQG &XUDoDRIURPWKH&DULEEHDQFRDVWDWWKH7RFX\R$URDDQG &21&/8',1*5(0$5.6 POTSHERDS AND POLITICS 7KLVVHFWLRQDLPVWRLQWHJUDWHWKHDUFKDHRORJ\RIWKH/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRVLQWRWKHEURDGHUFXOWXUH historical panorama of north-central Venezuela. Given the virtual absence of contextual information from the archaeological sites on the mainland coast and scarce non-ceramic data, this discussion LVODUJHO\EDVHGRQWKHµSRWWHU\DQLPDWLRQ¶SURFHGXUH $QWF]DN D 7KHODFNRIFRQWH[WXDODQG non-ceramic data precludes construction of realistic models of social-political interactions between FRQFUHWHG\QDPLFVRFLHWLHVDQGSROLWLHVRIWKHSDVW,QDOOQRUWKFHQWUDO9HQH]XHODH[FHSWIRUWKH/RV Roques Archipelago, and particularly on Dos Mosquises Island where the categories of the social DFWRUV ZHUH DSSURDFKHG $QWF]DN DQG $QWF]DN WKH SUH+LVSDQLF VRFLDO HWKQLF OLQJXLVWLF identities ‘hide’ behind the archaeological ‘series’ and ‘styles’ set down by Cruxent and Rouse in 1958 (see also Rouse and Cruxent 1963). While studying the majority of excavation reports from this region, it seems that the prehistoric people are indeed hidden somewhere behind the monolithic and ‘objective’ archaeological cultures. In consequence, an ‘archaeological culture’ seems to become LPSOLFLWO\HTXDWHGZLWKDµVRFLHW\¶ZKLOHWKHFHUDPLFUHPDLQVEHFRPHUHJDUGHGDVVLJQLI\LQJDVSHFL¿F people. In the major part of the area discussed in this paper, the spatial spread of ceramic forms and decorative motifs is considered, still (if implicitly), the record of a group of people or a particular set RILGHDVRQWKHPRYH VHH6KDQNVDQG7LOOH\ +RZHYHUFXOWXUHVRUFHUDPLFVGRQRWPLJUDWH people do (Anthony 1997: 27). Subtle forms of intersocietal interaction and mobility have successfully EHHQ GLVFORVHG LQ WKH QHLJKERULQJ LQVXODU &DULEEHDQ PDFURUHJLRQ VHH %RRPHUW +RIPDQ et al. 2008, 2014). In Venezuela, the normative concepts of ‘style’ and ‘series’ used by Cruxent and Rouse were not meant to represent social units, nor to distinguish between ethnic groups and polities. The concept of ‘archaeological culture’ cannot, therefore, be equated with ‘society’, since it was H[SOLFLWO\GHGLFDWHGWRWKHDQDO\VLVRIPDWHULDOFXOWXUHQRUPVFKLHÀ\LQFHUDPLFDQGOLWKLFDUWHIDFWV In consequence, any reliable theorizing on the social or ethnic identities of Amerindian societies, as well as on the nature and dynamics of societal interactions in the north-central Venezuelan region before the time of European conquest is, for now, a highly demanding goal. However, interdisciplinary contextual archaeological research in the region—in which diverse material signatures pertinent to the KLVWRULFDOVSHFL¿FLW\RIDSRVWXODWHGSUH+LVSDQLFVRFLHW\DUHDQDO\]HG²FDQKHOSFULWLFDOUHWKHRUL]LQJ of the culture-historical concepts and prevent reproduction of the present-day historical (proto- or pre- KLVWRULFDO µVRFLDO¿FWLRQV¶RQUHFRUG 7KHWHUPVDQGFRQFHSWVXVHGKHUHVXFKDVµ9DOHQFLRLGV¶µ2FXPDURLGV¶DQGµ'DEDMXURLGV¶DVVXPH FXOWXUDOKRPRJHQHLW\RQO\LQWHUPVRIPDWHULDOWUDLWV LHSRWWHU\XUQEXULDOVHDUWKZRUNV 6XFKWHUPV DQGFRQFHSWVUHIHUWRWKHPDNHUVRIWKHµ9DOHQFLD¶µ2FXPDUH¶RURWKHUVW\OHVRISRWWHU\DVGH¿QHG LQ&UX[HQW¶VDQG5RXVH¶VVHWRIWHUPV &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH 5RXVHDQG&UX[HQW :HDUH aware that the people ‘hidden’ behind these rigid concepts were a mosaic of societies, each with LWVRZQGLDFKURQLFDOO\ÀXFWXDWLQJHFRQRP\VRFLDORUJDQL]DWLRQLGHRORJ\ODQJXDJHRUGLDOHFWDQG ethnic composition, among other aspects. Such societies were dynamic social units, composed of living individuals capable of negotiating their social realities and distinguishable one from another in terms of their particular historical trajectories, for example the degree of confrontation with or accommodation to the conquistadores . $VDUHVXOWRIWKHDERYHFRQVLGHUDWLRQVWKHSUH+LVSDQLFRFFXSDQWVRIWKH/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRV FDQEH¿WWHGLQWRWKHFXOWXUDOSDQRUDPDRIWKHUHJLRQPDLQO\LQWHUPVRIWKHSRWWHU\VW\OHVWKH\OHIW EHKLQG/HWXVQRZEURDGO\SDLQWLQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQWKH2FXPDURLG9DOHQFLRLGDQG'DEDMXURLG SRWWHU\EHDUHUVDVFRQFHLYHGIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHDUFKDHRORJ\RIWKH/DV$YHV$UFKLSHODJRV These interactions, however, can be more widely conjectured on the basis of the data collected on the islands and the mainland. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 35 7REHJLQZHLQWURGXFHWKH2FXPDURLGDUFKDHRORJLFDOFXOWXUHZKRVHFUHDWRUVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQW UROHLQIXUWKHUGLVFXVVLRQ7KHRQO\LVODQGVLWHVZKRVHSRWWHU\ZDVUHODWHGWRWKH2FXPDURLGVHULHV DV GH¿QHGE\&UX[HQWDQG5RXVH DUH'RPXVN\1RUWHDQG%RFDGH6HEDVWRSRORQWKHZHVWHUQDQG VRXWKHDVWHUQERUGHURIWKH/RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJRUHVSHFWLYHO\,QLWLDOO\FRPSDUDWLYHDQDO\VHVRIWKH WUDLWVRIWKH'01SRWWHU\UHFRYHUHGLQ VXJJHVWHGDUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWKH2FXPDURLGVHULHVIURP WKH9HQH]XHODQQRUWKZHVWHUQFRDVW &ROPHQDUHV $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN DE +RZHYHUWKH results of new extensive excavations carried out in 1996 revealed the presence of some Valencioid pottery from the bottom to the top of the site’s stratigraphic sequence. This evidence indicates interaction between the bearers of these two pottery traditions during the entire span of occupation at the site. Similar conclusions may be drawn from the analyses of the archaeological assemblage from the Boca de Sebastopol site excavated in 2007. 5HJDUGLQJ WKH FKURQRORJ\ RI WKH '01 DVVHPEODJH WKH ¿UVW UDGLRFDUERQ VDPSOH SURFHVVHG LQ ZDV GDWHG WR %3 $QWF]DN DQG$QWF]DN F $QWF]DN DQG$QWF]DN D E indicating a late pre-Hispanic origin. The DMN assemblage was placed in Haviser’s chronological FKDUW IRU %RQDLUH DQG DGMDFHQW DUHDV +DYLVHU )LJ DV D FRPSRQHQW DI¿OLDWHG WR WKH .UDVN\ VW\OH /RV 5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJR GHVSLWH WKH IDFW WKDW WKH .UDVN\ VW\OH LV WKH RQO\ LQVXODU DUFKDHRORJLFDODVVHPEODJHUHODWHGWRWKH9DOHQFLRLGVHULHVWKDWZDVNQRZQORQJEHIRUHWKH9HQH]XHODQ ,VODQGV$UFKDHRORJ\SURMHFWEHJDQLQ -DP &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DN +DYLVHUDOVRVXJJHVWHGWKDWWKH'01DVVHPEODJHFODVVL¿HGDV2FXPDURLG &ROPHQDUHV $QWF]DN DQG$QWF]DN D E KDG LQ LWV ³HDUOLHVW FRPSRQHQWV´ WKH SRWWHU\ RI WKH:DQDSDVW\OH IURP%RQDLUH³DOEHLWRQO\VOLJKWO\´ +DYLVHU $VDFRQVHTXHQFHKHDUJXHGWKDWWKLVµHDUO\ FRPSRQHQW¶FRXOGEHLQGLFDWLYHRIDQHDUO\VSUHDGRI2FXPDURLGSHRSOHUHDFKLQJ/RV5RTXHVIURP the coast at about the same time as Bonaire, rather than spreading via Bonaire (Haviser 1991). Haviser VXJJHVWHGWKHFHQWHUSRLQWRIWKLVSXUSRUWHGVSUHDGLQWR/RV5RTXHV/DV$YHV%RQDLUH and Curaçao islands is the Caribbean Venezuelan coast and the suggested time of this event is about AD 500 (Haviser 1991: 200). Three more recent radiocarbon dates, ranging between AD 1020 and $QWF]DN DE DVZHOODVWKHSUHVHQFHRI9DOHQFLRLGVKHUGVWKURXJKRXWDOOWKHRFFXSDWLRQDO VHTXHQFHDWWKH'01VLWHGLVFRYHUHGGXULQJWKH ¿HOGZRUNFKDOOHQJH+DYLVHU¶VFKURQRORJ\DQG RQFHPRUHFRQ¿UPWKHODWHSUH+LVSDQLFRULJLQRIWKLVDVVHPEODJH $QWF]DN D VXJJHVWHG WKDW 2FXPDURLG SRWWHU\ EHDUHUV IURP WKH QRUWKFHQWUDO9HQH]XHODQ coast were the traditional suppliers of marine foodstuffs and raw materials to the Valencioid pottery PDNHUV IURP WKH /DNH 9DOHQFLD %DVLQ IURP DSSUR[LPDWHO\$' WR $IWHU$' WKH 2FXPDURLGVHVWDEOLVKHGDFDPSVLWHRQ'RPXVN\1RUWH,VODQGDQGDWWKH%RFDGH6HEDVWRSROVLWHLQ WKH/RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJRDQGDSSDUHQWO\VXSSOLHGODUJHTXDQWLWLHVRIPDULQHSURGXFWVLQFOXGLQJ uncommon (on the mainland coast) shells of Lobatus gigas , to the coastal populations, and further VRXWKZDUGWRZDUGWKH/DNH9DOHQFLD%DVLQ KHUHDIWHU/9% $QWF]DNIXUWKHUK\SRWKHVL]HGWKDWWKH sudden increase in the interest of the Valencioid people in the marine environment, observed between $'DQGPLJKWKDYHDULVHQLQWKHFRQWH[WRISROLWLFDOHFRQRP\VSHFL¿FDOO\WKHQHFHVVLW\ RIDUUHVWLQJWKH'DEDMXURLGWKUHDWWKDWFRXOGFXWRIIWKH2FXPDURLGVXSSO\RIQHZO\DYDLODEOHLVODQG UHVRXUFHVWRWKH/9%7KLVWKUHDWLVZKDWFRXOGKDYHGUDZQWKH9DOHQFLRLGVRXWRIWKHLUORQJVWDQGLQJ FD$'± WHUULWRULDOµLVRODWLRQ¶RQWKHVKRUHVRI/DNH9DOHQFLDZKHUHWKH\FRXOGKDYH achieved a considerable complexity of social organization. The strengthening of their interest in the coast might have been at the very core of the political-economic interests of the Valencioid inland polity. It seems probable that the Valencioids saw themselves under the necessity of having to counterbalance WKHDV\PPHWULFDOFRQIURQWDWLRQEHWZHHQWKH2FXPDURLGV DVHULHVRIGHFHQWUDOL]HG¿VKHUPHQYLOODJHV and the Dabajuroids (a purportedly centralized chiefdom) in order to maintain the supply of the island JRRGVWRWKH/9%$GGLWLRQDOO\WKH\PLJKWKDYHIHOWREOLJHGWRGHIHQGWKH/RV5RTXHVLVODQGVDVDQ LPSRUWDQWFRQVWLWXHQWRIWKHLUVDFUHGODQGVFDSH $QWF]DN E 36 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak Some archaeological data from the islands shed light on the Valencioid-Dabajuroid competition for the island territories. The ritual character of rich deposits recovered on tiny Dos Mosquises Island '0VLWH LQWKH/RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJRDVVHVVHGIURPDZLGHULQWHULVODQGJHRSROLWLFDOSHUVSHFWLYH suggests that this multifunctional campsite was located at the interface between the northern peripheries RIWKHVSKHUHVRILQWHUDFWLRQRI9DOHQFLRLGDQG'DEDMXURLGSRWWHU\EHDUHUV $QWF]DN D %\$' WKH'DEDMXURLGVKDGDOUHDG\FRORQL]HGWKHLVODQGVRI$UXED&XUDoDRDQG%RQDLUH 2OLYHU $ERXW$'WKH\ZHUHSUHVHQWRQWKH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR$UFKLSHODJR $*VLWHV +RZHYHU/DV$YHVGH%DUORYHQWR$UFKLSHODJRZKLFKOLHVEHWZHHQ/DV$YHVDQG/RV5RTXHVZDV not occupied until late pre-colonial or even early colonial times (Isla del Tesoro and Curricai sites are both dated to early colonial times). This late eastward expansion of the Dabajuroid people could roughly coincide with the latest phases of occupation at the DM site. The data indicate that the DM campsite, being the westernmost extension of the Valencioid insular domain, could have functioned as a frontier outpost. If so, then the material deposited in the ‘offertory caches’ at the DM site might have VHUYHGDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVDVDZDUQLQJPHVVDJH µDFFHVVULJKWVUHVHUYHGVSDFH¶ $FKHVRQ $QWF]DN $QWF]DNDQG$QWF]DNLQSUHVV %\ORDGLQJWKH'0VHWWOHPHQWZLWKDUWHIDFWVZKRVH SURGXFHUVDQGXVHUVFRXOGHDVLO\EHYLVXDOO\LGHQWL¿HGE\DQ\QRQ9DOHQFLRLGYLVLWRUWKH9DOHQFLRLGV may have wanted to exert their exclusive rights and signal a potential use of force to defend the resources of the area if borders were violated and resources exploited. The archaeological data suggest that some Valencioid groups entered into direct contact, and perhaps began to cooperate with their Dabajuroid counterparts. Some coastal sites contain an DGPL[WXUH RI 9DOHQFLRLG 'DEDMXURLG DQG 2FXPDURLG SRWWHU\ $QWF]DN D 5LYDV 7KH pottery assemblage with Valencioid and Dabajuroid potsherds was recovered at the Cementerio 7XFDFDVVLWHQRUWKZHVWRIWKH/9% &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH 7KHVHGDWDPD\VXJJHVWWKDWRQFHWKH inland Valencioids ‘strengthened’ their outposts on the northern slopes of the Cordillera and began WR SDUWLFLSDWH LQ FRPPRQ YHQWXUHV ZLWK WKH 2FXPDURLG SHRSOH WKH 'DEDMXURLG WKUHDW GLPLQLVKHG 9DOHQFLRLGUHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK FRDVWDO SRSXODWLRQV LQYROYHG PDLQO\ WKH 2FXPDURLG EXW 'DEDMXURLG JURXSVDVZHOO7KHGDWDVHHPWRLQGLFDWHWKDWVRPHHQFODYHVRIGHVFHQGDQWVRIWKH(O3DOLWRDQG/D &DEUHUDµ&HQWUDO%DUUDQFRLGV¶ .LGGHU &UX[HQWDQG5RXVH VXUYLYHGLQWKHDUHDV RI2FXPDUHGH/D&RVWD3DWDQHPR3XHUWR&DEHOORDQG3DOPDVRODXQWLOWKHODVWFHQWXULHVEHIRUH WKH (XURSHDQ FRQTXHVW $QWF]DN D 6êNRUD +HUUHUD 0DODWHVWD 7KHVH UHPQDQWV RIµ&HQWUDO%DUUDQFRLGV¶DOVRSDUWLFLSDWHGLQWKH9DOHQFLRLG6SKHUHRI,QWHUDFWLRQ VHH$QWF]DNDQG $QWF]DN 5LYDV We further suggest that the admixture of Valencioid and Dabajuroid pottery in certain island VLWHVPLJKWLQGLFDWHYDULDEOHDUUDQJHPHQWVRIMRLQW$UDZDNDQ&DULEDQVSHDNHUV¶YHQWXUHV7KHFOHDUO\ non-majoritarian presence of Valencioid pottery at the Ave Grande site dominated by the Dabajuroid SHRSOHZLWKSRO\FKURPHWUDGLWLRQDQGWKHODWWHUSRWWHU\EHLQJPDUJLQDOO\SUHVHQWRQWKH/RV5RTXHV islands (especially at the Dos Mosquises site) dominated by the Valencioid people may be the material signatures of non-coercive arrangements. These minoritarian quantities of pottery may be seen as objects of trade rather than as the incorporation of exotic pottery attributes into the local pottery SURGXFWLRQ VHH5LYDV 3HUKDSVWKH$YH*UDQGHVLWHDVVHPEODJHPD\EHDQH[DPSOH RIDQHQWHUSULVHOHGE\WKH'DEDMXURLGSHRSOHLQZKLFKVRPH9DOHQFLRLGLQGLYLGXDOVPLJKWKDYHWDNHQ SDUW7KHFRPSRVLWLRQRIWKH&D\R6DO /RV5RTXHV$UFKLSHODJR SRWWHU\DVVHPEODJHVXJJHVWVWKDW this campsite was used by the coastal-Valencioids (inland Valencioids who ‘moved’ to the coast and SUREDEO\FRKDELWHGZLWKWKH2FXPDURLGVDIWHU$' DQGSRVVLEO\VRPH'DEDMXURLGSHRSOHZKR might have participated in this enterprise as crew members, expert navigators and economic partners $QWF]DN D ,QWHUHVWLQJO\RQO\DWWKH$*$VLWHWKH'DEDMXURLG9DOHQFLRLGLQWHUDFWLRQVVHHPWREHZHOOUHÀHFWHG in the material signatures. In other sites in Aves de Sotavento and in Aves de Barlovento, dated to early Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 37 colonial times, the Valencioid materials are absent suggesting the cessation of the anterior interaction. 7KLVPD\LQGLFDWHWKDWGXULQJWKHHDUO\GHFDGHVRIWKHWKFHQWXU\WKH'DEDMXURLG Caquetío were the only indigenous people who still frequented these islands, most probably accessing them from the ABC islands to the west. At that time the access of the mainland Valencioids to the offshore islands had already been severed by the Spanish who navigated between the islands and the mainland coast. )XUWKHUV\VWHPDWLFDUFKDHRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKRQWKHPDLQODQGFRDVWGRPLQDWHGE\WKH$UDZDNDQDQG &DULEDQVSHDNHUVPD\VKHGDGGLWLRQDOOLJKWRQWKHYDULHW\RIZD\VLQZKLFKWKH\GLVSXWHGWKHDFFHVVWR and the control of the insular domains, until the arrival of the Europeans brought an end to these long lasting interactions. $&.12:/('*(0(176 :H ZRXOG OLNH WR DFNQRZOHGJH :DUZLFN %UD\ &RULQQH +RIPDQ -RVp 5 2OLYHU 0LFKHOOH :ROOVWRQHFURIW .RQUDG$QWF]DN DQG 'DQ %DLOH\ IRU YDOXDEOH FRPPHQWV RQ WKH GLYHUVH GUDIWV RI WKLVSDSHU7KHGLI¿FXOWDFFHVVWRDQGFRPSOH[ORJLVWLFVRIWKHZRUNLQWKH/DV$YHVDUFKLSHODJRV ZHUH ODUJHO\ IDFLOLWDWHG E\ WKH PXOWLIDULRXV VXSSRUW ZH UHFHLYHG IURP 0U -DFN 2ULRO )XQGDFLyQ &LHQWt¿FD/RV5RTXHV)XQGDFLyQ7HUUDPDU7KH9HQH]XHODQ1DY\DQGWKH6HUYLFLRGH*XDUGDFRVWDV GH9HQH]XHOD$QGU]HM$QWF]DNDFNQRZOHGJHVWKDWKLVFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKLVSDSHUZDVSRVVLEOHGXH WRWKHIXQGLQJIURP(XURSHDQ5HVHDUFK&RXQFLOXQGHUWKH(XURSHDQ8QLRQ¶V6HYHQWK)UDPHZRUN 3URJUDPPH )3 (5&*UDQWDJUHHPHQW1R XQGHUWKHGLUHFWLRQRI3URIGU& /+RIPDQ REFERENCES $&+(621-0 $QWKURSRORJ\RI)LVKLQJ Annual Review of Anthropology 10: 275-316. $&7$6'(/&$%,/'2'(&$5$&$6 ,QVWUXFFLyQGDGDSRUHO&DELOGRDO3URFXUDGRUGH9HQH]XHOD6LPyQGH%ROtYDUHQYLDGRDOD&RUWH HQJHVWLyQGHORVDVXQWRVGHOD3URYLQFLD Actas del Cabildo de Caracas , vol. 1. Caracas. $*5('$3GH >@ 5HODFLyQGHOD3URYLQFLDGH9HQH]XHODKHFKDSRUHO2ELVSRGH&RURDxR,Q Relaciones *HRJUi¿FDV GH 9HQH]XHOD , compiled by A. Arellano Moreno, pp. 221-231. Biblioteca de la Academia 1DFLRQDOGHOD+LVWRULD6HULH)XHQWHVSDUDOD+LVWRULD&RORQLDOGH9HQH]XHOD&DUDFDV $/&('2$GH > @ 'LFFLRQDULR*HRJUi¿FRKLVWyULFRGHODV,QGLDV2FFLGHQWDOHVR$PpULFD &ROHFFLyQ9LDMHV \'HVFULSFLRQHV)XQGDFLyQGH3URPRFLyQ&XOWXUDOGH9HQH]XHOD&DUDFDV $/9$5(=,DQG-&$6(//$ 1983 Modo de Vida y Ambiente . Unpublished undergraduate tesis. Escuela de Sociología y Antropología, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. $17&=$.$ /DSHVFDPDULQDSUHKLVSiQLFDHQHO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/RV5RTXHV9HQH]XHOD (OFDVRGHO\DFLPLHQWR de la Isla Dos Mosquises. 3URFHHGLQJVRIWKHWK&RQJUHVVRIWKH,QWHUQDWLRQDO$VVRFLDWLRQIRU&DULEEHDQ Archaeology , pp. 504-519. 1993 $UTXHRORJtDGHO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWR9HQH]XHOD 3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKHWK ,QWHUQDWLRQDO&RQJUHVVIRU&DULEEHDQ$UFKDHRORJ\3XHUWR5LFR 1999a /DWH 3UHKLVWRULF (FRQRP\ DQG 6RFLHW\ RI WKH ,VODQGV RII WKH &RDVW RI 9HQH]XHOD $ &RQWH[WXDO 38 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak Interpretation of the Non-Ceramic Evidence 8QSXEOLVKHG 3K' 'LVVHUWDWLRQ ,QVWLWXWH RI$UFKDHRORJ\ 8QLYHUVLW\&ROOHJH/RQGRQ/RQGRQ 1999b 3RWVKHUGV6HWWOHPHQW3DWWHUQV6XEVLVWHQFH(FRQRP\DQGWKH5HFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH6RFLDO3DVW 3DSHUSUHVHQWHGDWWKH6HPLQDUµ6RFLDO2UJDQLVDWLRQDQGWKH,QWHU,QVXODU5HODWLRQVKLSVRQWKH1RUWKHUQ /HVVHU$QWLOOHV¶WKWRQG-XO\ *XDGHORXSH $17&=$.$DQG00$17&=$. D $QiOLVLV GHO VLVWHPD GH ORV DVHQWDPLHQWRV SUHKLVWyULFRV HQ HO $UFKLSLpODJR GH /RV 5RTXHV Montalbán 23: 335-386. /D(VIHUDGH,QWHUDFFLyQ9DOHQFLRLGH,Q (O$UWH3UHKLVSiQLFRGH9HQH]XHOD , edited by M. Arroyo, /%ODQFRDQG(:DJQHUSS)XQGDFLyQ*DOHUtDGH$UWH1DFLRQDO&DUDFDV LQSUHVV &DULEEHDQ 3RWWHU\ )LJXULQHV ,Q Handbook of World 3UHKLVWRULF )LJXULQHV , edited by T. Insoll. 2[IRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV2[IRUG 3UH+LVSDQLF)LVKHU\RIWKH4XHHQ&RQFK Strombus gigas , on the Islands off the Coast of Venezuela. In Caribbean Marine Biodiversity: the Known and the Unknown HGLWHGE\30LORVODYLFKDQG(.OHLQSS '(6WHFK3XEOLFDWLRQV,QF/DQFDVWHU3HQQV\OYDQLD $17&=$.00DQG$$17&=$. 9HVWLJLRVGHO3DVDGR $UFKLSLpODJRGH/DV$YHVGH%DUORYHQWR Corpovoz 0DU]R$EULO /DKLVWRULDSRVWFRORPELQDGH/RV5RTXHV 6LJORV Tópicos 566: 14-19. 1988 El Tesoro de las Islas de Aves. Tópicos 586: 14-17. D (OSDVDGRGHO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRSDUWH Tópicos 599: 16-17. E (OSDVDGRGHO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/DV$YHVGH6RWDYHQWRSDUWH Tópicos 600: 20-22. F 'LVWULEXWLRQGHVpWDEOLVVHPHQWVSUpKLVWRULTXHVGDQVFHUWDLQHVtOHVGX9pQp]XpOD Actes du Colloque GX 0DUtQ ³&LYLOLVDWLRQV 3UHFRORPELHQQHV GH OD &DUDwEH´ SS 3UHVVHV 8QLYHUVLWDLUHV &UpROHV /¶+DUPDWWDQ3DULV E $UTXHRORJtD 3UHKLVWyULFD GHO$UFKLSLpODJR GH /RV 5RTXHV 9HQH]XHOD 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH WK International Congress for Caribbean Archaeology , pp. 494-504. /DVLQYHVWLJDFLRQHVDUTXHROyJLFDVHQHO3DUTXH1DFLRQDO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/RV5RTXHV,Q 3DUTXH 1DFLRQDO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/RV5RTXHV HGLWHGE\7$PHQG$$QWF]DN0D0$QWF]DN-5'HOJDGR+ -*XDGD%5RGUtJXH]DQG39HUQHWSS(GLWRULDO7RULQR&DUDFDV 1993 Avances en Arqueología de las Islas Venezolanas. In Contribuciones a la arqueología regional de Venezuela HGLWHGE\5*DVVyQDQG))HUQiQGH]SS )RQGR(GLWRULDO$FWD&LHQWt¿FD9HQH]RODQD&DUDFDV 2006 /RVËGRORVGHODV,VODV3URPHWLGDV $UTXHRORJtD3UH+LVSiQLFDGHO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/RV5RTXHV . Editorial Equinoccio, Caracas. %HWZHHQ)RRGDQG6\PERO 7KH5ROHRI0DULQH0ROOXVFVLQWKH/DWH3UH+LVSDQLF1RUWK&HQWUDO Venezuela. In Early Human Impact on Megamolluscs, HGLWHGE\$$QWF]DNDQG5&LSULDQLSS %ULWLVK$UFKDHRORJLFDO6HULHV2[IRUG $17&=$.00 2000 µ,GROV¶LQ([LOH 0DNLQJ6HQVHRI3UHKLVWRULF+XPDQ3RWWHU\)LJXULQHVIURP'RV0RVTXLVHV,VODQG Los Roques Archipelago, Venezuela 8QSXEOLVKHG3K''LVVHUWDWLRQ,QVWLWXWHRI$UFKDHRORJ\8QLYHUVLW\ &ROOHJH/RQGRQ/RQGRQ $17+21<' 3UHKLVWRULF0LJUDWLRQDV6RFLDO3URFHVV,Q0LJUDWLRQVDQG,QYDVLRQVLQ$UFKDHRORJLFDO([SODQDWLRQ , HGLWHGE\-&KDSPDQDQG++DPHURZSS%$5,QWHUQDWLRQDO6HULHV$UFKDHRSUHVV2[IRUG $3381.) >@ En los Trópicos . Universidad Central de Venezuela, Ediciones de la Biblioteca, Caracas. $5(//$12025(12$ 1950 Fuentes para la Historia Económica de Venezuela (siglo XVI) . Tercera Conferencia Interamericana de Agricultura. Caracas. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 39 $5(//$12025(12$ 1961 Documentos para la Historia Económica de Venezuela . Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. $59(/2/DQG(:$*1(5 /D 3UHKLVWRULD \ (WQRKLVWRULD GH OD 'HSUHVLyQ GHO &2/0(1$5(6* 1990 /D'HWHUPLQDFLyQGHXQD7UDGLFLyQ(VWLOtVWLFD (VWXGLRVGHOD&HUiPLFD3UHKLVSiQLFDGHODLVOD 'RPXVN\1RUWHHQHO$UFKLSLpODJRGH/RV5RTXHV9HQH]XHOD . Unpublished undergraduate thesis, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. &58;(17-0DQG,5286( 1958 Arqueología Cronológica de Venezuela (GLFLRQHV 8QLGDG 3UHKLVSiQLFD GH OD$VRFLDFLyQ ³-XDQ /ORYHUD´(UQHVWR$UPLWDQR(GLWRU&DUDFDV '85<&- 1RWHVRQWKH3RWWHU\RI$UXED&XUDoDRDQG%RQDLUH Niewe West-Indische Gids 40: 81-102. )$5,$6$ 1983 Hacienda y Comercio de Venezuela en el Siglo XVI YRO &ROHFFLyQ KLVWyULFRHFRQyPLFD Venezolana. Banco Central de Venezuela, Caracas. *$66215 7LSRV \ JUDGRV 2UJDQL]DFLRQHV SROtWLFDV SUHKLVSiQLFDV GHO 2FFLGHQWH GH 9HQH]XHOD ,Q La Arqueología Venezolana en el Nuevo Milenio HGLWHG E\ / 0HQHVHV DQG * *RUGRQHV SS 8QLYHUVLGDGGH/RV$QGHV0pULGD *,/,(-DQG+68$5(= 1996 Informe preliminar sobre los crustáceos decápodos de las localidades de Ave Grande y Dos Mosquises, Venezuela 0DQXVFULSWRQ¿OH'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKDHRORJ\/RV5RTXHV6FLHQWL¿F)RXQGDWLRQ Caracas. GINES, Hno. $VSHFWRV GH OD QDWXUDOH]D GH ODV ,VODV /DV $YHV 9HQH]XHOD Memoria Sociedad de Ciencias Naturales La Salle 20(55): 5-28. *,1(6+QRDQG*<(3(=7 1956 Avifauna de las islas. In (O $UFKLSLpODJR GH /RV 5RTXHV \ /D 2UFKLOD , edited by Sociedad de &LHQFLDV1DWXUDOHV/D6DOOHSS(GLWRULDO6XFUH&DUDFDV +$'*,$/<0' 1956 En el Arco Roto de las Antillas . Caracas. +$0%/,11/ 1984 Animal Use by the Cozumel Maya 7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI$UL]RQD3UHVV7XFVRQ HAVISER, J. B. 1987 Amerindian Cultural Geography on Curacao 1DWXXUZHWHQVFKDSSHOLMNH6WXGLHNULQJYRRU6XULQDPH ende Nederlandse Antillen, No.120, Amsterdam. HAVISER, J. B. 1991 The First Bonairens . Reports of the Archaeological-Anthropological Institute of the Netherlands Antilles, No.10, Curaçao. +(,'(&.(5/DQG0,6,(*(/ 3UHOLPLQDU\UHSRUWRQWKHH[FDYDWLRQVRI+HQUtTXH],6LWH7DQNL)OLS$UXED1HWKHUODQG$QWLOOHV Florida Anthropologist 22(1-4): 12-26. +(55(5$0$/$7(67$( /DUHHYDOXDFLyQGHOD6HULH9DOHQFLRLGH Antropológica 55(115-116): 71-100. +2)0$1&/$ 02/0+22*/$1'DQG59$/&$5&(/52-$6 2014 Stage of encounters: migration, mobility and interaction in the pre-colonial and early colonial Caribbean. World Archaeology 46(4): 590-609. +2)0$1&/$-%5,*+7./3+22*/$1'$1':).((*$1 $WWUDFWLYH,GHDV'HVLUDEOH*RRGV ([DPLQLQJWKH/DWH&HUDPLF$JH5HODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQ*UHDWHU DQG/HVVHU$QWLOOHDQ6RFLHWLHV Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology 3: 17-34. Late pre-colonial and early colonial archaeology of the Las Aves archipelagos, Venezuela 41 -$03 5HFRQRFLPLHQWRDUTXHROyJLFRGHODVLVODV.UDVN\\'RPXVN\6XU$UFKLSLpODJRGH/RV5RTXHV,Q (O$UFKLSLpODJR/RV5RTXHV\/D2UFKLOD HGLWHGE\6RFLHGDGGH&LHQFLDV1DWXUDOHV/D6DOOHSS Editorial Sucre, Caracas. -$03DQG-0GH%85*$f$ $OJXQRVGDWRV\UHIHUHQFLDVKLVWyULFDVVREUHODVLVODV,Q (O$UFKLSLpODJR/RV5RTXHV\/D2UFKLOD , HGLWHGE\6RFLHGDGGH&LHQFLDV1DWXUDOHV/D6DOOHSS (GLWRULDO6XFUH&DUDFDV -,0(1(=*0$ 1986 La Esclavitud Indígena en Venezuela (Siglo 16) . Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia 185, Caracas. KIDDER, A. 1944 Archaeology of Northwestern Venezuela. 3DSHUVRIWKH3HDERG\0XVHXPRI$PHULFDQ$UFKDHRORJ\ and Ethnology 26(1). Harvard University, Cambridge. /$(7-'( >@ Mundo Nuevo o Descripción de las Indias Occidentales , 2 vols. Instituto de Altos Estudios de $PpULFD/DWLQD8QLYHUVLGDG6LPyQ%ROtYDU&DUDFDV /$+(<-) 2Q WKH 2ULJLQ RI WKH 'U\ &OLPDWH LQ 1RUWKHUQ 6RXWK$PHULFD DQG WKH 6RXWKHUQ &DULEEHDQ ,Q Coastal Deserts; Their Natural and Human Environments SS 7KH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI$UL]RQD 3UHVV Tucson. /$8*+/,15DQG(:(,/ 1985 Ecología, cultivo y repoblación del botuto Lobatus gigas /HQHO3DUTXH1DFLRQDO$UFKLSLpODJRGH Los Roques )LQDOUHSRUW3URMHFWR6&21,&,73DUWDQG&DUDFDV )XQGDFLyQ&LHQWt¿FD/RV5RTXHV MARTIN, C. A. 1995 (O 0pWRGR GHO $QiOLVLV /tWLFR 3DUD (VWDEOHFHU 0RGHORV 7HFQRHFRQyPLFRV HQ 3REODFLRQHV 3UHKLVSiQLFDV . Unpublished manuscript, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. 0F&25./(7 1952 The History of the Guaiquerí; An Approach to the Anthropology of Northeastern Venezuela . The .URHEHU$QWKURSRORJLFDO6RFLHW\3DSHUV%HUNHOH\&DOLIRUQLD 025$/(63( 1984 3OD\D &KXDR 8Q 6LWLR $UTXHROyJLFR &RVWHUR GHO (VWDGR $UDJXD . Unpublished undergraduate thesis, Escuela de Sociología y Antropología, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. 1(&7$5,20$5,$+QR 1979 Historia de la Conquista y Fundación de Caracas *Ui¿FDV/D%RGRQLDQD&DUDFDV 1,(9(6'(*$/,&,$) 1992 &~SLUD 6X3DVDGR\VX3UHVHQWH . Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. 1,(9(6'(*$/,&,$) 1980 La Fase Bañador del Bajo Orinoco . Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas. 2-(53-7 (O*ROIRGH9HQH]XHOD 8QDVtQWHVLVKLVWyULFD Montalbán 13: 1-462. 2-(53-7 n.d. Las Salinas del Oriente Venezolano &ROHFFLyQ6DPiQ)DFXOWDGGH(FRQRPtD8QLYHUVLGDG&DWyOLFD $QGUpV%HOOR&DUDFDV 2/,9(5-5 1989 7KH$UFKDHRORJLFDO/LQJXLVWLFDQG(WKQRKLVWRULFDO(YLGHQFHIRUWKH([SDQVLRQRI$UDZDNDQLQWR Northwestern Venezuela and Northeastern Colombia 8QSXEOLVKHG3K''LVVHUWDWLRQ8QLYHUVLW\RI,OOLQRLV at Urbana-Champaign. 42 Maria M. Antczak and Andrzej Antczak 2/,9(5-5 'DEDMXURLG$UFKDHRORJ\6HWWOHPHQWVDQG+RXVH6WUXFWXUHV $Q2YHUYLHZIURP0DLQODQG:HVWHUQ Venezuela. In The Archaeology of Aruba: The Tanki Flip Site , edited by A. H. Versteeg and S. Rostain, pp. 3XEOLFDWLRQVRIWKH$UFKDHRORJLFDO0XVHXP$UXED$UXED 277(( /DV3HUODVGHO&DULEH 1XHYD&iGL]GH&XEDJXD)XQGDFLyQ-RKQ%RXOWRQ&DUDFDV 29,('2<%$f26-GH >@ +LVWRULDGHOD&RQTXLVWD\3REODFLyQGHOD3URYLQFLDGH9HQH]XHOD YROV(GLFLRQHV)XQGDFLyQ &$'$)(&DUDFDV 3,(/28(& 1979 Biogeography $:LOOH\,QWHUVFLHQFH3XEOLFDWLRQ1HZ 6+$1.60DQG&K7,//(< 1992 5H&RQVWUXFWLQJ$UFKDHRORJ\7KHRU\DQG3UDFWLFH 5RXWOHGJH1HZ