DOCUMENT RESUME ED 304 386 SO 019 728 TITLE Technologies For

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 304 386 SO 019 728

TITLE Technologies for the Preservation of Prehistoric & Historic Landscapes. Background Paper. INSTITUTION Congress of the U.S., Washington, D.C. Office of Tecnnology Assessment. REPORT NO OTA-BP-E-44 PUB DATE Jul 37 NOTE 61p.; For related document, see ED 280 782. Derived from a Workshop on Technologies for Preserving Planned Landscapes and Other Outdoor Sites (Washington, DC, February 27-28, 1986). AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325 (Stock number 052-003-01076-3; $2.50). PUB TYPE Reports - Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Computer Graphics; *Documentation; *Policy Formation; *Preservation; United States History IDENTIFIERS Historical Landmarks; *Landscapes; National Park Service

ABSTRACT Requested by the U.S. House of Representative's Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, this Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) paper identifies and examines: (1) the primary problems or issues that face prehistoric and historic landscape preservation; (2) the technologies for addressing these issues; and (3) policy options for putting the technologies to work. The OTA assessment proposes: (1) more consistent terminology and preservation standards' guidelines; (2) an increase in public awareness of the landscapes' value to U.S. history; (3) a federally funded research and develormsnt center; and (4) systematic, long-term maintenance of landscapes. Technologies for the identification and documentation of landscapes range from basic techniques, such as volunteers wielding pencil and paper, to sophisticated computer systems that can assimilate, manipulate, and store geographic information and generate complicated maps of a region. OTA suggests that the National Park Service (NPS), the U.S. government's leader in preservation matters, initiate greater efforts to preserve and create awareness of these landscapes. A 49-item bibliography is included, as well as black and white photographs, tables, and drawings. (DJC)

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\ i U S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office of Educational Research and Improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) rill* document has been reproduced as received from the person or organization ongmafing it C Minor chanOeS have been made to Improve feproduCtiOn quUfity

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Background Paper

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES 01 Ice of Technology Assessment 4. AVAILABLE BEST COPY

.....1111.., Office of Technology Assessment

Congressional Board of the 100th Congress

MORRIS K. UDALL, Arizona, Chairman

TED STEVENS, Alaska, Vice Chairman

Senate House ORRIN G. HATCH GEORGE E. BROWN, JR. Utah California CHARLES E. GRASSLEY JOHN D. DINGELL Iowa Michigan EDWARD M. KENNEDY CLARENCE E. MILLER Massachusetts Ohio ERNEST F. HOLLINGS DON SUNDQUIST South Carolina Tennessee CLAIBORNE PELL AMO HOUGHTON Rhode Island New York JOHN H. GIBBONS (Nonvoting)

Advisory Council

WILLIAM j. PERRY, Chairman CLARE T. DEDRICK RACHEL McCULLOCH H&Q Technology Partners California Land Commission University of Wisconsin DAVID S. POTTER, Vice Chairman S. DAVID FREEMAN CHASE N. PETERSON General Motors Corp. (Ret.) Lower Colorado River Authority University of Utah

EARL BEISTLINE MICHEL T. HALBOUTY JOSEPH E. ROSS Consultant Michel T. Halbouty Energy Co. Congressional Research Service CHARLES A. BOWSHER CARL N. HODGES General Accounting Office Univ?rsity of Arizona

Director

JOHN H. GIBBONS

The views expressed in this bak,Ivgn,.. nd paper are nut necessarily thuse of the Board, OTA Advisory Council,or individual membe-s thereof. Technologies for the Preservation of Prehistoric & Historic Landscapes

Background Paper

CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES r Office of Technology Assessment Washogtco, DC 20510.8025 Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies for the Preservation of Prehistoric and Historic LandscapesBackground Paper, OTA-BP-E-44 (Washington,DC. U.S. Government Printing Office, July 1987).

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-619847

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325 (order form on p. 49) Foreword

In recent years, the American public and Congress have become much more aware of the value of historic landscapes as teachers and guides to America's heritage. In- terest in preserving landscapes fof the enjoyment and education of future generations extends well beyond saving historic battlefields and the grounds of historic houses, and now encompasses such varied cultural landscapes as the Pine lands of New Jer- sey, the historic courtyards of Arizona, tobacco farms in Kentucky, and the historic parks and gardens of landscape architects. These and other historic landscapes in every State of the Union reflect the exciting cultural diversity of rural and urban America. As this background paper shows, the implementation of Federal historic preserva tion laws with respect to historic landscapes lags far behind the effort expended on historic buildings and archaeological sites. For example, to date, n, one has inventoried the many gardens, parks, and other historic landscapes designed by the well-known firms of Frederick Law Olmsted and his associates. Yet these landscapes, which grace most major U.S. cities, stand out as prime examples of American design and cultural values. The desire to rectify this situation has led to congressional consideration of a specific bill, the Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act of 1987, which is discussed and analyzed in this background paper. Because landscapes are always living, growing, and dying, they are highly vulnerable to environmental changes, from both human and natural agents. This background paper illustrates the importance of continuing to apply certain high leverage, cost- effective technologies, such as remote sensing and computer hardware and software, if this Nation wishes to protect, restore, and preserve important parts of its rich heritage for future generations of Americans. In undertaking this work, OTA sought the contributions of a wide Spectrum of knowledgeable and interested people within Federal and State governments and the private sector. Some provided information and guidance, others reviewed drafts of this background paper. OTA gratefully acknowledges their contributions of time and in- tellectual effort.

141444JOHN H. GIBBONS Director

III Workshop Participants: Technologies for Preserving, Planned Landscapes and Other Outdoor Sites, Feb. 27.28, 1986

Patricia O'Donnell, Chair Walmsley & Co., Inc., New York, NY Shary P. Berg Martin McGann Consultant Supervisor of Landscapes Boston, MA Director, Institute of Historic Horticulture Sleepy Hollow Restorations Carole L. Crum ley Tarrytown, NY Professor Department of Anthropology Hugh C. Miller University of North Carolina Chief Historical Architect Chapel Hill, NC National Park Service Washington, DC Nomi Greber Curator Darwina L. Neal Cleveland Museum of Natural History Landscape Architect Cleveland, OH National Park Service National Capital Region Robert Harvey Washington, DC Professor Department of Landscape Architecture Ford Peatross College of Design Curator Iowa State University Prints and Photographs Division Ames, IA Library of Congress Washington, DC Catherine Howett Associate Professor Scott Weinberg School of Environmental Design Assistant Professor University of Georgia School of Environmental Design Athens, GA University of Georgia Athens, GA Thomas J. Kane President M. Jane Young Kane, Liede, & Ratyna, P.C. Associate Professor Pleasantville, NY American Studies Department University of New Mexico Timothy Keller Albuquerque, NM Land & Community Associates Charlottesville, VA Setha M. Low Associate Professor Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia, PA

NOTE. OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the vvulkshup participants. The workshop participants du not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full rtsponsioility for the report and the accuracy of its contents. iv Preservation of Prehistoric and Historic Landscapes OTA Project Staff

Lionel S. Johns, Assistant Director, OTA Energy, Materials, and International Security Division

Peter D. Blair, Energy and Materials Program Manager

Ray A. Williamson, Project Director

Mary Lee Jefferson, Contractor

Jannelle Warren-Findley, Contractor

Administrative Staff

Lillian Chapman Linda Long Acknowledgments

The following individuals contributed to thisstudy in a variety of ways. OTA is grateful for their assistance. Laura Feller Nancy Miller National Park Service Nation Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers Stan Hordes HMS Associates Loretta Neumann Santa Fe, NM Foresight Science & Technology, Inc. Washington, DC Mary Hufford American Folk life Center Marilyn Nichols Library of Congress National Park Service Thomas King Connie Ramirez Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Department of the Army John J. Knorel Orlando Ridout National Park Service Maryland Historical Trust Arleyn A. Levee Massachusetts Association of Olmsted Parks Thomas Merlan Historic Preservation Division State of New Mexico

vl Contents

Page

Introduction 1 Principal Findings 2 Landcape Preservation 8 Major Issues 11 Technology and Landscape Identification 22 Documentary and Nondocumentary Sources 22 Gathering and Analyzing,Site Information 26 Landscapes and a Center for Preservation Technology 33 Intensive Regional Survey of Landscapes 33 Horticultural or Botanical Technologies 33 Clearinghouse for Landscape Preservation Information 35 Landscape Management and Maintenance Techniques 36 Public Education 37 Federal Policy Toward Landscape Preservation 38 The Role of the National Park Service 38 The National Historic Preservation Act 38 Terminology 39 National Survey of Prehistoric and Historic Landscapes 39 Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act 40 Center for Preservation Technology 40 Education and Interpretation 41 Guidance to States 42 Tax Incentives 42 State and Local Landscape Preservation 43 Landscape Preservation Selected Bibliography 46

Boxes Box Page A. Evaluating Significance of the Historic Landscape Using National Register Criteria 17 B. Catalog of Landscape Records in the United States 26 C. Intensive Survey of Prehistoric and Historic Landscape Resources in Maryland 34 D. New Mexico Registry of Historic Landscapes 45

Tables Table No. Page 1. Organizations Active in Landscape History and Preservation 10 2. Categories of Historic Landscapes 12 3. Historic Designed Landscapes 14 4. Human-Generated Threats to Cultural Resources 16 5. Natural Threats to Cultural Resources 16 6. Working Groups of the Coalition for Applied Preservation Technology 19 7. The Material Components of the Rural Historic Landscape 23

.t) vii ,

Photo credit: Joseph Czarnecki A preserved Iron plantation at Batsto, New Jersey, in Wharton State Forest.

viii INTRODUCTION

This background paper, which was requested benefits and limitations of available technologies by the House Committee on Interior and Insular and suggested new ones that could be applied Affairs,' identifies and examines the principal to the preservation of these important cultural re- technological issues related to the identification sources. and preservation of prehistoric and historic land- Some of the material in this background paper scapes. It extends the general assessment of Tech- nologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation= appeared in Technologies for Prehistoric and released by the committee in 1986. Historic Preservation in different form and organization. That comprehensive report considerec Debate over the Olmsted Heritage Landscapes technologies for the pi eservation of archaeolog- Act of 1985,3 which passed the House but not ical sites and historic structures, as well as pre- the Senate during the 99th Congress, brought to historic and historic landscapes. The reader may light numerous questions related to technologies refer to OTA's previous report for a general over- and the preservation of historic designed land- view of the issues common to all preservation dis- scapes. This background paper explores several ciplines, as well as to landscape concerns not important issues raised in that debate and places dealt with herein. In both papers, preservation th.:!rn in the overall context of prehistoric ard technology refers broadly to any equipment, historic preservation. It emphasizes technologi- methods, and techniques that can be applied to cal issues related to the id,mtification, analysis, the discovery, analysis, interpretation, restoration, and evaluation of prehistoric and historic land- conservation, protection, and management of scapes. prehistoric and historic structures, sites, and land- The background paper derives principally from scapes. a workshop convened by OTt on February 27- This background paper is organized according 28, 1986, which met to discuss the range of is- to three broad categories. 1) discussion of the pri- sues in the preservation of landscapes. OTA also mary problems c. issues that face landscape pres- received additional m ?terial from review com- ervation, 2) identification of the tools for address- ments on a draft summary of that workshop, staff ing these issues, and, finally, 3) exploration of research, personal interviews with landscape pro- policy options for putting technologies to work. fessionals from a variety of disciplines, and from an informal meeting on landscapes held at OTA, In many circumstances, attempting to define November 13, 1986. and interpret the prehistoric cultural landscape is an important component of studying prehistoric The February 1986 workshop identified and ex- sites and societies. Certain prehistoric landscapes amined technologies for discovering, surveying, may also play an important part in local, history. analyzing, interpreting, and protecting both pre- However, for reasons of clarity and simplicity, in historic and historic landscapes. It discussed the the balance of this background paper we have reduced the cumbersome term "prehistoric and historic landscapes" to the simpler one, "historic landscapes." TI- us, when we refer to historic

"Letter of Oct. 8, 1986, signed by Representatives Morris K. Udall landscapes, unless the context clearly indicates and John F. Seiberling. otherwise, we generally also mean prehistoric 'U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. TeLhnortistes ndscapes. Some landscapes, prehistoric as well for Pi ehistoric and Historic Preservation OTA-E319 (Washington. DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, September 19136). as historic, can be considered to be a subset of 3H.R. 37. the larger class of archaeological sites.

1 PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

The international preservation community fo- The management and preservation of land- cused its efforts on preserving and protecting scapes is complicated by the fact that they con- historic landscapes only in relatively recent years. tain a wide variety of elements, including plants Yet historic landscapes play an important part in and structures as well as landforms. However, a our understanding and appreciation of U.S. na- variety of technologies exist to assist in identify- tional heritage. Participants in the OTA assessing, assessing, conserving, and protecting land- ment urged that U.S. preservation policy ex- scapes. These findings illuminate the technologi- plicitly and publicly acknowledge the importance cal and institutional issues related to the use of of U.S. historic landscapes so the value of pre- technology for preserving landscapes. They sum- serving and restoring them becomes more widely marize issues and concerns discussed in detail appreciated. Establishing preservation values will in the remainder of this background paper. assist in protecting landscapes from a wide vari- More consistent landscape terminology, and ety of natural and human threats. However, im- guidelines for applying preservation standards, plementing many of the policy options presented could strengthen the identification and preser- in this background paper would likely require in- vation of significant historic landscapes. creased funding, as the available resources for historic preservation at both the Federal and State In part because "landscape" is a general term, levels are currently stretched and allow for little applied to many different landscape types, but flexibility to add new tasks. also because it may imply a wide variety of mean-

VAN DALLake '.MarltonAledford New Jersey

Drawing by: Jan Adkins Buildings and firebreaks (pasture, garden, roads, and streams) are positioned with respect to the prevailing wind, affording maximum protection against fires coming from the central woodlands during fire season. 2 13 3 ings, the identification of historic landscapes has ., comprehensive national historic landscape been impeded by a lack of consistent terminol- survey would draw together the information we ogy. Some landscapes are historically significant now have on historic landscapes and identify and are appropriate targets of preservation efforts. those missed in previous, haphazard efforts. The An essential first step in determining historic sig- search might begin with a national survey of de- nificance is the identification of the type of land- signed historic landscapes as an important first scape under consideration. step, because greater agreement exists among The National Park Services (NPS) has recently professionals concerning what constitutes a de- established definitions for various types of land- signed landscape than on the broader definitions. scapes to guide the nomination of landscapes to Another approach might utilize an intensive re- the National Register. In addition to defining his- gional survey of all types of historic landscapes, toric designed landscapes, and setting guidelines which could assist the historic preservation com- for evaluating them, NPS has focused attention munity in developing techniques and methods on the category of cultural landscape it refers to to locate and evaluate significant historic land- as therural historic district.Yet, other historic scapes. However, no substantial progress in iden- landscapes, such as components of the Pine lands tifying and preserving historic landscapes is likely of New Jersey, have their own distinctive char- to occur unless Congress appropriates additional acteristics and are an important component of funds for landscapes. cultural landscapes. They also need to be inventoried as landscapes, where appropriate, and A variety of technologies are available for their historic significance determined. gathering and analyzing landscape information: Passage of the Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act of 1987 (H.R. 17) could materially aid the Archival and library information systems. A vast collection of information on all U.S.-designed amount of primary and secondary information historic landscapes. about designed landscapes and urban cultural landscapes is already available in the Nation's de- By focusing attention on the many landscape positories. New information technologiescan projects designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and make access more efficient. his professional successors, the Olmsted Act Computer aided-design (CAD). CAD software could increase awareness of the importance of and hardware make it possible to draw andstore historic landscapes to the Nation's history. Some a given landscape within the computer memory, private owners of Olmsted properties have ex- and to manipulate and alter the drawing. pressed fear that passage of such an act would Computer-aided survey. Computers can in- limit their ability to control disposition of these crease survey accuracy aid reduce overall labor, properties. However, H.R. 17 seeks primarily to especially when inexpensive, portable computers inventory Olmsted properties designed by the are used in the field. Olmsted firms, and would not limit the property Geographic information systems (GIS). These rights of private owners. computerized spatial database systemsare de- One of the major impediments to preserving signed to integrate, manipulate, and analyzesta- significant landscapes is the poor state of knowl- tistical, demographic, cultural, and naturalre- edge of the Nation's historic landscapes. sources data. GIS are also capable of printing maps and reports encompassing a wide variety Inventory or survey of landscapes is a crucial of spatial information. first step in preserving them. However, not all Landscape databases. Computerized databases historic landscapes can be preserved, for not all of various kinds are crucial to the efficient de- are historically significant. Until recently, the Fed- velopment and use of landscape information. As eral government has expended little effort to iden- computers and software have become increas- tify and document nationally significant land- ingly more capable, and cheaper to acquire, scapes; no comprehensive, centralized listing of many users have begun to develop their own significant American landscapes exists. powerful databases. 4

Measured drawings. This technique, borrowed promise for the study of historic landscapes be- from architecture, can be used to document a cause they are nondestructive and capable of landscape thoroughly for later analysis and recording and analyzing vast areas quickly and evaluation. accurately. Photography and videogrammetry. Photogra- The greatest threat to historic landscapes is de- phy and videogrammetry are powerful methods struction, by ignorance or intent. The applica- for documenting a variety of historic resources, tion of appropriate technologies could make a including landscapes. Stereophotogrammetric significant difference in improving the preser- methods that use a photo-theodolite enable vation of significant historic landscapes. detailedlandscape documentationinthree dimensions. Historic landscapes are susceptible to a vari- Remote sensing technologies. Remote sensing ety of human and natural threats that can destroy techniques, especially those used from the per- or significantly alter their historic character. In or- spective of aircraft and spacecraft, hold great der to make informed decisions concerning the

"O.

Photo credit: (Aerial photo by Dacha M. Reeves, Jan. 20, 1934. Courtesy of Smithsonian Institution National Anthropological Archives). Serpent Mound in moaern farm landscape, southcentral Ohio. Designed and built by the Adena culture, which flourished in the first millenium B.C., this is an unusual example of thousands of earthworks found throughout the Central and Southeastern United States.

15 5 multitude of cultural resources under their care, Although a center for preservation technology managers need to have an increased awareness would tackle a number of different technologi- of the value of historic landscapes, and the skills cal areas, the following items are likely candidates needed to study, identify, evaluate, conserve, and for part of the center's agenda: manage them. Therefore, managers need better access to landscape information and training. However, considerably more effort will be re- 1. Intensive regional survey of landscapes: A quired to enable managers to put technology to center could fund and supervise the devel- better use in landscape management. opment of methods for conducting intensive A federally funded facility that would focus local and regional surveys. They would have on the research and development of preserva- numerous benefits for historic preservation, tion technology could make a major contribu- as well as local and regional planning efforts. tion to the study and preservation of historic 2. Horticultural or Botanical Technologies: landscapes. Authentic restoration and conservation of historic landscapes depends on the ability Participants in the OTA assessment, Technol- to identify, locate, and use historically appro- ogies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation, priate plants. A center could contribute to cited the critical need for a federally supported research on historical plants. ility for preservation technologies. A center 3. Clearinghouse for landscape preservation in- would foster the research and development of formation: The preservation of historic cul- advanced technologies, train professionals in tural resources, including landscapes, de- their use, develop technical standards, dissemi- pends substantially on the use of a variety nate accurate technical information, and promote of historical records and technical informa- public education about historic preservation. Al- tion. One of the most important functions though the private sector has a significant role a center could have is to serve as a source, in developing and using preservation technol- or clearinghouse of historical and technical ogies, the Federal government has the lead preservation information, including informa- responsibility for guiding preservation efforts tion on landscape preservation. throughout the United States. 4. Landscape management and maintenance In order to assist the Federal Government in techniques: Periodic maintenance is one of transferring useful technologies from natural sci- the most effective means of preserving a ences and engineering into preservation, and de- historic landscape. A center could conduct veloping new cost-effective technologies, Con- research on automated methods for improv- gress may, wish to establish such a federally char- ing maintenance management. tered center. Congress could mandate the estab- 5. Public education: Public education is one of lishment of a Federal Center for Preservation the keys to improved historic preservation. Technology within the Department of Interior or A center could translate research results into other Federal agency. Alternatively, Congress information the public can comprehend and could create a National Center for Preservation use. Technology, managed by a consortium of universities and preservation organizations. Such an institution would be able to draw on a multitude A Coalition for Applied Preservation Technol- of different skills in several universities, and in ogy (CAPT) has recently been formed whose many university departments. If a Center for Pres- membership is composed of a variety of private ervation Technology were established, landscape preservation organizations. CAPT is devoted to preservation concerns could constitute a signifi- establishing a multidisciplinary National Center cant portion of the center's workload. for Applied Preservation Technology. 6

Technology can assist the development of The private effort of the American Garden His- methods for systematic and long-term mainte- tory Program at Wave Hill, Bronx, NY, to develop nance of landscapes, which is one of the most a Catalog of Landscape Records in the United effective means of slowing deterioration from States will be an important first step in develop- human and natural agencies. ing a national database. Private efforts such as this would benefit from the involvement of the Na- Systematic preventative maintenance and up- tional Park Service and other Federal agencies keep are essential to the conservation of a land- concerned with historic landscapes. scape, particularly because landscapes change so rapidly as a result of plant growth, or stresses to In order to improve the preservation of pre- the landscape. Increased use of personal com- historic and historic landscapes, it would be nec- puters and specially designed software could be essary for the National Park Service and other extremely helpful in improving the quality and Federal agencies to focus more consistent atten- quantity of landscape maintenance. tion on landscape preservation in their management of cultural resources. Improved identification and preservation of historic landscapes depend on achieving greater Because the National Park Service (NPS) serves public understanding of the reasons to preserve as the lead agency for technical preservation mat- historic landscapes. In order to enhance pub- ters for the Federal Government, and for State lic appreciation of historic landscapes, Federal, and local efforts, NPS administrators and man- State, and local governments, as well as the pri- agers need to be more aware of the value of pre- vate sector, will have to reach a wider audience. serving prehistoric and historic landscapes. NPS could assist by developing uniform standards for Citizens are often unaware of the value and sig- landscape identification and preservation; ex- nificance of historic landscapes. Traditionally, panding the subject matter of its publications to historic preservationists have worked from the include recommendations on studying and pre- grassroots, first by building local constituencies serving historic landscapes; enhancing its own and then through them identifying the value of landscape pr,..servation effort; developing a self- a given structure or archaeological site and finally study course on landscape preservation; and by seeking State or National help in preserving it. upgrading and highlighting the importance of However, local groups who might identify land- gardening and grounds maintenance jobs. scape value often do not exist, in part because they lack adequate information about why cer- NPS, together with other Federal agencies, tain landscapes might be important to our cul- could aid in the identification and preservation tural history. Often, those who are most familiar of significant historic landscapes by clarifying with a landscape are least aware of its wider na- landscape terminology in the National Register, tional value. improving interagency information flow concerning historic landscapes, and generally focusing Federal agencies, especially NPS, could en- more attention on landscape preservation. hance the public's understanding of the historic importance of certain landscapes by including in- NPS could also assume a stronger role in the terpretive material on landscapes in the inter- effort, initiated by the American Society of Land- pretative presentations park personnel give to the scape Architects (ASLA), to complete a national millions of visitors each year. survey of designed landscapes. Specifically, the ASLA needs assistance in completing the survey A national database of identified historic land- in a timely manner, acquiring consistent informa- scapes would substantially assist the identification, and standardizing the information collected. tion of other, uncataloged historic landscapes. NPS could also expand the training it provides At present, the United States has no national to State and local preservation agencies and database of historic landscapes. State and local groups on landscapes. In particular, the States databases are also highly incomplete and lack in- could benefit from access to information on car- formation on locNion of records and landscapes. rying out landscapes surveys.

I7 7

Although the National Historic Preservation Act Tax credits and incentives for the preservation contains no impediment to the identification and of historic landscapes might be effective in en- preservation of landscapes, neither does it specif- hancing the preservation of historic landscapes. ically mention them. Most Federal agencies that Tax incentives have provided an incalculable hold and manage historic properties nonetheless boost to the preservation of income producing, also manage historic landscapes. Not expressly privately owned, historic structures. Yet, current mandating in the law that historic landscapes are legislation permits historic preservation tax credits worthy of being identified and preserved may al- for buildings only. Congress could institute a sim- low Federal agencies to overlook landscape con- ilar set of tax incentives for historic landscapes. cerns in their preservation programs. Tax incentives would also increase public aware- Some observers have suggested that it may be ness of these threatened historic resources. Con- appropriate to amend the National Historic Pres- gress may wish to consider new legislation to ad- ervation Act to include explicit reference to dress this need. historic landscapes. Others have expressed con- The States' approaches to landscape issues are cern that including explicit reference to historic very uneven; only a few States have made sig- landscapes will open the act to inclusion of other, nificant strides in identifying their historic land- more specific historic categories, or will subject scapes. the National Historic Preservation Act to unnec- essary and harmful experimentation. Congress State Historic Preservation Offices should be may wish to address the need for greater atten- encouraged to inventory their historic landscapes tion to landscape concerns by designing addi- and to maintain surveys on computer databases tionallegislation which recognizes the role so they can be enlarged and corrected frequently historic landscapes play in the history of this and cost effectively. To be most effective for pres- country and specifically directs Federal agencies ervation purposes, such databases should be de- to include landscape concerns in their preserva- veloped with standard formats. The State offices tion programs. Alternatively, Congress may wish depend heavily on the Historic Preservation Fund to use its oversight authority to encourage the in- to support their activities. Additional funding will clusion of landscape concerns in the regulations be needed to support inventory of historic land- and guidelines issued by Federal agencies that scapes. treat prehistoric and historic preservation. LANDSCAPEPRESERVATION Whether or not we are directly aware of their Whether they are highly structured parks and influence, landscapes have a profound effect on formal gardens, or less structured farms, urban human life. The aesthetic, economic, and secu- landscapes, or "roadscapes", historic landscapes rity values of our physical surroundings play es- reflect U.S. cultural heritage. Yet, as one histo- sential roles in decisions about where and how rian has noted: we live. Some societies and individuals regard Historians have been tardy in recognizing that certain landforms as sacred. As a result, socie- the environment, natural and man-made, is an ties have both altered their physical surroundings amazing historical document. In our teaching, we and been altered and affected by them. The re- have not adequately explored the ways in which, sult of such interaction is a landscape.4 rightly seen, a landscape reveals as much of a society's culture as does a novel, a newspaper, or a Fourth of July oration.s

'Carole L. Crum ley, "Archaeological Reconnaissance at Mont Dardon, France," Archaeology, May4une 1983, pp. 14-17. See also, Tony Hiss: "Experiencing Places-I," New Yorker, June 22, 1987, pp. 43-68, "Experiencing Places-II,- New Yorker, June 29, 1987, Thomas J. Schlereth, Artifacts and the American Past (Nashville, pp. 73-86. TN: American Association for State and Local History, 1980), p. 147

Photo credit: National Park Service, National Register of Historic Places Bishop Hill Historic District, National Historic Landmark, Bishop Hill, Illinois.

8 13 9

In a way, landscapes are the context of life, for ing significance as historic landscapes.") Only in the form of our landscapes embodies our mate- 1986 did the National Park Service (NPS) develop rial culture and our ideals.° For example, al- and publish a set of guidelines for nominating though visitors to historic buildings, such as Vir- historic designed landscapes to the National Reg- ginia's Gunston Hall, the home of George Mason, ister." Other categories of landscapes have not tend to focus on the building and its interior ap- been fully examined by NPS. pointments, the appearance of the surroundings, in some respects, the management and pres- including various outbuildings, fences, and other ervation of landscapes is more complicated than structures, as well as plantings, contributes sig- historic structures because landscapes encompass nificantly to their understanding of the building's a greater variety of elements, and include plants historical context. and structures as well as landforms. But more im- Compared to the efforts to preserve historic portant, natural elements of landscapes are par- structures, only relatively recently has (he inter- ticularly susceptible to alteration ar d deteriora- national preservation community focused its ef- tion. Unlike historic structures, plants and trees forts on preserving and protecting historic land- grow too large or spread to other areas. In time, scapes.' As one report expressed it: water may erode the soil and improper pruning and care may enhance potential damage from It seems .. . that an old landscape must still, disease and pests. Because they are "so rooted somehow, be useful: it must be a teacher, a guide, a place for recreation, or a place of con- in process," landscapes are highly vulnerable.12 tact with the past. Establishing such usefulness re- New agricultural practices, for example, can dra- quires a great effort, a lot of subjective sugges- matically alter the look of the rural landscape." tion, considerable ingenuityand will have to be Changing agricultural economics, such as the backed by more research.8 ; move from the predominance of family farms to agribusiness, alter both traditional patterns of the However, in the United States, the term "land- land and the ways of life that produced the pat- scape" does not even appear in the formal list- terns. Contemporary landscapes, while different, ing of categories of sites that are eligible for nomi- exhibit their own appeal. nation to the National Register of Historic Places (National Register).9 Most National Register land- The discovery and identification of U.F. historic scapes are there as a result of their association landscapes is still in its infancy. In pare as a re- with other categories such as a building, district, sult of a general lack of awareness of the value or site. In other cases, a building may be included and vulnerability of landscapes, the constituency but the surrounding landscape, which may even for locating and preserving significant historic have greater historic significance, might not be landscapes has not yet developed fully, though recognized or described. Very few landscapes it is growing. Table 1 lists some of the organiza- have been nominated as a consequence of hav- tions that are especially active in landscape preservation.

6Marilyn Nickels, National Park Service, personal communica "'Lisa A. kunst and Patricia M. 0 Donnell,Historic Landscape tion, 1987, see also D.W. Meining, The interpretation of Ordinary Preservation Deserves a Broader Meaning,Landscape Architec- Landscapes (Oxford England: Oxford University Press, 1979). ture, January 1981, p. 53. 'See the discussion in W.H. Tishler, 'The Landscape. An Emerging "See). Timothy Keller and Genevieve P. Keller, How To Evaluate Historic Preservation Resource,The Association for Preservation and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes, National Register Technology Bulletin 11, No. 4, 1979, pp. 9-26. See also UNESCO, of Historic Places Bulletin 18, for a discussion of types of designed "Recommendation Concerning the Safeguarding of the Beauty and landscapes. Character of Landscapes and Sites,adopted by the General Con ''Catherine M. Howett, Landscape Research. Keeping Faith With ference at its Twelfth Session, Paris, Dec. 11, 1962, for a relatively Today and Tomorrow, The Yearbook of Landscape Architecture. early attempt to define landscape preservation values. Historic Preservation New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1983), 8State of New Mexico, "First Annual Report, Registry of Historic P. 3. landscapes," Historic Preservation Bureau, 1982, p. 6. 130r ando Ridout, V,Agricultural Change and the Architectural 9"How To Apply the National Register Criteria for Evaluation Landscape, 3 Centuries of Maryland Architecture Annapolls, MD. (Washington, DC. U.S. Department of the Interior, National P Maryland Historical Trust and the Society for the Preservation of Service, June 1984). Maryland Antiquities, 1982), pp. 3-7.

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Table 1.Organizations Active in Landscape Congress. In part such interest has been sparked History and Preservation by the limited survey of Olmsted landscapes by Alliance for Historic Landscape Preservation the National Association of Olmsted Parks, and American Association for State and Local History (AASLH) by State landscape inventories. For example, the American Folkilfe Center American Folklore Society State of Massachusetts has begun an inventory American Rock Art Research Association of its Olmsted parks and other designed land- American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) scapes.14 The States of Ohio's and New Mexico16 American Studies Association Association of Living History Farms and Historic Museums have also initiated inventories of their historic Association for Preservation Technology (APT) landscapes. Finally, within its Park Historic Ar- National Association for Olmsted Parks chitecture Division, NPS has instituted a limited National Council on Public History effort to coordinate NPS efforts in landscape pres- National Park Service Organization of American Historians ervation and to initiate several landscape pres- National Trust for Historic Preservation ervation projects. Society for Architectural Historians, Chapter for Landscape Architecture and the Allied Arts Trustees of Reservations (Massachusetts private conservancy) "Eleanor M. Peck, Keith Morgan, and Cynthia Zaitzevsky (eds.), SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987. Olmsted in Massachusetts: The Public Legacy (Brookline, MA: Mas- sachusetts Association for Olmsted Parks,1983); Charles E. Beveridge, Carolyn F. Hoffman, Shary Page Berg, and Arleyn A. The legislative activity surrounding the efforts Levee, 'The Master List of Design Projects of the Olmsted NMin Massachusetts, 1866-1950," Massachusetts Association for Olmsted in the 99th Congress to pass the Olmsted Pres- Parks, Boston, MA, 1986. ervation Act, which sought to "encourage the "Ohio Historic Landscapes Survey, manuscript and survey form identification, preservation, and commemoration distributed by the Ohio Historical Society, Columbus, OH, n.d. 16Baker H Morrow, "Old Landscapes, New Ideas. New Mex- of historic designed landscapes," reflects in- ico's Historic Landscape Architecture," New Mexico Architecture, creased interest in landscape preservation in the September-October 1985, pp. 11-17. MAJOR ISSUES Pa. iicipants in this study identified the follow- as when we speak of "landscaping a building." ing issues that need to be addressed ln develop- In that sense, landscapes are then thought of as ing a sound and welt- considered Federal policy equivalent to nature, in spite of the fact that in toward landscape preservation. Technology con- order to achieve such a landscape, the natural cerns permeate these issues. Because most of forms must be molded to a plan. In the eyes of these issues are interrelated, they are not neces- many observers, President Jefferson's home, sarily listed in rank order. Monticello, is a historic landscape of which the ISSUE A: The lack of consistent landscape ter- central building is the most important part. Others minology and guidelines for applying preser- consider only the form and structure of the house vation standards have impeded the identifica- and ignore its setting. Adding to the difficulty is tion and preservation of significant historic the fact that specialists in different disciplines tend landscapes. to impart different meanings to the term "landscape," according to the established practices of One of the difficL It, but important, tasks fac- their disciplines and the context of the landscape. ing landscape preservationists is to arrive at stand- For example, as noted below, the landscape ard definitions that can be used in a common architect might see the landscape as a design vocabulary. Among other things, a set of stand- statement,19 while the folklorist might experience ard definitions would enhance the ability of lo- the same landscape in terms of what it conveys cal individuals and groups to develop nomina- about the folk practices of the landscape's inhabi- tions to State historic registers and to the National tants.20 Register. It would facilitate interdisciplinary ap- "Robert W. Leech, "The First Dilemma," Landscape Architec- proaches to their location, study, and evaluation. ture 77, 1977, pp. 62.65. 20For example, see the treatment of landscape in Mary Hufford, The English term "landscape" was originally One Space, Many Places: Folklife and Land Use in New Jersey's introduced as a technical term of painters and Pinelands National Reserve (Washington, DC. American Folklife referred to the representation of "natural inland Center, Library of Congress 1986), or Rita Zorn Moonsammy, David Steven Cohen, and Lorraine E. Williams (eds.), Pinelands Folklife scenery."17 Later, it acquired a much broader set (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1987); or M. Jane of meanings, and came to be understood primar- Young, Signs From the Ancestors. Zuni Perceptions of Rock Art (Al- ily as "shaped land, land modified for permanent buquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, in press). human occupation, for dwelling, agriculture, manufacturing, government, worship, and for '14 . pleasure."18 Table 2 presents a list of categories ...Ailiffillk rank' of historic landscapes. Although different landscapes exhibit distinct characteristics, because landscapes may lack dear boundaries and include structures and sites as well as natural components, landscape values may appear elusive, making precise and common, or standard, definitions difficult to achieve in practice. In general parlance, we often use landscape in the broadest sense to mean environment (including both natural forms and those Photo credit: National Park Service, Historic American °Inklings Survey. achieved by art). However, landscapes are often Jet Lowe, Photographer, April 1984 considered simply the ambiances of structures, Overall view of planned communal gardens looking east, Locke, California. Locke Is a small, rural Chinese community on the Sacramento River. It was developed In the early 20th century to serve Chungshan Chinese "The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford, laborers who worked In the fruit orchards and vegetable England: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 1566. fields in California's Delta region. It is the only ' "John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of America, 1580 to 1845 extant rural Chinese community still occupied (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1982). by Chinese people.

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Table 2.Categories of Historic Landscapes Treatment c 0 =0 2 75c 0 0) Typical landscape CC preservation projects Mary Washington House, Fredericksburg, VA Residential grounds GWSM, Inc. The Garden Club of Virginia Statue of Liberty, New York, NY Monument grounds Norman T. Newton National Park Service Original Governor's Mansion, Helena, MT Public building grounds Richard E. Mayer Montana State Parks Division Stratford Garden Restoration, Potomac River, VA Garden GWSM, Inc. The Garden Club of Virginia Minor public grounds Pioneer Square, Seattle, WA (e.g., town square, parklet, traffic circle) Jones & Jones City of Seattle Sannonburg Gardens, Canandaigua, NY Botanical garden Noredo A. Rotunno Sannonburg Gardens Committee Fort Stanwix National Monument, Rome, NY Fort Dureya & Wilhelm!, P.C. National Park Service Rosebud Battlefield, Montana Battlefield Richard E. Mayer Montana State Parks Division Cemeteries, New Harmony, IN Cemetery s/ s/ Kane & Carruth, P.C. Main Street Project, Hot Springs, SD s/ s/ PreservationlUrbanlDesign, Inc. Strestscape NationalTrust Chicago MidWest Office Gamble Plantation, Manatee County, FL Estate Lane L. Marshall & Associates, Inc. State of Florida Cherokee Park Restoration, Louisville, KY Park - ,.... Johnson, Johnson & Roy, Inc. Louisville Metropoatan Park & Recreation Board Old World Wisconsin, Eagle, WI Working farm William H. Tishler State Historical Society of Wisconsin Williamsburg, VA Shurcliff, Hopkins, Parer, Barton & Belden Museum village Staff Landscape Architects Colonial Williamsburg Foundation Heritage Square, Los Angeles, CA District Merrill W. Winans Cultural Heritage Foundation Town of New Harmony, New Harmony, IN Town Kane & Carruth, P.C. Cahokia Mounds, near East St. Louis, IL Prehistoric site s... Edward J. Keating Illinois Department of Conservation Survey Olmsted Parks System, Buffalo, NY Patricia M. O'Donnell Park system Highways, Parks & Recreation Historical Preservation Division & Landmark Society of the Niagara Frofitier SOURCE: Landscape Architecture, January 1981. 23 13

Establishing a progression of types of land- reflective of the cultural values of a group, such scapes based on the degree and scale of inten- settlement patterns merge into cultural land- tional human intervention can assist in develop- scopes." Characteristically, the cultural landscape ing common definitions. At one end of such a is the product of many groups or individuals scale is the wilderness, where natural processes working interdependently within a broad cultural predominate. In a wilderness, or natural, land- context. The cultural landscape may reflect rural scape, human activities certainly exist, but they values, as reflected in rural historic districts,24 or do not appreciably modify the landscape.21 Even urban values, as found in the manufacturing if unmodified by human activities, natural land- towns of the Northeastern United States.25 The scapes may be invested with cultural significance vernacular landscape, which derives from the and may therefore be worthy of protection be- common style of a period or place, is one im- cause of their significance in American history. portant form of a cultural landscape. For example, Cumberland Gap in Tennessee was Finally, the designed or planned landscape,26 a major passageway through the Appalachians in which the scale of manipulation of the earth for settlers moving west in the 19th century and is high, may be considered a subset of the cul- is celebrated in song and story. tural landscape, but one that reflects the concep- Certain natural landscape features even have tual model of a single individual or small group sacred significance for some cultural groups. For of individuals. Examples of designed landscapes example, though they actually live many miles range from small gardens to large-scale public or to the east, the Hopi Indians of Arizona regard private parks (table 3). the San Francisco Peaks as the sacred home of The National Park Service (NPS) has established the kachina, the rain-giving spirits of the Hopi re- clear guidelines to distinguish between designed ligion. The Peaks figure strongly in their origin and vernacular landscapes. Nevertheless, be- legends and other traditional stories. Certain cause designed landscapes are generally thought Plains Indian groups built stone structures, often called medicine wheels, that reflected their of as deriving from a high art tradition, certain important historical vernacular landscapes might awareness of and reverence for landscape fea- be overlooked or considered of less historical im- tures.* Traditional Hawaiians consider the Wai- portance than, for example, formal gardens. kaane Valley in Windward Oahu as sacred.22 It However, folk traditions incorporate design tra- plays an important part in the native history of ditions that may involve master builders and so- the island. phisticated learning and wisdom. It is therefore We might call the next stage in the progression extremely difficult, perhaps impossible, to sepa- settlement patterns, as human manipulation of rate vernacular landscapes from design intention the environment becomes more obvious but and from planning. there is little or no conscious planning. Ac peo- NPS has recently attempted to establish defi- ple manipulate the land for particular purposes, nitions for various types of landscapes, to guide

"In most cases, it is not correct to talk about an untouched nat "Melody Webb, Cultural Landscapes in the National Park Serv- ural landscape. For example, Native Americans, and later European ice,' The Public Historian, 9, 1987, pp. 77.89. Cultural landscapes settlers, regularly burned the Big Meadow of Shenandoah Nationa! represent a continuum of landuse that spans many generations Park, VA, to kee s it open. Even hunter/gatherer societies may have . .. (They) exhibit, either conspicuously or subtly, longheld values deliberately burned the grasses, and otherwise altered the land of their area or culture.' Robert Z, Melnick,Capturing the Cul- scape over time. For example, see Clive Gamble, "The Artificial tural Landscape," Landscape Architecture, January 1981,p. 56. Wilderness," New Scientist, Apr. 10, 1986, pp. 50.54. "Robert Z. Melnick, Cultural Landscapes. Rural Historic Districts 'Robert L. Hall, "Medicine Wheels, Sun Circles, and the Magic in the National Park System (Washington, DC. U.S. Department of World Center Shrines,' Plains Anthropologist 3^, 198S, pp. of the Interior, National Park Service, Park Historic Architecture 181-194. Division, 1984). 22John Chariot, "Historic Report on Waikane Valley," Testimony "Mary Procter and Bill Matuszeski, Gritty Cities (Philaaelphia, presented to the Feb. 9, 1977, Hearing of the Land Use Commis. PA. Temple University Press, 1978). sion, Honolulu, HI. 265ee also Melnick, op. cit., 1984, p. 40. 14

Table3.HistoricDesigned Landscapes the nominatit..of landscapes to the National Small residential grounds Register. For the purposes of the National Regis- Estate or plantation grounds (including a farm where the ter, a historic designed landscape is "a work that primary significance Is as a landscape design and not as has significance as a design or work of art; was historic agriculture) Arboreta, botanical, and display gardens consciously designed and laid out by a master Church yards and cemeteries gardener, landscape architect, architect, or hor- Monuments and surrounding grounds ticulturalist to a design principle, or an owner or Plazalsquaregreenitnall or other public spaces Campus and institutional grounds other amateur using a recognized style or tradi- City planning or civic design tion in response to a recognized style or tradi- Subdivisions and planned communitieslresorts tion; has a historical association with a significant Commercial and industrial properties and parks person, trend, event, etc. in landcape gardening Parks (local, state, and national) and campgrounds Battlefield parks and other commemorative parks or landscape architecture; or a significant rela- Ground designed or developed for outdoor recreation andtor tionship to the theory or practice of landscape sports activities such as country clubs, golf courses, to- arch itecture."27 nis courts, bowling greens, bridle trails, stadiums, ball parks, and race tracks that are not part of a unit listed above Fair and exhibition grounds In addition to defining historic designed land- Parkways, drives and trails scapes, and setting guidelines for evaluating Bodies of water and fountains (considered as an Independent them, NPS has focused attention on the category component and not as part of a larger design scheme). SOURCE; National Park service, "How to Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic Landscapes," 1987. "Keller and Keller, op. cit., p. 2.

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-...walti

Photo credit: Ray A. Williamson William Paca House and Garden, Annapolis, MD: After beina burled under a 200.room hotel, a parking lot, and bus station, this 18th century garden was restored In the 1970s based on t!te results of a careful research by archaeologists, architects, landscape architects, and historians.

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of cultural landscape it refers toas the rural ISSUE B: Because they are so susceptible to historic district. This subcategory of important cul- damage by human and natural causes, the tural landscapes includes ethnic rural communi- greatest threat to historic landscJpes is de- ties or rural farmsteads. The NPS publication, struction, by intent or ignorance, before they "Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic Districts in have been identified as significant'. the National Park System," defines the tural historic district as "a geographically definable [ru- Participants in the OTA assessment urged that ral) area, possessing a significant concentration, preservation policy explicitly acknowledge the linkage, or continuity of landscape components importance of historic landscapes and specify that which are united by human use and past events they be protected to the same degree as historic or aestheticaily by plan or physical develop- structures and non-landscape archaeological ment."28 'es. Such a policy should be publicly dissemi- naed so that planning and design professionals, However, earlier, this same publication calls cultural and natural resource managers, and the rural historic districts "complex human ecologi- public recognize the value of preservinga, id re- cal systems existing within equally complex nat- storing historic landscapes. Establishing these ural ecological contexts. People modify those values will assist in protecting landscapes from ecological contexts, and in turn the cultural pat- a wide variety of natural and human threats. The terns of the people are altered to fit the natural section, Federal Policy Toward LandscapePres- environment."29 This latter definition illustrates ervation,discusses options for strengthening land- the difficulty of finding the right wording to dis- scapes preservation policy. tinguish among the many different categories of landscapes. It does not seem to be restrictive Tables 4 and 5 list many of the human and natural threats to which landscapes enough, as it could also encompass other sub- are susceptible. categories of cultural landscapes, including the Because the nationwide perception of landscapes is not well developed, historic vistas may be de- historic urban vernacular historic landscapeas stroyed casually, through intent, or by ignorance. well as certain designed historic landscapes. In- deed, the emphasis placed on the significance For example, urban parks, which contain both natural elements and structures, are subject to of designed historic landscapes in relationto increased visitation, vandalism, and other cultural lar:.11,:apes appears to bea prod- arson. In- uct of traditional high-culture patterns of thought creased development in urban, suburban, and even rural areas, has exerted enormous pressures in the United States. Yet, certain landscapes, such on historic landscapes. Economic pressures that as those created by residents of the Pine lands area of New Jersey, are highly structured according have altered the structure of American farming are also reshaping the countryside. Rural land- to the aesthetic and other values of the local residents." scapes are now beginning to suffer from vandalism and arson.3, All of these landscape types, whether wilderness, cultural, or designed landscapes, reflect Inadequate identification and registry,32over- use, inadequatt: or inappropriate managerial/ values of the people who care for them. Within maintenance policies, and malicious destruction these broad categories exist many subcategories are the greatest threats to most historic land- of landscapes; certain landscapes are of historic scapes. Yet, natural agents such as erosion, ex- significance and are appropriate targets of preservation efforts. An essential first step in determining historic significance is the identification of the type of landscape kinder consideration. 'For example. in some areas of West i,irginia, wooden bridges, often a significant part of the historic rural landscape, are the tar- get of arsonists. Barbara Howe, West Virginia University, personal communication, 1986. "Me !nick, op. cit., 1984, pp. U. "For example, many large earthworks in Ohio are known to "Me !nick, op. cit., 1984, p. 4. professional and amater archaeologists, and even to the public, "One Space, Many Places, op. cit., ch. 5. "Aesthetic Resources but because they are on private land, many of them suffer from and Sense of Place." modern land use practices that erode and destroy them. 16

Table 4.HumanGenerated Threats cess moisture, drought, and severe storms can to Cultural Resources° also significantly damage certain landscape ele- Agriculture ments.33 Even normal plant growth can substan- Beautification tially alter the intended plan of a designed land- Construction scape in a few years unless the trees, shrubs, and Demolition Drilling: undergrowth are properly maintained. Some seismic disturbances plants must be kept in scale by pruning; others Energy generation: can be ruined if pruned. All of these threats can coal, gas, and oil exploration and extraction powerlines be significantly reduced by the appropriate ap- dams plication of planning and design principles and powerplants technology. Fencing Fire: Most public land is subject to a variety of uses, firefighting fire rehabilitation some of which are more destructive than others. Grazing In order to make informed decisions concerning Land abandonment and neglect the cultural resources under their care, managers Mining Overuse need to have an increased awareness of the value Pollution: of historic landscapes and the necessary skills to air and water identify, evaluate, preserve, and manage them. Preservation activities Recreational technologies: I. short, managers need better access to land- metal detectors scape information. They also need to evaluate offroad vehicles their component parts and develop maintenance Rehabilitation or retrofitting Sand and gravel quarrying recommendations that incorporate appropriate Slash burning technologies and research. Use of such informa- Site con, , Mon tion will enable managers to justify requests for Timber cutting Theft increased funding and personnel and, where ap- Urban sprawl propriate, to preserve, protect, and interpret his- Vandalism toric landscapes. However, considerably more allot listed In prlorlt? order. research and development will be required to en- SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987 able managers to put technology to better use in landscape management.

ISSUE C: One of the major impediments to pre- Table 5.Natural Threats to Cultural Resources serving significant landscapes is the poor state Acid precipitation of knowledge of the Nation's historic land- Air pollution scapes. Disease Drought Because a historic landscape cannot be pre- Erosion (wind and water) Earthquakes served until it is identified, inventory or survey Fire is a crucial first step to preserving landscapes. Floods However, not all historic landscapes can be pre- Freeze/thaw cycles Invasive vegetation served, for not all are historically significant. After Moisture being identified, the landscape's historic signifi- Pests Salt air in coastal environments Subsidence 33For example, Monk's Mound in Illinois, the largest prehistoric Violent storms: earthen mound north of Mexico, and part of the Cahokia Mounds hurricane Historic Site, has recently suffered significant damage as a result tornado of rising internal moisture. Portions of the mound have slumped, SOURCE: Aloe of Technology Assessment, 1987. or fallen away.

r)"t k.., i 17

tionally significant landscapes; no comprehensive, centralized listing of significant American landscapes exists. Even the National Register of Historic Places can provide only a crude list of National Register properties that are related to landscape architecture. Significant landscapes are either not on the National Register or are classi- fied under other categories, such as districts or sites. Because they are split into several categories, it is extremely difficult to determine the total number of landscapes actually listed. Indeed, to be included on the National Register, landscapes must be nominated as districts, sites, or some other category. Some people feel that though this may cause some confusion to those seeking to nominate landscapes to the Register, adding new categories would cause greater problems. Others argue that preservation-thinking-has_, evolved and that including landscapes as a Na- tional Register category would accurately and appropriately reflect such a change in thinking. noryfo.r.7 A comprehensive national historic landscape survey would draw together the information we

$7, = now have on significant landscapes and identify a-, landscapes missed in previous, haphazard efforts. A national survey of designed historic landscapes totLatioe could be an especially important first step, be- Ifikai* it cause greater agreement exists among professionals on what constitutes a designed lands:ape. War= A survey of designed historic landscapes might , serve as a model for a much more comprehensive survey that includes other historic landscape types. *cies &Akin 0.5:Depart. If..§*,*(041 tiailc:SetS40, 1987,;p4 Such a survey was initiated by the Historic Pres- ervation Committee of the American Society of cance must be evaluated against criteria designed Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 1984. The Na- to ascertain its place in national, regional, or lo- tional Park Service has endorsed the survey and cal history. Significance may involve such ele- disseminated the survey form to State Historic ments as art, commerce, exploration/settlement, Preservation Officers (SHPOs). In order for the landscape architecture, or prehistoric culture (see survey to be consistent and carried out in a timely box A). Most nominations to the National Regis- manner, it will be necessary to apply such stand- ter are made by interested parties at the State or ards and models uniformly on a nationwide ba- local level. On the national level, the National sis at all levels of public and private preservation Register staff in the National Park Service decide efforts. The resultant information should be made the question of significance on the basis of Na- available through a central clearinghouse on a tional Register nominations. uniform database. Until recently, the Federal Government has ex- A survey of designed landscapes presents a log- pended little effort to identify and document na- ical place to start, but no significant progress is

7 4-2 7 4 0 87 2 2 3 18

likely to occur unless funding is dedicated to the technology-related preservation information project. State Historic Preservation Offices will within the Federal Government, such an in- have no ready means to tackle a survey of this stitutidn would provide needed assistance importance without new funding. In the mean- to State and local governments and to the time, the ASLA form provides a format to use, private sector. All agencies and private in- and its volunteer effort increases public and dividuals and groups with preservation prob- professional awareness of historic landscapes. lems would therefore have a central place within the Federal Government to look for ISSUE D:There is a critical need for a federally technical help. Conversely, techniques used supported facility for landscape preservation in these projects could then be centrally doc- technologies. umented and available for application to similar projects throughout the country, whether Most participants in OTA's assessment cited the they are funded by public or private sources. need for a new institution (or expansion of an existing institution's mandate) or center to foster the 2. National Center for Preservation Technol- research and development of advanced technology: Alternatively, .Congress could create a ogies, the training of professionals in their use, National Center for Preservation Technol- and the centralization and dissemination of ac- ogy, managed by a consortium of universi- curate technical information. Several museums ties and preservation organizations. Such an maintain first-rate analytical facilities for conserv- institution would be able to draw on a mul- ing artifacts, but no comparable facility exists for titude of different skills in several universi- conserving sites, structures, and landscapes. Most ties, and in many university departments. workshop participants agreed that a center for Like the Federal Center, it would develop preservation technology should be federally sup- and test new applications of technologies, ported, primarily because of the large stake the conduct training, and distribute information. Federal Government has in fostering and guid- However, it would be free to contract with ing excellence in preservation, but also to ensure agencies and with States and the private sec- that standards, guidelines, and technologies are tor to develop technologies of specific inter- uniformly understood and applied. est to them. Because it would also otherwise be free of constraints imposed by being As elaborated in chapter 7 of Technologies for housed within the Federal structure, such an Prehistoric and Historic Preservation, three struc- organization might be more innovative than tures are possible: a Federal laboratory. Though it would serve 1. Federal Center for Preservation Technology. as a resource for the Federal Government, Congress could mandate the establishment like the Federal Center outlined above, it of such a center within the Department of would also serve State and local needs. the Interior or some other Federal agency. 3. Preservation Technology Board: Addition- The Center would assist the transfer of tech- ally, Congress might wish to consider sup- nology from other areas into prehistoric and porting a Preservation Technology Board. historic preservation by developing new ap- Even if one of the two options for creating plications of existing technology, providing a Center for Preservation Technology were training for preservation professionals, -nd adopted, a Board composed of professionals serving asclearinghouse for disseminating from all parts of the preservation commu- information on preservation technologies. A nity would be needed to provide guidance Center should have a highly trained staff. It for a center, determine current needs for should also have the facilities for develop- technology in prehistoric and historic pres- ing technologies relevant to all phases of the ervation, develop standards for the applica- preservation process for prehistoric and tion of new technologies, and assist in dis- historic sites, structures, and landscapes. seminating information. The professional In addition to serving as the focal point for societies concerned with archaeology, his-

2D 19

tory, historic structures, and historic land- conservation of a landscape, particularly because scapes are likely to be highly supportive of landscapes change so rapidly as a result of plant such a Board. growth or deterioration. Managing the maintenance of a landscape requires continuous atten- In December 1986, representatives from sev- tion to its specific needs. Quality and appropri- eral national preservation organizations, includ- ateness of maintenance is as important as its ing the Society for American Archaeology, the regularity.35 A variety of technologies, including Society for Archaeological Sciences, the National microcomputer-based maintenance management Trust for Historic Preservation, the National Co- systems, are available to improve such practices ordinating Committee for the Promotion of His- and make them more cost-effective. tory, and the National Council on Public History, met informally to discuss the need for a center The designers and builders of many historic for preservation technology and the potential for landscapes, such as parks, and gardens of historic achieving it. They formed the Coalition for Ap- houses, expected that these landscapes would be plied Preservation Technology (CAPT), which is maintained by adequate numbers of skilled per- devoted to exploring the potential of such an in- sonnel. Today, especially when so many historic stitution and "to develop an organizational frame- properties are owned and maintained by public work to facilitate the development, application agencies, gardeners and other maintenance per- and transfer of advanced technology in preser- sonnel may not have adequate experience or vation."34 CAPT held its first organizational meet- training. Likewise, contracting stipulations-tha ing in Washington, DC on February 27, 1987 at limit governmental agencies without in-house ex- the National Trust for Historic Preservation. It has pertise to accepting the services of lowest bid formed committees toinvestigatedifferent competitors often result in substandard grounds - aspects of a center (table 6). keeping and maintenance practices. If a Center for Preservation Technology were Because maintenance tends to be labor-intens- established, landscape preservation concerns ive, it is important to find ways to reduce the would constitute part of the center's workload. amount of labor required. For example, Sleepy The section, Federal Policy Toward Landscape Hollow Restorations, in New York State, has re- Preservation, discusses several landscape pres- duced its total labor force by developing a pro- ervation problems such a center might pursue. gram of maintenance that employs two levels of skills. For the basic grounds, the organization uses ISSUE E:Systematic and long-term maintenance grounds maintenance employees with only mod- isone of the most effective methods of slow- erate training and skills. It employs college grad- ing deterioration from human and natural uates for maintaining the historic gardens. Al- agencies. though the latter command higher salaries, their higher skill and professional interest in historic Systematic preventive maintenance and up- gardens more than repays the extra investment. keep can prevent minor problems from becom- In the winter, when maintenance needs are less ing major worries. It is absolutely crucial to the demanding, these workers carry out research projects that they can apply to improving the "Coalition for Advanced Preservation Technology "Dear Col- league" letter, Jan. 19, 1987. historic gardens (e:g., searching out the original garden plantings and determining modern sources). Because such workers generally possess higher Table 6.Working Groups of the Coalition for Applied Preservation Technology

Working Group on Research and Development 3,Cyclical Maintenance for Historic Buildings, J. Henry Cham- Working Group en Applications Issues bers, AIA, Interagency Historic Architectural Services Program, Of- Working Group on Public Education and Involvement fice of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Serv- Working Group on Technology Transfer Issues ice, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1976. Although this reference Working Group on Technology Clearinghouse is directed toward historic buildings, many of its general recom- SOURCE: Coalition for Applied Preservation Technology. mendations are appropriate for landscapes.

30 20

communications skills, they are also more effec- ISSUE F: Greater public understanding of rea- tive in articulating required maintenance tasks to sons to preserve historic landscapes is needed outside contractors who trim the large trees and to build popular support for the identifica- do other specialized work. tion and preservation of historic landscapes. Maintenance standards and plans must be de- Public officials and other citizens are often un- veloped and carried out by managers profession- aware of the value and significance of historic ally trained in tending historic properties. The in- landscapes. Traditionally, historic preservationists creased use of personal computers and specially have worked from the grassroots by building lo- designed software could be extremely helpful in cal constituencies that have identified the value improving the quality and quantity of landscape of a given structure or archaeological site and maintenance. For example, a computerized man- sought State or National help in preserving it. agement plan for a landscape would allow land- However, in landscapes, the local groups who scape managers to factor in a number of tasks might identify landscape value often do not ex- on a cyclical basis. Such a plan could allow for ist, in part because they lack adequate informa- the fact that each species of tree, shrub, and plant tion about why certain landscapes might be im- requires different treatments on different sched- portant to our cultural history. Often those who ules. Structures such as bridges, pavilions, and are most familiar with a landscape are least aware interpretive centers require yet a different set of of its value. maintenance- strategies. 'Maintenance Manage- In the case of designed historic landscapes, ment systems allow computation of needed labor resources based on assumptions about main- most people are unaware that they were designed, or what goes into a design, and why it tenance standards and landscape systems, and may be important to maintain the design's in- provide the capacity to match up such needs with tegrity. Although this is true for such areas as Cen- available labor. They also enable managers to de- tral Park, prehistoric designed landscapes may be velop a schedule for maintenance that takes into account the level of education and skills of the even more subtle to the modern eye. For example, it may not be immediately obvious to the cas- maintenance personnel. A detailed maintenance ual observer that the prehistoric designers and plan could also assist in justifying training in skills that are needed but not available from current builders of the Serpent Mound in south central staff. Ohio chose a particularly dramatic site for the placement of their design.37 The serpent effigy is Expert systems,36 which have been developed located on a northerly slope between the junc- to aid decision making in practical tasks in other tion of two local creeks. The setting not only dis- fields, such as diagnosing diseases, repairing plays the design skill of the artisans and builders, mechanical systems, or analyzing molecular it allows the spectator to view the construct in structure, could also be developed for landscape its entirety from several different vantage points. management. Such systems might be especially Although we can only speculate about their rea- effective in developing information and decision- sons for choosing this particular site, it was well making for certain maintenance tasks, especially selected for the particular design its ancient those that call for highly specific, readily describ- builders wished to execute there (see p. 7). able techniques, but they should not be considered a substitute for training in the application Historic .Inacular landscapes may be ap- of the technologies. preciated the least by the local people who live and work in it. For example, farmers within a rural

16See U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Informa- ""In 1846, the snake's body was more than 1.5 meters high and tion Technology. R&D Critical Trends and Issues, OTA-CIT-268 9 meters wide, but erosion and cultivation have reduced these (Washington; DC. U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1985), dimensions to about 1.2 by 6 meters." William N. Morgan, Pre- also Technologies for Prehistoric and historic Preservation, "Ch. historic Architecture in the Eastern United States (Cambridge, MA. 5: Preservation Information." MIT Press, 1980), p. 23.

/ 3_i. 21 historic district may be so familiar with theirsur- ever, the people of Jefferson County realized that roundings that they fail to recognize their spe- the houses had little to do with the significance cial characteristics. The distinctive urban historic of the area. Instead, they recognized the agricul- landscapes represented by the northeastern mill tural patterns, the associations of the families, the towns are thought by some local residents merely stonework, the fences, and other components as to represent outmoded industry. Yet such areas significant, integral elements of the whole land- played an important part in the industrialization scape. The local people, working through their of the United States and reflect late 19th century certified local government" (CLG), did the re- values and conditions. In some cities theseareas search necessary to expand the scale of the nomi- have served as a focal point for the revitalization nation to the 600-acre Tyler Settlement Rural of the city.38 Historic District. This was the first fully documented rural historic landscape in Kentucky. Where local support for preserving landscape values has developed, it has often acted to en- As citizens become more aware of the influ- large the scope of historic districts. For example, ence of historic landscapes in their lives and land- in one case in Jefferson County, Kentucky, the scapes' importance to the history of the Nation, Tyler Settlement, a site consisting of a few farm local nominations to the National Register of houses and auxiliary buildings, was nominated Historic Places are likely to increase in number to the National Register of Historic Places. How- and scope. 39A certified local government is one that is certified to receive funding from the Historic Preservation Fund, administered on the 38Procter and Matuszeski, op. cit. State level by the State Historic Preservation Office.

32 TECHNOLOGY AND LANDSCAPE IDENTIFICATION

Two fundamental issues pertaining to historic of information are not exclusive, but may build landscapes need to be addressed by investiga- upon one another. tors and managers: what was the landscape like during its prehistoric or historic period, and what Documentary and Nondocumentary is it like in the present? The answers are found Sources in two sometimes quite different sources: information derived from documentary sources and The investigation of various kinds of documen- information derived from the landscape itself.40 tary sourcesmanuscript materials, knowledge- As historian Thomas J. Schlereth has suggested able inhabitants, business and family records, in a study of the landscape along U.S. Route 40 local histories, novels, quilts, folksongs, news- in Indiana, papers, poems, photographs, paintings, drawings, diaries, letters, maps, advertisements, catalogs, To know U.S. 40, and by inference any Amer- ican "roadscape", one must embark on an in- films, surveyors' field notes and maps, or even tellectual and geographical odyssey. That is to types of plantswill help the investigator better say, one must confront the "roadscape" directly, understand what he or she sees in surveying a by walking or riding over it as well as by explor- site:* As one landscape historian has coming it vicariovsly-in reading what others have writ- mented: ten, photographed, mapped, sung or exhibited of it. One needs to do both reading and roam- We need to know the persons involvedde- ing.. .4' signers, clients, users; the means at handfinan- cial resources as well as natural ones, available Various technologies can help make reading technology, materials and labor supply; the de- and roaming more cost-effective and time ef- sign concepts and criteria that were at work as ficient. the landscape took form, whether the designer was conscious of them or not; and finally the Identifying and inventorying historic landscapes chronology of events that either enhanced or dis- requires four basic steps: rupted the realization of the original scheme.43 1. identifying and accessing records of the A historical survey is. the first step in beginning known resources; to read a historic rural district. Such a survey in- 2. identifying previously unidentified historic cludes information about broad settlement pat- landscapes and locating archival records, terns of the region, including important people; documents, and nondocumentary evidence regional demography of both the past and the concerning them; present; social, political, economic and cultural 3. recording, storing, and augmenting the trends, forces, and patterns. Knowri anthropolog- newly acquired data; and ical, historical, folkloric, and archaeological data 4. detailed ground survey and documentation. also should be incorporated in a survey. This in- Technologies that simplify and enhance the. formation forms the historical context within identification and documentation of landscapes which to evaluate the natural as well as cultural range from such mundane, basic techniques as resources of the district (table 7).44 .the use-of-volunteers wielding pencil and paper to sophisticated computer systems that can assimilate, manipulate, and store graphical information and generate complicated maps of a region. The following examples illustrate this range. In general, the various technologies and sources 42Delores Hayden and Peter Morris, "The Quiltmaker's Land- scape," Landscape 25, No. 3, 1981. "Catherine M. Howett, "Landscape Research: Keeping Faith With Today and Tomorrow," The Yearbook of Landscape Architecture: 40Melnick, op. cit., 1984, p. 8. Historic Preservation (New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, ',Thomas J. Schlereth, US 40: A Roadscape of the American Ex- 1983), p. 7. perience (Indianapolis, IN: Indiana Historical Society, 1985), p. 61. "Melnick, op. cit., 1984, p. 16.

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Table) 7.The Material Components of the Rural cultural features, such as growth patterns, place Historic Landscape names, Indian trails, roads, railroads, structures, Overall patterns of landscape spatial organization and fence lines. In addition to displaying such fea- Landuse: catecories and activities tures, contemporary maps, often made from aer- Response to natural features Circulation networks ial photographs or images sensed from spacecraft, Boundary demarcations may reflect the topography of a region or its nat- Vegetation related to land use, such as hedge-rows, orchards, or ornamental plantings ural resources and geology. This additional in- Cluster arrangement formation can be particularly useful for discov- Structure: type, function, materials, construction ering and analyzing historic landscapes. Smallscale elements, such as cattle chutes, water troughs, or isolated grave markers Because early mapmaking methods often in- Historical views and other perceptual qualities troduced major systematic errors into maps, and souRce Robert z Melnick, Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic Districts in the National Park System (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the interi tended to treat the earth's surface as if it were or, National Park Service Park Historic Architecture Division, 1984). a plane, extracting useful historic information Archival Research from very early maps can often be extremely difficult. However, methods developed by histori- Archival research and interviewing (oral history) cal cartographers for determining the planomet- are important first steps in identifying historic ric accuracy of early maps can be applied to them sites, including landscapes. Preliminary research to correct their systematic errors. The corrected that is done with care and imagination can save version can then be used to locate historic fea- time and money as well as provide a focus for tures on current maps or in the field.46 field work and a broad basis for establishing A comparative sequence of maps from differ- historic significance. Developments in archival ent time periods can reveal cultural patterns and technology, such as optical disk storage and re- how the cultural components of an area change trieval, and computerized databases can make over time.47 Property survey maps and records, the records search more efficient and even more which are generally stored in county archives, as cost-effective than it is now.45 Such research may benefit from the assistance of professional well as old tax records are also of use in interpreting land use patterns. Historic aerial photo- historians who have been trained in archival graphs (see below) can also be used like maps methods. to compare land use patterns over time. The technical questions involved with this type of historical research specifically concern meth- Historic Photographs ods of access to information in the institutions that Historic photographs, including aerial photo- house it, and ways of arranging data to make graphs, are an excellent source of landscape in- them usable for preliminary analysis and in de- formation and invaluable tools of identification veloping a research plan. Interviewing depends and interpretation. Not only do they often cap- on the technologies for tape recording and ar- ture a small slice of life in a landscape by show- chiving electronic storage media, if oral history ing people doing things, they show historic vege- materials are to be retained. It also depends on knowledge of good interviewing techniques. tation and structures, and may serve to document the changes in a landscape over time. Care and Maps sophistication should be used in reading historic photographs because, like maps and other rec- A variety of historic and contemporary maps ords, they are subject to a variety of distortions. can be used to discover historic landscapes and other cultural features, such as archaeological sites and historic structures. Historic maps primar- 46Thomas E. Davidson, "Computer-Correcting Historical Maps ily depict natural and political boundaries and for Archaeological Use," Maryland Historical Trust, manuscript, n.d. 9.m. Hooke and R.J.P. Kain, Historical Change in the Physical 45Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation, "Ch. 5. Environment. A Guide to Sources and TechrugLes (London. But- Preservation Information." terworth Scientific, 1982). 24

For example, "landscape photographs 48 may shows the house covered with vines.52 A plan of present views selected according to aesthetic the same year fails to indicate the vines at all. standards applicable to the era in which they Thus, photographs and plans provided different were taken.49 information, and both are needed to present the total picture. Photographs present the historian with a visual record of a "moment in time" stopped indefinite- Historic photographs are available from State ly for his inspection. As such, it provides a direct and local archives, museums, private collections, record of how things and people looked, in a way antique dealers, and individual families. Aerial that endless accounts of written records could photographs are of particular importance, as they never achieve.so can show broad-scale patterns of land use and For example, photographs from the late 19th disturbance (see section below on remote and early 20th century document how the his- sensing.) toric center of Annapolis, MD, has changed in Historic photographs can be especially valu- the intervening years. They illustrate that certain able in showing what plantings and landscape areas of the city have experienced surprisingly features existed around a historic structure whose little change over the years, while others have gardens were not formally designed and thus for beer, altered to the point that they would be to- which no plans are available. For example, pho- tally unrecognizable today to a visitor from the tographs taken of the Frederick Douglass Home, pasts, Because photographs of landscapes are Cedar Hill, while Douglass lived there showed _ often byproducts of other interests of the photog- -shade and-cedartreesand-plantings-around-out- rapher, they also show aspects of landscapes that buildings, as well as the location and materials no one at the time thought were important to of such features as fences and a grape arbor. point out. These photographs enabled the "re-creation" of In historic designed landscapes, historic pho- a plan of how the grounds appeared when tographs may reveal vegetation and important Douglass lived there. References in correspon- elements of the landscape that do not appear in dence and receipts of items purchased refine our the original landscape drawings, either because knowledge of the kinds of plantings and construc- the owner altered the plan, or because the avail- tion materials used.53 able plans do not reveal the overall setting. Pho- tographs are especially important for disclosing Historic Drawings and Plans the surroundings of a formal garden. Among For historic gardens, parks, and other designed other things, such evidence ma- allow historians landscapes, the original plans or drawings of the to discover the placement of an original garden landscape, if they exist, are of great importance now destroyed or buried. in identifying and eventually restoring and pre- Photographs may also provide valuable infor- serving the designed landscape. These docu- mation about design intent. One example is a ments may be stored in various specialized 1904 photograph of Olmsted's home, Fairsted archives, such as the Warren H. Manning Col- (now Olmsted National Historic Site), which lectionat Iowa StateUniversity,54 and the Olmsted archives at the Frederick Law Olmstead National Historic Site, or more generalized archives such as the Library of Congress and Na- 45John Szarkowski, American Landscapes: Photographs From the Collection of the Museum of Modern Art (New York: Museum of tional Archives and Records Administration. Modern Art, 1981). 49John R. Stilgoe, "Popular Photography, Scenery Values, and Visual Assessment," landscape Journal, vol. 3, No. 2, 1984, pp. Shary Page Berg, personal communication, 1987. 111-121. 53Darwina Neal, National Park Service, personal communication, soArthur C. Townsend, "Interpreting the Historical Photograph," 1987. in Marion E. Warren and Mary Elizabeth Warren, The Train's Done "William J. Grundmann, Warren H. Manning Collection," De- Been and Gone (Boston, MA. David R. Godine, 1976), p. 13. partment of Landscape Architecture, College of Design, Iowa State 51Warren and Warren, op. cit., 1976. University, 1985.

35' <-; 25

Plans and drawings done by professional de- Additional Documentary Eviden. signers or design firms are often retained in the firm's archives if the firm still exists. More often, Because landscapes change so rapir, design however, the landscape architects worked alone intent is even more important, and mort. difficult, or had few employees, so that the office closed to establish. Therefore, correspondence, or de- when they ceased to practice. Files from such an sign statements may provide important clues to office may have been passed on to another firm, understanding a landscape. Newspapers,manu- donated to State or local historic societies, or scripts, family records, personal correspondence, given to universities, especially those with schools local written folklore, even postcards,57may pro- of landscape architecture. In other cases, records vide useful information concerning landscapes of projects may have been given to the clients and the public's attitudes toward them. who commissioned them. Many such plansare Landscapes can also be captured and studied simply destroyed. in media that may not immediatelycome to In many cases, architectural and landscape ar- mind. For example, American music frequently chitectural plans were generally intended for has expressed the grandeur and specificity of the short-term use and little or no thought was given way the landscape looks and sounds. Such music to the possibility that they might later be placed demonstrates how people relate to and feel about in an archive. As a result, plans and drawings the land. In fine-art expression, the sounds of were not always done on durable paper or prop- landscapes create the Pennsylvania countryside erly stored. New conservation andcopy technol- in Aaron Coplaild's Appalachian Spring and west- -ogies-are.neede&Computer technology for copy- ern vistas in Ferde Grofe's Grand Canyon Suite. ing drawings, digitizing the information they The humorous folksong "Cumberland Gap" contain, and reproducing them is already avail- details some of the problems the mountainous able." landscape created for travellers. John Denver's Until recently, there has been no central list- "Country Roads" waxes with nostalgia, but ing of such records. The newly established Cat- evokes the West Virginia mountain landscape left alog of Landscape Records in the United States behind. Although Steve Goodman's song, "The project (box B) is an attempt to remedy this. Few City of New Orleans," details the atmosphere of collections that do exist are cataloged in a sys- the inside rather than outside "trainscapes", the tematic way, making access and retrieval particu- place names alone put the trip and thesense of larly difficult. For example, the collection of loss for a sort or transportation anda crucial piece records of the Olmsted firm, which NPS acquired of Am ican history into the context ofpast and in 1980 as part of the Olmsted National Historic present." The popular song "Route 66" describes Site, is one of the few collections of landscape a "roadscape" familiar to drivers before the ad- vent of Interstate 40. architectural records under the care ofa curator. It includes over 100,000 individual plans. Al- Even historic movies can be sources of infor- though they are generally organized according mation about landscapes and how they areper- to design project, many have been misfiled over ceived. Both documentaries and artistic movies the years; no comprehensive inventory exists." provide images of the landscape and how they The lack of specific inventory makes it difficult were used.59 The silent movies of the early part for those carrying out a general inventory toan- swer such questions as: what plans exist for a particular property? or what projects did a particu- "Hilary Lamber Renwick and Susan C. .ter, "Wish You Were lar member of the firm work on? Here: Map Postcards and Images of Place," Landscape, vol. 27, No. 1, 1983, pp. 30.38. For railroad landscapes, see John R. Stilgoe, "The Railroad Beau- "See OTA, Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preserva- tiful: Landscape Architecture and the Railroad Gardening Move- tion, op. cit., "Ch. 5: Preservation Information," for additional dis- ment, 1867-19307 Landscape journal, vol. 1, No. 2, 1982, pp. cussion of the conservation problem. 57.65. 56Shary Page Berg, "Rescuing Fairsted," Landscape Architecture s9Gena Crandell, "Moving Pictures," Landscape Archnecture, No- 77, 1987, pp. 83-85. vember 1985. 26

Vegetation.Ecologists, folklorists, forest and scfpe * 'etvids in the agricultural historians, cultural and historical geographers, and landscape architects have all done rain at- important work in interpreting landscape vege- Ambarked tation patterns. However, the British "history on VOtilteirit the ground movement" is far ahead of American historians in terms of reading the landscape for nd, clues to historical events, as is the German tra- for 3 dition of Volksbotanik scholarship.61 The kinds and patterns of vegetation can reflect re= _ a design planned by someone who understands the relationships between light and shade, mass and clearings, plantings and structuresa famous landscape architect on one hand, a committed local gardener in a frontier wilderness on another, though their processes and patterns may be very in- different. Plants reveal patterns of settlement and use, protection of property, and environmental 11*-- and aesthetic improvement in a landscape. Plant- *tit* :Or ings may also be used to commemorate impor- ndsca tant life events such as marriage, birth of children, or death.62-frace plantings such as daffodils, ex- 01. Pgeig- otic flowering shrubs, or fruit trees can denote r,-Of abandoned homesteads. Peach trees and lilac bushes were often planted around homes in the Cuyahoga Valley of Ohio. In the Southwest, four n re- Arehhie wing saltbush(Atriplex canescens)and wolfberry S (Solanumjamesii), often indicate the presence of Pittlii5;irdet ruined Pueblo prehistoric dwellings. Local folklore often reveals the importance of iciiii$Cii.brtifijiyr(eily news.' 0001 efrO4if.tharge.- certain places to the local populace. Such information cari often only be obtained by interview- 5,00CF4-WaXi-Hil(;4ronic,NY. ing local residents.

Gathering and Analyzing Site of this century provide an especially valuable rec- Information ord of the landscapes of California and New York. The survey of landscapes is a precursor to their AboveGround Archaeology eventual analysis and evaluation as part of a re- Nondocumentary Evidence gion's historic record. A considerable amount of Place names, buildings, markers, vegetation, the information necessary for understanding the road size, infrastructure elements, and other history of an area is available in the survey records physical evidence contain important clues to the identification and analysis of landscapes.60 "Thomas ). Schlereth, Artifacts and the American Past (Nashville, TN: American Association for State and Local History, 1980), p. 147. 62For example, some North Carolina migrants brought "coffin" pines to the midwest to provide a soft wood for coffins. They were 60)ohn J. Stewart, 'Historic Landscapes and Gardens, American apparently sometimes planted in pairs, one for each partner. Association for State and Local History Technical Leaflet 80, H6 Thomas j. Schlereth, Artifacts and the American Past (Nashville, tory News 29, No. 11, November 1974. TN: American Association for State and Local History, 1980), 154. 27 alone. For example, the New Mexico Historic tional Landscape Survey Form," has the signal Landscape Survey has shown that merely exam- advantage that its use requires little special train- ining the various landscapes defined by the origi- ing beyond a knowledge of landscape values and nal town centers of the cities of New Mexicoena- the significance categories of the National Reg- bles the observer to glean important clues about ister. However, it is difficult to obtain uniform re- the values of the individuals who designed them sults from the efforts of many different volunteers, and settled there.63 with varying knowledge, experience, and values, The following sections outline some of the tech- from many different regions of the United States. niques, methods, and equipment that can assist Volunteer efforts are generally most successful landscapes survey. when the volunteers have received appropriate training from historic preservation professionals, Volunteer Survey where ongoing professional guidance is available to ensure consistency, and where the project is This technique is commonly used for historic small or highly focused. preservation, especially in cases where funding for general surveys is often highly limited, and Measured Drawings where local lay knowledge of historic sites is high. The use of volunteers, using printed forms such Documentation of a landscape after it has been as the ASLA Designed Historic Landscapes Na- identified as having historic significance, is an important part of the overall survey process. "Baker H. Morrow, "Old Landscapes, New Ideas: New Mex- ico's Historic Landscape Architecture, New Mexico Architecture, "OTA, Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preservation, SeptembeOctober 1985. op. cit., app. F.

V OP

Photo credit: National Park Service, Historic American Buildings Survey Cascade area, Meridian Hill Park, Washington, DC 28

Measured drawings, employing techniques bor- mented by the State Historic Preservation Office rowed from the field of structural architecture, as part of its survey of New Mexico landscapes." are an excellent means of thoroughly documenting a landscape. University Landscape Architecture Programs In 1985, the Historic American Building Sur- vey (HABS) undertook a measured drawings Landscape architecture schools provide an im- project at Meridian Hill Park, Washington, DC, portant potential soiree of expertise and com- which could serve as a useful model for such mitment to documenting significant historic land- documentation. Meridian Hill Park designed and scapes. The University of Virginia's Architectural constructed from 1912 to 1936, was inspired by History Program offers a class in measured draw- French and Italian Renaissance landscape de- ing, which has provided HABS documentation signs." for hundreds of Virginia historic buildings over the years.69 University of Delaware students have At Meridian Hin, the documentation began carried out much of the basic survey for the State with a complete set of architectural base maps. of Delaware in a similar drawing program. Five large HABS sheets linked by pinbar match- lines were covered by matching overlays with Computers "graphic representations" of trees, shrubs, and vines, as well as tree diameters and canopy sizes. The computer is one of the most powerful too! Though the drawings display where elements of available for identifying, analyzing, and evaluat- the landscape are located, they are not able to ing historic landscapes. When used with other capture the essential landscape spatial qualities technologies, such as optical disks, graphics de- of Meridian Hill Park. Therefore, the recorders sign and display software, or computerized data- used photography to supplement the base maps bases, the computer can dramatically increase the and provide a sense of the landscape. A complete preservation community's access to information set of standard 4x5 inch HABS photographs was and its ability to exploit information effectively. taken of the whole park. Five views, chosen for Computer Aided Design (CAD).CAD soft- their historic importance for design and extent ware,70 when used with the appropriate micro- of change, were printed at a large Scale onto computer, makes it possible to draw and store HABS Mylar. Some of the areas were then recon- a given landscape and to manipulate and alter structed on Mylar overlays, based on historic pho- the drawing later without having to redraw un- tographs and research. In addition, some re- altered elements. Various elements of the land- sources of particular architectural interest were scape, such as trees, fences, shrubs, other plant- detailed in a standard HABS format.66 ings, and structures, can also be independently The HABS survey of Texas missions67 illustrates generated and stored in memory for placement the recording of buildings that create spaces, such in appropriate parts of the landscape. Such soft- as courtyards or patios, which, though they are ware allows one to remove elements of the cur- defined by the buildings, are historic landscapes rent landscape, such as contemporary structures in their own right. New Mexican plazas, court- or newer plantings, and render it both as it ap- yards, and courthouse squares have been docu- peared in the historic era in which it was designed, and as it has evolved. In restoring an

"Because structural arhitectural elements, such as retaining "State of New Mexico,First Annual Keport, Registry of Historic walls, steps, cascades, and foulins play a dominant role in the Landscapes," op. cit. park's design, HABS recorded Antietam National Battlefield, a land "Orlando Ridout b, Maryland Historical Society, personal com- scape with more natural components, in order to expand its guide- munication, 1987. lines for the documentation of landscapes in 1986. '°One example is Landcadd, which operates with AutoCAD, a "Paul Dolinsky, "Landscape Recording. Expanding the Tradi generalized computer drafting and design software package. See tion," CRM Bulletin, vol. 9, June 1986, pp. 16.17. E. Bruce MacDougall, Microcomputers in Landscape Architecture "Kenneth L. Anderson, "Mission Project Brings Praise from Park (New York, NY. Elsevier, 1983) for a general discussion of and Region," CRM Bulletin, vol. 9, No. 3, June 1986, pp 11 15. microcomputers for treating landscape design and management.

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historic landscape, these design programs make the use of accurate measured drawings is given it possible to predict the general "look" of a land- relatively low priority in the preservation of struc- scape after several years. High-quality plotters can tures and landscapes. Yet, the use of architectural produce accurate drawings in a fraction of the photogrammetry is cost-effective, as such meth- the required to do them by hand. Such systems ods lead to a marked increase in accuracy and can also vastly improve the speed and reliability productivity over the labor-intensive require- of producing scaled drawings. ments for preparing measured drawings using Computer-Aided Survey.If possible, com- traditional methods depending on direct meas- urements. For this reason, developing countries puters should be used from the very beginning such as Indonesia, Peru, and Turkey now have of survey work, both to increase accuracy and their own photogrammetric services. to reduce overall labor. Inexpensive, small, portable (lap) computers now available make it pos- Video and optical disk technologies can both sible to enter data in the field, reducing the total be powerful tools for survey and identification amount of effort in carrying out a survey, and en- of landscapes. Video techniques have proved suring greater uniformity. Forms can be entered especially helpful in the survey of archaeologi- and stored in the computer ahead of time for data cal resources, and for rapid survey of city neigh- entry in the field. Additional notes arid other rele borhoods and historic structures.72 Optical disks vant information can also be entered and stored can be used to store video, movies, and photo- on the computer. Their relatively low price and graphs or drawings of cultural resources for rapid the availability of word processing and database retrieval and comparison.'; software make portable computers extremely at- -tractive-for-such-work. Landscape-Databases Even if, for reasons of cost or other considera- Computerized databases of various kinds are tions, it proves infeasible to take computers into crucial to the efficient use of information. As com- the field, it is possible to design survey forms for puters have become increasingly more capable easy field recording of data and subsequent en- and cheaper to acquire, individuals and small in- try into a computer database. stitutions have begun to develop their own powerful databases, and to communicate, by Photography and Videogrammetry telephone and modem, with other databases around the world. Photography and videogrammetry are powerful methods for documenting a variety of historic At present, no national database of historic resources, including landscapes. Stereophoto- landscapes exists, either in the form of a land- gram metric methods that use a photo-theodolite scapes inventory or a list of records collections. enable detailed landscape documentation in An important first step in developing a national three dimensions." Advances in this technology database will be to create a database listing loca- that depend heavily on digital computer appli- tions and general contents of landscape records cations, rather than precision optics to achieve and collections throughout the cou -,try. A sec- accuracy, promise to make documentation of ond step would be to establish a uniform data- material cultural resources much cheaper and ,or an inventory of historic landscapes, using more capable. a standard survey form. State and local databases are highly incomplete and lack information on Architectural photogrammetry has not been de- location of records and landscapes. In most cases, veloped in the United States at a level comparable to that found in countries such as Austria, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, and "Andrew Lippman, -Movie-Maps. An Application of the Opti- in other European countries. In the United States, cal b ideodisc to Computer Graphics, Proceedings of S1GGRAPH '80: Seventh Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and In teractive Techniques, Seattle, WA, July 14-18, 1980. "07A, Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Presenation, 'IOTA, Technologies for Prelusturic and Historic Preservation, op. cit., pp. 52-54. op. cit., ch. 5.

40 the surveys that might support a database have The Library of Congress.Its National Union not been done. A national listing would signifi- Index to Architectural Records, which is only cantly assist the identification of historic and pre- available at the Library, contains some informa- historic landscapes. The following databases con- tion about landscapes. This database can be ac- tain some information about historic landscapes. cessed by the name of the designer, architectural firm, partner, name or geographic location of a building or structure, and location of the repository of information. it cannot be searched by landscape type. The National Park Service.The National Reg- ister Information System, maintained by the Na- tional Register of Historic Places, contains information on over 45,000 historicstructures,

This series of aerial photographs, taken in 1938, 1951, and 1985 illustrate the use of aerial photography in documenting the gradual deterioration of prehistoric Indian mounds as a result of intensive periodic plowing.

SOURCE: John Edward Blank, "An Aerial Photogrammetrical Analysts of the Hopeton National Historic Landmark, Ross County, Ohio." Report prepared for Archaeological Services Department, Ohio Historic Preservation Office, December 1986.

1938

1951 1985 objects, and sites in the United States, both listed curately." Those that provide a broad, overall and determined eligible for listing. (synoptic) view and record data in digital form for direct computer processing (e.g., multispec- In addition, NPS maintains a database of all the tral scanners on spacecraft or aircraft), will even- landscapes within the National Park System. The tually prove important for improving landscape Service is also employing interns to examine its discovery, identification, and evaluation. How- published documents for substantial references ever, for most applications today, aerial photo- to landscapes. This effort has yielded 200 items out of 6,000 publicazions to date. graphs are extremely valuable and much cheaper than data from multispectral scanners. Catalog of Landscape Records in America. Many of the older aerial photographs (from files This recently developed program, begun by the of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Soil Con- American Garden History Program at Wave Hill, Bronx, NY, will eventually result in a major cat- servation Service, housed in the Cartographic and Architectural Branch of the National Archives and alog of landscape information (see box B). Record Administration, for example) may provide Other Databases useful historical information on landscapes, but they have not been fully exploited. Aerial pho- A number of different private or university orga- tographs, which have been taken of most places nizations maintain specialized databases related in the United States many times since the early to landscapes. For example, landscape architect 1930s, provide a unique record of changes in the Robert Harvey of Iowa State University has de- landscape over time.78 Not only can such photos veloped a small database of his library of 700 serve to alert managers about impending changes books.74 By putting in the tables of contents, and or destruction of landscapes from natural or hu- using keywords in a search it is possible to gen- man causes, they can also point the way to un- etate a variety of bibliographies dealing with derstanding a variety of natural processes, such different topics. The State of New Mexico, which as erosion, or vegetation growth, that affect them. has completed the first phase of its historic land- However, such photographs have seen relatively scape survey, plans to place its entire list of his- little use by the landscape preservation com- toric landscapes on a database.75 munity.

Remote Sensing Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Remote sensing76 techniques, especially those These are computerized database systems in used from the perspective of aircraft ard space- which the data are explicitly spatial in nature and craft, hold great promise for the study of historic organization. A complete GIS includes both com- landscapes, because they are nondestructive and puter software and hardware. Such systems are capable of analyzing vast areas quickly and ac- designed to integrate, manipulate, and analyze statistical, demographic, cultural, and natural resources data. They also have the capability to print maps and reports containing a wide variety of information.

"Robert Harvey, personal communication, 1986. "See OTA, Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Preserva- "'State of New Mexico, "First Annual Report, Registry of Histor,c tion, op. cit., ch. 3, for a more complete exposition of remote sens- Landscapes," Historic Preservation Bureau, 1982, p. 7. ing as it applies to preservation requirements. See also Carole L '6In general terms, remote sensing is the art of obtaining infor- Crumley and William H. Marquardt, Regional Dynamics. A Land- mation about objects, areas, or phenomena through analyzing data scape History of Burgundy New York, NY, Academic Press, in gathered by devices placed at a distance from the subjects of study. press). This book analyzes the historical landscape of Burgan, /, Remote sensing may refer to sensing over short distances, as in med- France from an interdisciplinary perspective. ical or laboratory research applications using lasers, or over long '"fames I. Ebert, Eileen L. Camdli, and LuAnn Wandsnider, "Meas- distances as in environmental monitoring from spacecraft using ad- urement of Bank Erosion at Archaeological Sites on Middle Mis- vanced electro-optical instruments. Once the initial data are sensed, souri River Reservoirs Using Sequential Aerial l'hotograinis,pre- they must be analyzed and interpreted either visually or through sented at the 52d Annual Meeting of the Society for American sophisticated computer analysis. Archaeology, Toronto, May 9, 1987. 32

Originally, geographic information systems landscapes.* Army technicians, for example, can were developed for large mainframe computers show how the landscape looks at different times and used by Federal or State agencies for re- of the day or season. Although the Army uses source management analysis and planning. For such information for planning military exercises, example, the State of Mississippi has used its Mis- and other strictly military purposes, most of these sissippi Automated Resource Information System techniques could be transferred into the civilian (MARIS) to conduct studies on nuclear waste dis- realm. The Army Corps of Engineers has devel- posal and storage, Mississippi Delta ground water, oped a GIS called the Geographical Resources and statewide land cover." More recently, the Analysis Support System (GRASS), which can run proliferation of powerful microcomputers and on a minicomputer or microcomputer and has minicomputers has reduced the cost cf such sys- four major subsystems: tems and made it possible for smaller organizations to acquire them. 1. Grid Cell Analysis System (GRASS-GRID): Provides tools for overlaying, analyzing, and In preservation, GIS have been employed in displaying grid cell databases within an area. studies of historic settlement patterns. The Army, 2. Image Processing (GRASS-IMAGERY): Proc- for example, has used existing GIS technologies esses and interprets Landsat digital images to map vegetation, slopes, and archaeological and digitized aerial photographs. sites across a landscape.8° Its system can plot 3. Digitizing and Map Development (GRASS- every known site. MAPDEV): Converts printed maps into digital data for manipulation by other GRASS Geographic information systems can also be used for identifying, mapping, and displaying subsystems. 4. Polygon Display and Analysis: Produces maps for the plotter from the database.81

*John Knoerl, "Managing Historic Preservation Information," presented at the 52d Annual Meeting of the Society for American Ar- chaeology, Toronto, May 9, 1987. "9U.5. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Remote Sens- 81). Westervelt, W. Goran, and M. Shapiro, "Development and ing and the Private Sector. Issues for DiscussionA Technical Applications of GRASS. The Geographical Resources Analysis Sup- Memorandum, OTA-TM-ISC-20 (Springfield, VA. National Technical port System," in Bruce K. Opitz (ed.), Geographic Information Sys- Information Service, March 1984), app. C. tems in Government (Hampton, VA: A. Deepak Publishing, 1986), 80Constance Ramirez, U.S. Department of the Army, personal pp. 605-624. This book contains a -omprehensive review of the communication, 1986. many uses of G15 for land analysis and management. LANDSCAPES AND A CENTER FOR rncom &VAT ION TECH1110LOGY If an institution intended to focus on the study including existing maps and GIS, to investigate and development of technology for preservation a region in detail. The survey should include all problems. such as a Center for Preservation Tech- major structural elements and archaeological nology, is eventually established, part of its sites, as well as contemporary landscapes and agenda will be landscape preservation. Like the landscape uses. It would serve as a model for study and preservation of archaeological sites and identifying historic landscapes and showing how historic structures, landscape preservation re- their preservation and management might be in- quires the mutual support and interaction of tegrated with other uses of the landscape. experts in many disciplines. The center should The State of Maryland, because of its highly var- include specialists from several different disci- ied landscape and its experience with broad- plines, including but not limited to, agronomy, based surveys of historic structures, might prove botany, cultural geography, geography, horticul- an excellent place to conduct an intensive re- ture, landscape architecture, soil sciences, and gional survey. Box C outlines what such a sur- zoology. vey might entail. The following sections suggest some of the landscape problems a multidisciplinary center HOrticultural or Botanical might tackle. Technologies Intensive Regional Survey of Authentic restoration and conservation of Landscapes historic landscapes depends on the ability to identify, locate, and use plants appropriate to the his- No organization has made an intensive local torical period of interest. Landscape restorers and or regional landscape survey. Yet such a survey, managers need inventories of plants grown in a carried out in several well-defined small regions, region or area at different periods of history, and would have numerous benefits for preservation, sources from which those plants may be ob- as well as local and regional planning efforts. It tained. In turn, the restored landscapes them- could: selves can become an important repository for serve as a model for identifying historic land- .historic species and thereby assist the mainte- scapes in other regions; nance of biological diversity within the United demonstrate the use and value of GIS and States. Living history museums and historic farms other technologies in identifying and survey- may also provide the means to save historic plant ing, significant landscapes; stock for future generations. Organizations such assist landscape management and mainte- as Seed Savers and North American Fruit Explor- nance planning; ers also assist in this effort, and may be an im- assistnaturalresource inventory and portant source of seeds for historic plant vari- planning; eties.82 demonstrate the ability of GIS to map the The United States is losing important collections projected alterations in the landscape as a of historic plant materials. Yet we often are not result of a proposed change in land use pol- fully aware of which plants growing today in icies; and historic landscapes are authentic historic mate- assist in managing trade-offs with other uses rials. England has met such problems in part by of the landscapes. insisting that historic gardens and other historic In addition, an intensive regional survey would help educate preservationists in learning how to 82See OTA's background papers entitled Grassroots Conserva- identify, characterize, analyze, evaluate, and tion of Biological Diversity in the United States, Background Pa- manage landscapes. per #1, OTABP-F-38 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 1986); and Assessing Biological Diversity in the Such a survey should be multidisciplinary and United States: Data Considerations, Background Paper #2, OTA- BP-F-39 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March use all the available tools of landscape survey, 1986), for a discussion of biological diversity.

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Box C.Intensive Survey of Prehistoric and HistoricLandscape Resources in Maryland Since 1961, the Maryland-Historical Trust has conductedan organized, directed survey program to locate, identify, record, and protect significant culturalresources throughout the State. As the survey program has matured, the Trust has placed increasing emphasison intensive, comprehensive regional survey projects and on expanding its survey efforts to include thematicresource types. The State survey program now includes intensive architectural coverage for 20 of the 23 Marylandcounties, and archaeological management plans for four of the five major regions in the State. Thematic studies have included: 3-year survey of induStrial sites in Baltimore; survey and thematic National Register nominations for traditional sailing craftof the Chesapeake Bay; pilot study of agricultural buildings in the TidewaterRegion; and 3-year survey of Maryland's underwater archaeologicalresources. Concurrently, the Trust has undertakena concerted program to develop new research methods,computerized modeling, and remote sensing techniques, whichwill expand thcapabilities of the Trust's overall program and allow increased understanding of the historic landscape. Recentlythe Trust has completed the development of the Maryland ComprehensiveHistoric Preservation Plan, which will serveas a blue- print for Maryland's preservation planning and culturalresource management. These efforts have laid the groundwork foran intensive pilot study of Maryland historic landscapes. Such a study would allow a more comprehensive view of theState's cultural resources and promote links between traditional cultural resourcemanagement and enc::onmental planning and management. A ,tudy of historic landscapes should consider several majorcategories of resource type: Natural landforms that reflect significant events in theformation of the present landscape. Particu- lar emphasis should be placedon landforms and resource types that have directly affected prehistoric and historic settlement patterns. For example,an intensive landscapes study could: investigate the linkage between prehistoric settlementpatterns and access to lithic sources, environmental transition zones, and favorable soiltypes and landforms; and study shifting patterns of site selection in the historic period,contrasting early colonial preference for estuarine sites with later colonial and post-colonial preferencesfor river terrace sites also used in prehistoric times. Designed and cultural landscapes thatcan be direly linked to conscious efforts to manipulate landforms, plant materials, and the built environment. Thefollowing steps could be takci: analyze selected town squares, publicspaces, and urban park systems; study selected planned communities suchas Roland Park, Perryville, Greenbelt, Columbia; locate and evaluate individual sites with landscape significance,such as David Fairchild's "In the Woods," and the numerous projects by Olmsted and his firm. InCidental landscape features thatare the result of settlement patterns, agricultural practices, industrial development, transportation systems, andresource exploitation. It would: evaluate a variety of ways in which the railroads influencedsettlement patterns and industrial exploitation, possibly using the role of the B&O Railroad in the developmentof western Maryland for both industry and tourism, resulting intowns as varied as Mt. fiavage, and Mountain Lake Park; and explore other transportation developments, suchas the C&O Canal, the suburban street car lines serving Baltimore and Washington (including early black suburbs inPrince George's County, and the construction of key highways suchas U.S. Route 1, the Baltimore-Washington Expressway, and Interstate 270. 35

In order to allow comparison of the study of these categories, an intensive survey should be conducted in study areas that have distinctly different environments. In Maryland, it would be possible to select four such study areas: 1. an Eastern Shore region, to reflect rural agricultural development in the generally flat Chesapeake Tidewater; 2. Baltimore city, to reflect intensive urban development; 3. the Piedmont west of Baltimore, to allow comparison of an upland agricultural and small town environment with the Tidewater; and 4. the western Maryland valley and plateau, to reflect a mixture of agriculture and timber and mineral resource extraction, and transportation e:-ploitation in the Appalachians. After completion, such a pilot study should develop recommendations for the identification, survey, and evaluation of prehistoric and historic landscape features throughout the United States, as well as the State of Maryland. In addition, the study could also be used for the protection and management of significant landscape resources. In addition to providing information for effective management of these cultural resources, the results of the study could also be used to educate local residents about the historic importance of such resources. It may be appropriate to mount an exhibit such as the recent show, New Jersey Pinelands. Tradition and Environment, which featured exhibits that demonstrated how the inhabitants of the Pinelands have inter- acted with the land through history)

'Produced at the New Jersey State Museum, Trenton, NJ. SOURCE: Maryland Historical Trust. landscapes be replanted using historic species, opened The Thomas Jefferson Center for Historic even if it means that the landscape managers may Plants in 1987. The Thomaa Jefferson Center will have to defer certain plantings hecaust slant build and maintain a collection of historic plants; stock is unavailable at the time they wish to plant. sell plants, educate the public through publications, interpretive gardens, lectures, and confer- Although many species may still remain in pri- ences; and study and document the history of vate collections, and smaller commercial nurs- plants used in America.83 eries, there is inadequate knowledge of what exists, and little control over the disposition of such stock. A center for preservation technology could Clearinghouse for Landscape serve as a central clearinghouse for historical hor- Preservation Information ticultural and botanical information. If the cen- The preservation of historic cultural resources, ter also maintained a computer-accessible database containing such information, it could also including landscapes, depends substantially on increase the Nation's ability to restore, conserve, the use of historical records and technical information that exist in a variety of forms and are and maintain historic landscapes. stored and maintained in many different places. It may also be necessary to establish regional Dec isions concerning the restoration and main- arboreta designed specifically to save, nurture, and propagate historic species. Because of the regional nature of plant hardiness and adaptabil- 8, Many historic varieties have desirably. characteristics such as ity, such arboretums would have to be regional tiagrank.e. Cithur. rigor. ul uiSedSe reSiStdme, which may be needed in scope. Sleepy Hollow Restorations, in New n tuturt plant breeding The Center is also c_ulleding the species Corms from which modern strains have been developed, and choice York, has already started searching out and grow- North American plants, a group of special interest to Jefferson him- ing historic plants; Monticello, in Virginia, has ,c11 Monticello Promotional Brochure, 1987.

'I 7 36

tenance of historic landscapes are highly depen- excavation or restoration. At a broader level, dent on historical maps and landscape plans. The managers charged with stewardship of our cul- Library of Congress, The National Archives and tural resources must consider the various goals Records Administration, The National Park Serv- of preservation and choose appropriate technol- ice, The Smithsonian Institution, The National ogies accordingly. Is preservation for future re- Technical Information Service, and other Federal, search, for public examination and appreciation, State, and local agencies acquire and maintain or is it to satisfy certain legal requirements? These a wide variety of information on historic land- considerations will then affect the management scapes, including information on plant and tree of the landscapes and the expenditure of funds. varieties. Restoration of a designed landscape often in- Although other agencies are responsible for car- volves rehabilitation or restoration of existing ele- rying out research on archival technologies, the ments, for example, pruning and rejuvenation of staff of a center ought to be familiar with the latest trees and bushes, dredging of ponds, reconstruc- means of storing, maintaining, conserving, and tion of bridges and walks. It is frequently difficult disseminating information. In addition, the cen- to find workers who ace adequately trained to do ter should maintain a central database that lists such work to the standards required in historic the primary landscape databases around the settings. Many of these historic skills have been world. lost. A Center for Preservation Technology could work with other organizations, such as RESTORE, The preservation community also needs infor- in New York," to integrate historic skills, which mation on preservation technologies and sources are generally labor-intensive, with new technol- of expertise, delivered expeditiously. One of the ogies that could reduce the amount of labor re- most important needs related to technology is for quired. critically evaluated information on the conservation, restoration, and maintenance of historic For exi.mple, the increased use of personal landscapes. A centrally maintained technical computers and specially designed software could database could provide such information. Among be extremely helpful in improving the quality and other things, such a database could strengthen quantity of ma.ntenance planning and manage- communication among preservationprofes- ment. A computerized management plan for a sionals and their counterparts in natural science landscape would allow landscape managers to and engineering fields. Here again, it would also factor in a number of tasks on a cyclical basis. be important to create a centralized database that Each different species of tree, shrub, and plant, provides listings of specialized databases that as well as structures such as bridges, pavilions, might be held eisewhere. Such a database should and interpretive centers require a different indi- be made useful and accessible to developers, vidual treatment or maintenance strategy, but the planners, researchers, and others outside the computer can simplify the complexities of allow- professional preservation community. To be of ing for such differences. It allows computation greatest use, it should be made available "on- of needed labor resources based on assumptions line," and routinely updated. about maintenance standards and landscape systems, and provides the capacity to match up such Landscape Management and needs with available labor.Italso enables Maintenance Techniques managers to develop a schedule for maintenance that takes into account the level of education and Preservation and management decisions are in- skills of the maintenance personnel and could fluenced by two broad considerations. First, at help justify additional training or personnei, if the level of the site, structure, or landscape, cul- needed. tural resource professionals must generally de- 84RESTORE is a New York-based nonprofit organization that pro- cide how the landscape will be preserved, used, vides training for tradespeople in the restoration and maintenance and interpreted to the public before beginning of historic buildings.

4 `,s1 37

Finally, a center could investigate technologies certain historic landscape features, the use of tem- for such problems as reducing erosion and porary methods such as the emplacement of cer- stabilizing landscapes. Erosion, whether it occurs tain forms of woven fabric, the use of tire mat- from overflowing streams, or wave action, the tresses, or fencing, might be appropriate in some variation in water level of reservoirs, or surface locations until vegetation growth is resumed. flow over denuded slopes, is one of the most seri- ous natural threats to landscapes, as well as to Public Education archaeological sites. As has been noted else- where, "the methods available for archaeologi- One of the most important functions a Center cal site stabilization differ very little from those for Preservation Technology could have is the which have been used for stream bank mainte- translation of research results into information the nance and general erosion control."85 Little com- public can comprei-end and use. Although nearly parative research has been carried out on the use all of the effort of a center would be directed of such methods. The following materials and toward providing technological support for the methods, among others such as the use of sea- professional preservation community, many of walls, have been employed with varying success the techniques developed would be of general for site stabilization:86 interest and application. A center could include, as part of its publication program, a series that stone riprap, focused on methods of identifying, inventorying, concrete pavement, evaluating, conserving, and restoring landscapes. gunite, Many of these methods would be of consider- used-tire mattresses, able !nterest to those who manage contemporary groundcover planting, landscapes. driftwood facing, sandbags, For example, a videodisk that presented the res- woven fiberglass or woven excelsior minting, torat!on of a designed landscape, including dis- GEOWEB, cussions of design decisions, organization of soil-binding polymers, paths, shaded areas, historic reference materials, tall-grass meadows, and physical features, etc., could be of considerable vegetation around underwater sites. interest to the public and also teach people how to care for their own properties. Although many of the above methods would be unsuitable for the long-term preservation of Trae!ing museum exhibits, television documentaries, and interpretive packages for teachers 85Robert M. Thorne, 'Preservation is a Use.. . Experimental Ar- would serve to educate the public concerning chaeological Site Stabilization in the Tennessee Valley," Tennes- see Valley Authority Publications in Anthropology 40, 1985. preservation value,. and impart significant tech- 861b1d., U.S. National Park Service,Earthworks Management nical information concerning landscapes. Manual," Mid-Atlantic Regional Office (Philadelphia, PA: May 1987).

4 FEDERAL POLICY TOWARD LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION

The Federal Government is responsible forpro- historic and historic landscapes in their various viding leadership in preserving the Nation'spre- publications. For example, the Preservation Briefs historic and historic cultural resources. and Tech Notes, published by the NPS Preser- vation Assistance Division, now focus on the pres- The Role of the National Park Service ervation of historic structures. The subject matter of these and other publications could be The National Park Service serves as the lead expanded to include recommendations on pre- agency for technical preservation matters for the serving landscapes. NPS could also exercise Federal Government, and for State and local ef- leadership and enhance its own landscape pres- forts. In order to improve the preservation ofpre- ervation effort by upgrading and highlighting the historic and historic landscapes, it would benec- function of gardening and grounds maintenance essary for the National Park Service to focus more as a crucial resource management role in the consistent attention on landscape preservation in service. Finally, NPS could develop a self-study its management of cultural resources, and coordi- course similar to the one NPS developed for nate landscape policies and programs with other historic architecture.88 This course is directed at agencies. For example, although NPS hasa chief a range of job classifications, and depending on historian, a chief archaeologist, a chief curator, previous knowledge and interest the employee and a chief historical architect, it hasno chief could either update or increase his or her pres- landscape architect. To assist in meetingpre- ervation skills. historic and historic landscape preservation goals, the National Park Service has identified12 Uniform standards for landscape identification projects for standards and models. In focusing in- and preservation need to be developed. NPS creased attention to historic landscapes, NPS publications, National Register of Historic Places could also emphasize the role of technologiesin Bulletin 18, "How To Evaluate and Nominate De- preserving prehistoric and historic landscapes. signed Historic Landscapes," and the NPS Hand- book, "Cultural Landscapes: Rural Historic Dis- In addition, the National Park Service isnow tricts in tne National Park System,"89 will assist considering how to preserve its own historic land- the effort to develop standards for nomination to scapes; it could intensify those efforts by singling the National Register of Historic Places. However, out several landscapes to t.:?.rve as preservation technical standa.ds equivalent to those that have models for other agencies and for State and lo- been generated for the built environment are also cal efforts.87 In the past, NPS has directed rela- important and must be developed for landscapes. tively few of its resources toward landscapepreservation, compared to preservation of historic The National iiistoric Preservation Act structures or archaeological sites. It could redress part of this imbalance by directing a greater por- Although the National Historic Preservation Act tion of cultural resource funding toward land- contains no impediment to the identification and scape preservation. NPS managers need to be preservation of landscapes, neither does it spe- more aware of the value of preserving historic cifically mention them." Yet, most Federal agen- landscapes. cies that hold and manage historic properties also NPS could assist in this effort by makinga greater effort to include consideration of pre- "Hugh C. Miller, Lee H. Nelson, and Emogene A. Bevitt, "Skills Development Plans for Historical Architects in the National Park Service" (Washington, DC: National Park Service, May 1986); NPS gave a course entitled "Policies and Issues in Preservation of Historic. *U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies Landscapes," Fredericksburg, VA, April 1986. (or Prehistoric and Historic Preservation, OTA E-319 (Washington, "The. publication will soon be published in a revised tdition. DC U S Government Printing Office, September 1986),app. F. "For example, see Sec. .01 (a)(1)(A). ''The Secretary of the In- 87See for example, John Donahue, "Historic Landscaping," Na- tenor is authorized to expand cl, maintain a National Register of tional Park Service CRM Bulletin, vol. 9, No. 2, 1986, pp. 1,8, which Historic Places composed of oi.,..cts, sites, buildings, structures, mentions briefly both landscape design considerations and teLh and objects significant in American history, architecture, archaeol- nologies for reproducing historic trees. ogy, engineering, and culture."

38 39 manage prehistoric or historic landscapes. Not National Survey of Prehistoric and expressly naming historic landscapes as worthy Historic Landscapes of being identified and preserved allows the agencies to overlook landscape concerns in their pres- As noted previously, in 1984, with the support ervation programs. of NPS, the Historic Preservation Committee of the American Society of Landscape Architects Many have suggested that it may be appropri- (ASLA) began a national survey of designed ate to amend the National Historic Preservation historic landscapes. This project exemplifies the Act to include explicit reference to historic land- importance of the public/private partnership to scapes. Others have expressed concern that in- historic preservation. The survey is being con- cluding explicit reference to historic landscapes ducted through the ASLA, primarily by volunteers will open the act to inclusion of other, more spe- from many regions of the United States. The qual- cific historic categories, or will subject it to un- ity and completeness of the results therefore vary necessary and harmful experimentation. depending on the interest, degree of expertise, and available time of those volunteers. New Mex- Terminology ico has completed an initial comprehensive sur- The Federal Government could aid in the iden- vey. Massachusetts has inventoried its Olmsted tification and preservation of significant pre- Parks and has established an office that is respon- historic and historic landscapes by clarifying land- sible for preservation of historic landscapes. Most scape terminology in the National Register, other States have only just begun their surveys. improving interagency information flow concern- NPS could assume a stronger role in the suring historic landscapes, and focusing more atten- vey effort, in order to assure timely completion tion on landscape preservation. of the survey and to standardize the information As noted in Issue A, the lack of consistent ter- collected. Congressional oversight may be nec- minology constitutes a formidable barrier to iden- essary to assure completion of this important tifying and preserving significant historic landscapes. project. Ir al' effort to bring con,istency to landscape As noted in Issue C, too few U.S. landscapes prest'ation, the Historic Prescration Commit- have been inventoried to provide significant ex- tee of toe American Society :)f Landscape Ar- amples. An interdisciplinary team approach, in chitects has proposed landscape preservation te.- which -nth ropologists, archaeologists, architects, minology.91 TE:s, and other similar efforts, should cultural geographers, and historians work to- be examined carefully and consistent terminol- gether with landscape architects in conducting ogy developed and promulgated. However, such a broad-based survey of American landscapes, terminology should be clear and cypropriately could result in a dramatic increase in the quan- reflect the interests of a variety of disciplin,:s that t:'y and quality of documented historic land- investigate landscapes. In other words, it should scapes.92 not be biased toward the thinking of any one professional group or discipline. In order to assist the The proliferationof microcomputers and procedure of nominating significant prehistoric minicomputers may improve the information and historic landscapes to the Register, it may be flow among agencies. However, the lack of com- appropriate to include landscape termino:ogy in mon standards for rr :mance of databases the National Register categories as well as in among the agencies constitute a formidable bar- guidelines developed for evaluating and nominat- rier to achieving a national inventory of historic ing them. landscapes.93 Although the agencies are taking

92Clmsted Historic Landscape Preservation Program: Guidelines and Criteria for Implementation (Boston, MA: Commonwealth of Massachusetts Office of Environmental Affairs, April 1985). "Patricia O'Donnell, "Proposed Landscape Pre3erAiun Dell "OTA, Technologies for Prehistoric, and Historic Preservation, nitions," ASLA Committee on Historic Preservation, 1984. op. cit. ch. 5.

5 40 steps to coordinate databases, it is not clear how "encourage a compatible program for the successful such coordination will be. Such co- use of the Frederick Law Olmsted National ordination would greatly improve the efficiency Historic Site, Brookline, Massachusetts, as a of maintaining current information. center for research, fellowships, and related activities." Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act In the debate over H.R. 37 in the 99th Con- It is crucial to increase public awareness of the gress, some private owners of Olmsted proper- value of significant historic landscapes if they are ties expressed fear that passage of the Olmsted to be preserved. By focusing attention on the Act would have limited their ability to control dis- many landscape projects designed by Frederick position of these properties, and to develop them Law Olmsted and his professional successors,94 if desired.96 However, H.R. 37 contained no pro- passage of the Olmsted Heritage Landscapes Act visions limiting their right to do so. The bill pri- of 1987 (H.R. 17), an earlier versior of which was marily sought to inventory Olmsted properties. introduced in the 99th Congress,95 could materi- Nevertheless, opponents were concerned that ally aid the collection of information on all drawing attention to the historic nature of U.S.-designed historic landscapes. Among other Olmsted properties would strengthen the hand things, the bill directs the Secretary of the Interior: of preservationists in opposing future development. to direct the National Park Service, with the assistance of other Federal agencies, State Having passed the House in June 1985, the bill and local officials, and other interested par- was referred to the Senate, where it was amended ties, to prepare an inventory of all Olmsted and reported favorably by the Senate Commit- heritage landscapes consisting of "a listing tee on Energy and Natural Resources. Although the House accepted the Senate's amendments, of all Olmsted heritage landscapes...and a technical evaluation of all publicly owned the bill eventually failed to pass the Senate in the Olmsted heritage landscapes, and of all Olm- closing hours of the 99th Congress. H.R. 17, a5 sted heritage landscapes on or eligible for in- introduced, is equivalent to the pte.vious bill and clusion on the National Register of Historic contains the few amendments agreed to in the Places; 99th Congress for H.R. 37 (included in the 99th "in consultation with the Advisory Council Congress Senate versionS. 2091). It was referred onHistoricPreservation,[to]promul- to the Subcommittee on National Parks and Pub- lic Lands on February 5, 1987. gate ...guidelines for applying the Secre- tary's Standards for Historic Preservation Projects to historic designed landscapes; Center for Preservation Technology "provide technical assistance to other Fed- The Department of the Interior, which through eral agencies, State and local governments, NPS provides technical preservation assistance private organizations and interested individ- to Federal, State, and local agencies, could be uals, on the identification, commemoration, directed to examine the benefits and drawbacks and preservation of historic designed landscapes; of a Center for Preservation Technology, and prepare a report on what such a center might "conduct and submit to the Congress... a thematic study of historic designed land- contribute to the effort to develop cost-effective techniques, methods, and equipment for preser- scapes ...which would qualify as national vation, including landscape preservation. The historic landmarks; Department of the Interior might choose sever- 940ver three generations, the Olmsted firm, whose Brookline, al technologies or technology areas and explore MA, ofe is now a National Historic Site, managed by NPS, designed such parks as Central Park in New York City; Franklin Park in Boston, MA; and Prospect Park in Brooklyn, NY. "H.R. 37 ;ee House of Representatives Committee on Interior 96 Hospital Challenges Preservationists un Bill Tu Catalogue and Insular Affairs Report 99.148, 99th Cong., 1st sess. Olmsted Designs," New York Times, Jan. 27, 1986. 41

how such a center could support the Depart- Historic cultural sites, buildings, and landscapes ment's current and projected needs for preser- are milestones in our Nation's history. Public edu- vation technology. cation is most effective when it helps the public understand and experience prehistoric and his- For example, remote sensing technologies, in- toric sites, strt :tures, and landscapes in relation cluding spaceborne, airborne, and ground- to cultural and political history. In representing penetrating sensors, have demonstrated their ef- events, people, and styles of life that affected or fectiveness for a variety of tasks related to the helped form our current values and beliefs, it identification and analysis of prehistoric and evokes an understanding of our relationship to historic cultural resources.97 Airborne or space- the past; it makes history live. borne remote sensing instruments are especially useful in detecting variations of vegetation type Accessible, clearly presented information about over an area. However, the effectiveness of differ- historic landscapes can help the public to under- ent remote sensing methods varies according to stand, for example, that even a designed land- type of cultural resource and the conditions un- scape may reflect broad economic, political, and der which they are used." A study by the De- social values, as well as the personal aesthetic partment of the Interior could assess the ability 'values of its designer or patron. Information about of a center for preservation technology to address prehistoric landscape sites can make the public the needs of the Department and other Federal more aware of the cultural and scientific achieve- agencies for support of advances in remote sens- ments of Native Americans.99 ing technologies. Among Federal agencies, the National Park Service (NPS) has a long history of public edu- Education and Interpretation cation concerning cultural resources, which grew out of its interest in interpreting natural settings Public education is an extremely important and values to its park visitors.m Other agencies, component of the preservation process, as most funding for historic preservation pojects derives such as the Bureau of Land Management"), and the U.S. Forest Service also maintain interpretive from the public, either through donations, taxes, or through entrance fees. In addition, public sup- staffs and develop interpretive materials. NPS sees cultural resource management and interpretation port and advocacy are needed to support inclu- as complementary. "Interpretation communicates sion and expansion of funds for historic preservation in Federal appropriations, which support the significance and value of the resource to... historic preservation efforts in various Federal 'the publici."102 Interpretation also assists in "developing support for preserving" the parks' re- agencies, the National Trust for Historic Preser- vation, and State grants administered by the sources, including cultural resources.103 "The SHPOs. Public education and research seek to 99See, for example, Ray A. Williamson, Laing the Sky. The Cosmos answer the question: what can we learn from the of the American Indian (Boston, MA. Houghton Mifflin, 1984), for an extensive discussion of prehistoric structures and landforms that past, as revealed in our materiai prehistory and display evidence of Native Amerman knowledge of the motions history? Because the information conveyed by of the celestial sphere. 'ImBarry Mackintosh, Interpretation in the National Park Service: public education is directly tied to what we learn A Historical Perspective (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the from the study of archaeological sites and historic Interior, National Park Service, 1986). structures and landscapes, and should be of the ' Fur example, the Western Regional Office of the Bureau of Land Management maintains a Cultural Resources Series that highest quality, preservation professionals have presents material both to professionals and laymen on the cultural a responsibility to report their research findings resources of the region. to the public as well as to colleagues at profes- "Cultural Resources Management &Washington, DC. U.S. De sional meetings and in published articles. partment of the Interior, !.lational Park Service, NPS28), ch. 3, p. 34, August 1985. See also Interpretation and Visitor Services Guide- line (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National 97rhomas Sever and James Weisman, "Remote Sensing and Ar- Park Service, NPS6, August 1985). chaeology. Potential for the Future,National ,'.tionautiL ri The Role and Responsibility ut Interpretation in the National Space Administration, Earth Resources Labt.rr&y, la: WI,.985. Park Service,position paper attached to Memorandum from Vs 96Technologies for Prehistoric and Histuric up. cit., liam Penn Mutt, Jr., NPS Diret.tur, to NPS Regional Directors re. ch. 3. garding Interpretation, Feb. 10, 1986. 42

preservation of the tangible evidence of this [our] and historic preservation is to provide training to past i lsures the preservation of the knowledge State and local preservation agencies and groups. [It is] a base that can help us understand As noted below in the section on State and Lo- the fundamental relationships of men to each cal Landscape Preservation, the Statestould ben- other and of men living in communities to their efit from access to information on carrying out environment as a whole."'04 Research resultsare landscape surveys. In addition, the extensive Fed- an important part of the significance and value eral experience with designing and using various of cultural resources, and often forma part of NPS kinds of databases would benefit the State interpretive presentations. Historic Preservation Offices. The Federal Government, especially NPS, could enhance the public's understanding and Tax Incentives importance of prehistoric and historic landscapes Tax incentives have provided an incalculable by including interpretive materialon landscapes boost to preservation of historic structures. One in the presentations park rangers give to the mil- tangible way of imparting value to the preserva- lions of park visitors each year. However, this tion of historic landscapes would be to allow tax would require NPS to develop additional in- credits and incentives for their preservation and terpretive materials. restoration. Current legislation permits historic preservation tax credits for buildings only. Par- Guidance to States ticipants suggested that local governments be encouraged to use combinations of zoning, scenic/ One of the most important functions the Fed- historic easements, and property tax incentives eral agencies can serve with respect to prehistoric to encourage landscape preservation, whether independent of historic structures or in conjunc- 041bid., p. P. tion with them. 111111111111111111111111/41111111111111111111111.11111WIIPAIIIIII STATE AND LOCAL LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION

From the beginning of the preservation move- report to the State legislature detailing that year's ment, State and local governments, along with efforts might assist in obtaining additional sup- private organizations and many individuals, have port for statewide work. provided the support and the incentive for pre- Landscape surveys designed to gather informa- serving significant aspects of this Nation's history. tion through interviews with local residents would Local residents wish to have a strong hand in pre- have the salutary effect of making them aware serving their own history. Under the terms of the of the value of landscapes and landscape pres- National Historic Preservation Act, States are re- ervation. It would also involve them in the sur- sponsible, through the State Historic Preservation vey process. Offices, for a wide variety of preservation activities, including landscape preservation. Although The Olmsted Historic Landscape Preservation the technical guidance and support of the Fed- Program of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts eral Government can assist States' efforts to make provides one model for a statewide landscape more effective use of technology for landscape preservation initiative. It authorizes $15 million preservation, ultimately the impetus must come for historical research planning, and capital from within the States. improvements for 12 municipally owned parks across Massachusetts. The program has devel- The States' approaches to landscape issues are oped innovative funding sources and has in- very uneven. As noted earlier, only Ohio, Mas- volved the local communities in the process of sachusetts, and New Mexico have made signifi- thinking about landscape preservation. Early in- cant strides in the identification of landscapes. ventory efforts by the Massachusetts Association However, except for New Mexico, which main- for Olmsted Parks, a non-profit organization, tains a registry of historic landscapes (box D),Ios served as a catalyst for this initiative.'" their efforts are related to specific, discrete projects. If the States are to have a wider role in Creating awareness of the importance of his- preserving prehistoric and historic landscapes, toric properties within local communities is an such landscape surveys should be institutional- important part of public education about pres- ized, and broadened to include all possible e ration. In addition to providing information to classes of prehistoric and historic cultural land- tne news media, managers of historic properties scapes. may find it beneficial to provide public lectures and other events for the local population either Part of the problem is that few of the SHPOs at the historic site 07 in the community.'" Such have staff with expertise in historic landscapes; activities are most effective if the local commu- as a result, the SHPOs are less apt to understand nity is involved in planning and setting goals for and appreciate historic landscape issues. State the management and interpretation of the prop- offices should be encouraged to maintain surveys erties. Obtaining support of the local community, on computer databases so they can be enlarged and involving them in setting project goals, are and corrected frequently and cost effectively.'" important aspects of public education. The lo- For example, as mentioned earlier, the State of cal community then develops a sense of contrib- New Mexico plans to put its Registry of Historic uting to preserving the resource. Landscapes on a computer database.107 A yearly

toState of New Mexico, op. cit. 'See OTA, Technologies (or Prehistoric and Historic Preserva 106Shary Page Berg, personal communication, 1987. Lion, op. cd.,Ch. 5. Preservation Information,for a discussion 'al or example, Sunnyside, in New York State, sends its interpre- of State preservation databases. tive staff into the local community to make citizens aware of their 10/State of New Mexico, op. cit., p. 7. local history.

43 44

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Photo credit: National Park Service, National Register of Historic Places Acoma Pueblo, New Mexico. Aerial photograph and photogrammetric drawing prepared from stereo aerial photography for the Historic American Buildings Survey, National Park Service. 45

Box D.New Mexico Registry of HistoricLandscapes Index to Categories: Types of New Mexico Landscapes: A. Courtyards/Patios 1. The "Frontier Pastoral" Landscape: Exterior B. Garden Houses grounds of the Big House at Philmont Ranch. C. Plazas 2. The TerritorialLandscape:KitCarson's D. SquaIes House at Rayado. E. School Campuses 3. The Route 66 Landscape: El Rancho Hotel F.Parterre Gardens and grounds, Gallup. G. Arcades (including stagestops) 4. The Courthouse Square: Many still preserved H. Parks and used in many countiesLuna, Lea, Santa I.Arbors Fe, and Grant, among others. J. Fountains/Spas 5. The New Deal Landscape: Roosevelt Park, K. Campgrounds Albuquerue; Carrie Tingley Hospital, Truth L. Grounds of Public, Institutional, and or Consequences. Commercial Buildings 6. The Vignette Courtyard or Patio: Hacienda M. Outdoor Restaurams de Baca, Bernalillo; Sena Plaza, Santa Fe. N. Home Gardens 7. The Great Plaza: Most Indian pueblos, Span- 0. Streetside Walkways and Plantings ish Colonial, and Mexican period towns. P. Cemeteries and Religious Institutions/ 8. The River Landscape: Continuity of form and Structures function in the historic landscapes built along Q. Arboreta and Botanical Gardens New Mexico's streams and rivers. R. Estates S. City of Community Planning; Greenbelts T. Playfields, Playgrounds, and Other Recreational Areas U. Miscellaneous (parade grounds, fortifica- tions, orchards, scu!ptures, calendars) LIMEMEIMMIIIIME=1111.1.11.11MEMEMIIMINIM LANDSCAPE PRESERVATION SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

APT Bulletin (Association for Preservation Tech- Hufford, Mary, One Space, Many Places: Folk- nology), vol. XV, No. 4, 1983. (Note: entire life and Land Use in New Jersey's Pinelands issue is devoted to landscape preservation). National Reserve (Washington, DC. American Austin, Richard L., et al., The Yearbook of Land- Folklife Center, Library of Congress, 1986). scape Architecture. Historic Preservation (New Hume, Audrey Noel, Archaeology and the Co- York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1985). lonial Gardener, Colonial Williamsburg Ar- Barlow, Elizabeth, et al., Rebuilding Central Park. cheological Series No. 7 (Williamsburg, VA: A Management and Restoration Plan (New The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 1974). York, NY: Central Park Conservancy, 1Q85). Jackson, John Brinkerhoff, The Necessity for Beveridg', Charles E., "Frederick Law Olmsted's Ruins (Amherst, MA: The University of Massa- Theory of Landscape Design," reprinted from chusetts Press, 1980). Nineteenth Century. Keller, Timothy J., and Keller, Genevieve P., How Beveridge, Charles E., Hoffman, Carolyn F., Berg, To Evaluate and Nominate Designed Historic Sh -.ry Page, and Levee, Arleyn A., The Master Landscapes, National Register of Historic List of Designrojects of the Olmsted Firm in Places Bulletin 18 (Washington, DC: National Massachuset_, 1866-1950 (Boston. MA: Mas- Park Service, 1987). sachusetts Association for Olmsted Parks, Kunst, Lisa A., and O'Donnell, Patricia M., "His- 1986). toric Landscape Preservation Deserves a Broad- Cranz, Galen, The Politics of Park Design. A His- er Meaning," Landscape Architecture, January tory of Urban Parks in America (Cambridge, 1981, p. 53-55. MA: The MIT Press 1982). Kyvig, David E., and Marty, Myron A., Nearby Crumley, Carole L., and Marquardt, William H., History. Exploring the Past Around You (Nash- Regional Dynamics: A Landscape History of ville, TN. The American Association for State Burgundy (New York, NY: Academic Press, and Local History, 1982). Inc., in press). Leighton, Ann, American Gardens in the Eight- Favretti, Rudy, and Favn.tti, Joy Putnam, Land- eenth Century (Amherst, MA: University of scapes and Gardens for Historic Buildings Massachusetts Press, reissued 1986). (Nashville, TN: American Association for State Leighton, Ann, American Gardens of the Nine- and Local History, 1978). teenth Century (Amherst, MA: University of Fleming, Ronald Lee, and Haldeman, Lauri A., Massachusetts Press, 1937). On Common Ground: Caring for Shared Land Leighton, Ann, Early American Gardens (Am- From Town Common to Urban Park (Cam- herst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, bridge, MA: The Harvard Common Press, reissued 1986). 1982). Lynch, Kevin, and Hack, Gary, Site Planning Historic Massachusetts Inc., The Massachusetts (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1984). Preservation Resource Handbook (Boston, MA. MacDougall, Bruce E., Microcomputers in Land- 1986). scape Architecture (New York, NY: Elsevier, Hooke, J. M., and Kain, R.J.P., Historical Change 1983). in the Physical Environment. A Guide to Massachusetts Department of Environmental Sources and Techniques (London. Butterworth Management, Olmsted Historic Landscape Scientific, 1982). Preservation Program: Guidelines and Criteria Howett, Catherine Anne, "Landscape Research. for Implementation (Boston, MA: 198:,. Keeping Faith With Today and Tomorrow," McPeck, Eleanor, et al. (eds.), Olmsted in Mas- The Yearbook of Landscape Architecture. His- sachusetts. A Pilot Project fir a National Inven- toric Preservation (New York, NY. Van Nos- tory (Boston, MA. Massachusetts Association trand Reinhold, 1983), pp. 3-7. for Olmsted Parks, 1983).

46 47

Meining, D.W., The Interpretation of Ordinary Secretary of the lwerior's Standards and Guide- Landscapes (Oxford, England. Oxford Univer- lines for Archeology and Historic Preservation, sity Press,979). Federal Register, vol. 48, No. 190, Sept. 29, Melnick, Robert Z., Cultural Landscapes: Rural 1983. Historic Dist, las in the National Park System Stilgoe, John R., Common Landscape of Amer- (Washington, DC: NationalPark Service, ica: 7580 to 1845 (New Haven, CT: Yale 1984). University Press, 1982). Melnick, Robert Z., and O'Donnell, Patricia Stilgoe, John R., "Popular Photography, Scenery (eds.), "Preservation: Defining an Ethic," Land- Values, and Visual Assessment," Landscape scape Architecture 77, July /August 19'"'Note: Jouraal, vol. 3, No. 2, 1984, pp. 111-121. Entire issue is devoted to landscapepreser- Stipe, Robert E. (ed.), New Directions in Rural vation). Preservation,PreservrtionPlanning Series Moonsammy, Rita Zorn, Cohen, David Steven, (Washington, DC: Heritage Conservation and and Williams, Lorraine E. (eds.), Pinelands Folk- Recreation Service, 1980). life (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Tilden, Freeman, Interpreting Our Heritage Press, 1987). (Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Caro- Morgan, William N., Prehistoric Architecture in lina Press, 1977). the Eastern United States (Cambridge, MA. MIT U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Press, 1980) Technologies for Prehistoric and Historic Pres- National Park Service, Biotic Cultural Resources. ervation, OTA-E-319 (Washington, DC: U.S. Management Considerations for Historic Dis- Government Printing Office, September 1986). tricts in the National Park System, Southeast Watts, May Theilgaard, Reading the Landscape Region (Atlanta, GA: National Park Service of America (New York, NY: Collier Books, Southeast Region, N Dvember 1985). 1975). National Association for Olmsted Parks, Summary Webb, Melody,Cultural Landscapes in the Na- of the Workshop Proceedings, 1983 World tional Park Service," The Public Historian 9, Conference (New York, NY: 1983). 1987, pp. 77-89. Newton, Norman, Design on the Land. The De- Weinstein, Geraldine, "Replacing the Understory velopment of Landscape Architecture (Cam- Plantings of Central Park," Arnoldia, spring bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971). 1985. Peck, Eleanor M., Morgan, Keith, and Zaitzevsky, Whitehill, Lucinda Adele, Historic Grounds Re- Cynthia (eds.), Olmsted in Massachusetts. The port and Management Plan, Frederick Law Public Lgacy Brookline, MA. Massachusetts Olmsted National Historic Site (Boston, MA: Association for Olmsted Parks, 1983). National Park Service, 1982). Schlereth, Thomas J., Artifacts and the American Young, Jane M., Signs rrom the Ancestors: Zuni Past (Nashville, TN: Americn Association for Perceptions of Rock Art (Albuquerque, NM: State and Local History, 1980). University of New Mexico Press, in press). Schlereth, Thomas J., US 40: A Roadscdpe of the Zaitzevsky, Cynthia, Frederick Law Olmsted and American Experience (Indianapolis, IN. Indi- the Boston Park System, (Cambridge, MA: Har- ana Historical Society, 1985). vard University Press, 1982). Scott, Frank J., Victorian Gardens, the Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds, A Vic- torian Guidebook of 1870 (Watkins Glen, NY: Library of Victorian Culture, American Life Foundation, 1982). Superintendent of Documents Publication Order Form Charge your order. rimarai 6302 It's easy! massVISA

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The Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) was created n 1972 as an analytical arm of Congress. OTA's ' asic function is to help legis.ative policy- makers anticipate and plan for the con,,equences of technological changes and to examine the many ways, expected and unexpected, in which technology affects people's lives. The assessment of technology calls for exploration of the physical, biological, economic, social, and political impacts that can result from applications of scientific knowledge. OTA provides Congress with independent and timely information about the potential ef- fectsboth beneficial and harmfulof technological applications. Requests for studies are made by chairmen of standing committees of the House of Representatives or Senate; by the Technology Assessment Board, the governing body of OTA; or by the Director of OTA in consultation with the Board. The Technology Assessment Board is composeu of six members of the House, six memhers of the Senate, and the OTA Director, who is a nonvoting member. OTA has studies under way in nine program areas: energy and materials; industry, technology, and employment; international security and commerce; biological applications; food and renewable resources; health; communication and information technologies; oceans and environment; and science, education, and transportation.

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