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1990 Popular Participation and Farming Systems Research and Extension--Examining the Central Visayas Regional Project 1 in Bohol, Philippines. Jonathan Manning Hubchen Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College
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Popular participation and Farming Systems Research and Extension—examining the Central Visayas Regional Project 1 in Bohol, Philippines
Hubchen, Jonathan Manning, Ph.D. The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col., 1990
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 NOTE TO USERS
THE ORIGINAL DOCUMENT RECEIVED BY U.M.I. CONTAINED PAGES WITH SLANTED PRINT. PAGES WERE FILMED AS RECEIVED.
THIS REPRODUCTION IS THE BEST AVAILABLE COPY. Popular Participation and Farming Systems Research and Extension - Examining the Central Visayas Regional Project 1 in Bohol, Philippines
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy
in
The School of Vocational Education
by
Jonathan Manning Hubchen B.S., Cornell University, 1983 M.S., Louisiana State University, 1989
August 1990 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND DEDICATION
The author is indebted to the following people for their help in this study:
The author's parents, Harry John Hubchen and Linda Manning
Hubchen. They always gave him support and encouragement to strive
for goals he set.
To the staff of the Central Visayas Regional Project, 1 of
the Philippines for their support and patience in the survey's
design and execution. Special thanks goes to Grace Tinapao,
Senior Training Management Officer and the members of the Site
Management Units in Bohol Province, headed by Virgilio Zabala and
Camehlio Cimagala.
To the following interviewers for their competence and
dedication: Sevira Butal, Domingo Cajes, Esther de la Serna,
Francisco L&mparas, Crispino Lapiz, Medardo Ombrosa, Nilda Ombrosa
and Nina Suarez
To the members of the author's doctoral committee; Doctors
Michael Burnett, Barbara Holt, Quentin Jenkins, David Picha and
Satish Verma; for their contributions to the survey's development
and presentation. The author is particularly grateful to Dr.
Burnett, who as committee chairman, was a great help in the
preparation of this study. The author also thanks Dr. Scott
Milligan who served as the outside member of his examining commit
tee.
ii This dissertation is dedicated to the people of "Mutya kong minahal", Bohol Province, Philippines. Boholanons gave the author much of his fondest and most valuable experiences. TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND DEDICATION ...... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS...... iv
LIST OF TABLES...... vl
LIST OF FIGURES...... vii
ABSTRACT...... viii
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Background ...... 1 Statement of Problem ...... 3 Purpose of Study ...... 4 Limitations and Assumptions ...... 4 Definition of Terms ...... 7 Farming Systems Research and Extension ...... 7 Development Participation ...... 7 Environmental Terms ...... 8 Data Analysis Terms ...... 8 Significance of the Study ...... 9
CHAPTER TWO - THE STUDY SETTING...... 11
The Central Visayas Region of the Philippines ...... 11 Political and Economic Issues ...... 12 Environmental Issues ...... 13 The Central Visayas Regional Project 1 15 Technical and Support Components ...... 20 Current Issues Facing the CV RP ...... 26 Conclusions from the Study Setting ...... 30
CHAPTER THREE - REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 31
Farming Systems Research and Extension ...... 31 Methodology...... 32 Theoretical Issues ...... 36 Selected Studies ...... 37 Popular Participation ...... 40 FSR&E and Local P a rticip atio n ...... 41 Suggestions in Application ...... 43 Conclusions from the Literature ...... 45
CHAPTER FOUR - METHODOLOGY...... 47
The Instrument ...... 47 Field Testing, Revisions and Approval ...... 51 Population and Sample ...... 52
iv Preparation and Data Collection...... 54 Data Collection ...... 55 Data Analysis ...... 56
CHAPTER FIVE - FINDINGS...... 59
First and Second Objectives - Participation Activities . . . 60 First Objective ...... 60 Second Objective ...... 65 Third Objective - Selected Participation Activities - and Program Variables ...... 67 Length of Participation ...... 67 Major Organizations and Program Activities ...... 69 Leadership Positions ...... 77 Chapter Summary and Interpretation ...... 78
CHAPTER SIX - SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 81
Summary...... 81 Summary of F indings ...... 83 Conclusions ...... 85 Recommendations ...... 87 Recommendations for Practice ...... 88 Recommendations for Study ...... 91
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 93
APPENDIX A - CONTRACT, RESEARCH PROPOSAL ...... 97
APPENDIX B - ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT FOR CLIENT PARTICIPATION .... 100
APPENDIX C - LOCAL PARTICIPATION SURVEY - TRAINING DESIGN ...... 109
APPENDIX D - FACTOR LOADING OF PARTICIPATION ACTIVITIES ...... 120
APPENDIX E - ORGANIZATIONS AND ACTIVITIES MENTIONED BY CVRP BENEFICIARIES IN NORTHERN BOHOL ...... 122
VITA ...... 124
v LIST OF TABLES
Table
1. Areas Covered by the CVRP...... 18
2. Major Activities of the CVRP's Upland Agriculture Component . 21
3. Major Activities of the CVRP's Nearshore Fisheries Com ponent ...... 23
4. Major Activities of the CVRP's Social Forestry Component . . 24
5. Major Activities of the CVRP's Infrastructure Component . . . 25
6. Perceived Performance and Importance of Participation A c t i v i t i e s ...... 61
7. Ranked Mean Values of Perceived Performance and Perceived Importance of Participation Activities ...... 63
8. t-Tests Comparing Perceived Performance and Importance of Participation Activities ...... 66
9. Responses about Length of Participation in the CVRP ...... 68
10. Pearson's Product Coefficients for Correlation between Length of Participation and Perceived Performance for Selec ted Participation Activities ...... 69
11. Responses about Participation in CVRP Affiliated Organiza tions ...... 70
12. Responses about Participation in CVRP Program Activities . . 71
13. Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Looking for Outside Resources between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organizations and Activities ...... 73
14. Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Registering Asso ciations between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organizations and Activities ...... 74
15. Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Experimentation between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organiza tions and A ctivities ...... 75
16. Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Teaching Neighbors between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organiza tions and A ctivities ...... 76
vi 17. Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Organizing Trips between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organiza tions and Activities ...... 77
18. t-Tests Comparing Perceived Performance of Selected Par ticipation Activities between Leaders and Non-Leaders .... 78
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1. The Study S e ttin g ...... 17
vii ABSTRACT
The Central Visayas Regional Project 1 (CVRP) in the Philippines uses a Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR&E) approach which addresses the interrelated components facing the rural household system.
A major principle of FSR&E is local participation. This study was conducted to measure the level of popular participation in a CVRP
"working area".
The study measured local performance and importance of activities relating to the planning, execution, and evaluation of CVRP projects as perceived by beneficiaries. It determined which of the participation activities had a higher score for perceived importance than for per ceived performance. Then it determined the relationship between various program variables and the participants' perceived performance of those activities.
The CVRP showed progress in achieving physical targets and respon ding to its clientele's concerns. However, the clients' continued dependence on the CVRP remained a problem. FSR&E should be applicable to on-site conditions. Popular participation is stressed because the clientele understand the environment for which innovations are designed.
Their participation also empowers them toward self determination.
The author designed a spoken interview survey to measure local participation in CVRP activities. Respondents first gave information regarding their participation in the CVRP. They then rated local performance and importance of twenty-three participation activities using a 0-4 scale.
viii The author compiled statistics for the 331 interviews. All of the activities had importance scores that were sta tistic a lly higher than those for perceived performance. Five had importance scores which were defined as substantively higher because they exceeded the performance scores by at least one half point. These were led by the activities entitled "Organizing Trips" and "Looking for Outside Resources".
Length of participation had a small relationship (r value) with
Looking for Outside Resources. Performance scores for upland farming activities and organizations were generally higher relative to their counterparts in nearshore fishery areas. Leaders showed significant differences in perceived performance in "Experimentation", "Enforcing
Laws" and "Organizing Trips".
The author advocated measures to increase local contributions in obtaining resources and adapting to local conditions. He suggested giving particular attention to nearshore activities and increasing local contribution to training sessions. CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
Rural families in the Central Visayas Region of the Republic of the
Philippines face dire environmental, social and economic problems. In this region, the great majority of households in the rural upland and coastal areas are living in poverty (Segura-Ybafiez and Edo-Sullano 1988).
Population pressure forces many upland families to use cultivation practices that are particularly harmful to sloping farm land. Similarly, marginal fishermen must contend with decreasing catches as a result of destructive fishing habits. The environmental dilemmas of soil erosion, coastal silt deposit and destruction of coral reefs keep thousands of families on the edge of survival. These problems must be addressed by any development program that serves these families.
The Central Visayas Regional Project 1 (CVRP) aims to do this. The
Project is financed by a 1984 loan agreement between the World Bank, through the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the Philippine Government. Its purpose is to alleviate rural poverty and environmental degradation by addressing the following issues:
1) Community based participation in all levels of resource manage
ment;
2) Watershed management with a delivery system as close as possible
to the field;
3) Security of land or resource tenure for the rural clientele;
1 4) Rural Infrastructure;
5) Institutional and administrative development.
(Segura-Ybarlez and Edo-Sullano, 1988)
The CVRP uses a participatory approach in developing and testing
technology for watershed management. Segura-Ybanez and Edo-Sullano (1988) describe the client farmers and fishermen as "de-facto" resource managers
and partners with the CVRP field staff. The de-facto resource managers are active participants in the process of selecting and testing tech nologies and this high familiarity increases the adoption of worthy
innovations. This arrangement also improves the field sta ff's appreciation of their partners' needs and conditions. This should insure a significant and sustainable improvement in the region's living stan dards.
The CVRP's technical and program components prepare activities that promote such popular participation. Local needs are identified in a participatory assessment process (Central Visayas Regional Project 1,
1989). Experiential activities for the beneficiaries are maximized.
In its development programs, the CVRP employs many characteristics of Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR&E). This is an approach that (1) views the whole farm as a system and (2) focuses on the inter dependencies among the components of that system. It examines the issues under the control of members of the farm household and how these com ponents interact with the physical, biological, and socioeconomic aspects not under the household's control (Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl, 1982; this document uses the t i tle Farming Systems Research and Development instead of Farming Systems Research and Extension). This holistic view of the fanner's environment Improves change agents' ability to appreciate the farmer's true needs and to devise appropriate solutions. The farmers then are more likely to adopt such solutions. The CVRP has the three following characteristics that closely align it to the principles of FSR&E:
1) It focuses on the rural household as a complete system.
2) It employs a multi-disciplinary approach when working with such
a system.
3) It promotes rural client participation in its activities.
There is considerable literature about the application of par ticipatory principles to FSR&E programs. Villa (1988) wrote that this developmental approach should encourage farmer contributions in planning activities. He believed that this should promote "people's ability and willingness to initiate and maintain changes that benefit their own"
(Villa, 1988; page 2). In practice, Villa noted a wide range of farmer participation in FSR&E programs. The CVRP strives for a high position in such a spectrum.
Statement of Problem
Both the CVRP and the general principles of FSR&E stress farmers' active participation. They are involved with the implementation and are able to form opinions based on experience regarding the suitability of those practices to their farming systems. Institutions such as the CVRP then can act on those opinions and adapt their programs accordingly.
The ability to maximize farmers' participation is of major impor tance to programs with an FSR&D approach and is the major focus of this study. The author felt that measuring this participation would be a major contribution to the CVRP's activities. This report examine the CVRP's activities by addressing the following questions:
1) What is the degree of client participation in the CVRP's
activities as measured by a survey instrument?
2) Based on these results, what conclusions and recommendations can
be made to promote the increase of such participation?
Purpose of Study
To address the preceding questions as they related to the CVRP in the Philippines, the primary goal of this study was to measure the degree of popular participation in the CVRP covered areas in Bohol Province,
Philippines. Specific objectives were:
1) To measure the CVRP participants' perceived performance and
perceived importance for a set of activities relating to the
planning, execution, and evaluation of CVRP sponsored projects.
2) To determine which of the participation activities have a higher
score for perceived importance than for performance.
3) To determine the relationship between the following CVRP program
variables and the participants' perceived performance for the
activites identified in the previous objective:
- Duration of involvement with CVRP;
- A ffiliation with CVRP sponsored community organizations;
- Participation in CVRP's program activities.
Limitations and Assumptions
While the identification of areas in which client participation can be increased is useful to the CVRP, the study's limitations should be noted. This study is explanatory in nature. It sought to identify needs and left It up to the CVRP to determine what methods should be employed to meet those needs.
In this study, the author designed and conducted a social survey in a physical and cultural setting where he was an outsider. As a Peace
Corps Volunteer in the Central Visayas Region from 1983 to 1985, he appreciated the difficulties of developing a program in a cross-cultural setting. There was an institutional characteristic of the CVRP which limited major programmatic change. The Project was in its last two years of existence and the staff was justifiably more interested in concluding its activities than assuming new ones. Given his time frame, the author limited his ambition for the study to maximize the likelihood of its successful conclusion. For example, he limited his data collection to the
Northeastern part of Bohol Province, one of the CVRP's six project areas.
He also used every opportunity to work within the CVRP's organizational framework to maximize the Project staff's understanding of his objectives and activities. Appendix A shows one of the documents that the author prepared to promote such understanding.
Whether or not the author's recommendations are adopted by the CVRP and the effects of such adoption were not included in this.study because of time constraints.
The study's validity was constrained by the transportation and communication problems inherent in a developing nation. A spoken interview was the only practical way to collect the perceptions of rural clients throughout the province. However, such an instrument was vul nerable to two different sources of bias. One was that the interviewers might not be consistent and objective in asking the survey's questions. The author minimized such a threat by selecting the best interviewers available, conducting a thorough training seminar and supervising initial
interviews. However, continued supervision was very difficult as the
interviewers were split up throughout the working area to minimize expenses. The author had to assume the interviewers remained true to the procedures outlined in the seminar.
In fact, the author suspected that some of the interviewers strayed from the survey procedure and obtained inflated scores for perceived importance. He used t-tests to compare the scores recorded by the suspected interviewers with those recorded by other interviewers in the same or adjacent areas. Since few significant differences were found, he concluded that his fears were unjustified and decided to include all survey interviews in the study. '
Even if the interviewers were consistent and unbiased, a second source of bias was that the rural beneficiaries might not have given accurate responses. The survey format might not have been completely successful in countering the respondents' natural tendency to overstate the need for anything offered. Other responses, such as length of participation, were checked against CVRP records, but these often were incomplete. This was particularly true regarding organizational affil iation and program activities. The author decided only to record the respondents' perceptions regarding these issues, believing them to be more important than the CVRP's related records. This survey measured local participation as perceived by the CVRP's clientele so they were the primary source of information. The author recognizes that such percep tions might not be constant over time but the sample was large enough and determined In an unbiased manner to minimize this problem.
Definition of Tgpns
Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR&E) - As described earlier, FSR&E focuses on the interrelated components within the total farming system, or household. This approach is based on the assumption that developing one aspect of the farm household cannot effectively be undertaken without consideration of other aspects, be they physical, economic or cultural in nature. All these aspects comprise the farming system and FSR&E aims to help the farm family achieve its goals in light of its environment, access to resources and its management practices
(Mammy, 1985). The CVRP follows FSR&E principles in that it aims to provide this type of service to its clientele.
FSR&E is a field-based or applied approach to rural development.
Relevant information is acquired from the working area, innovations are tested in the field and improved management practices are promoted through on-site demonstrations. Such an approach requires the cooperation of the local beneficiaries since they are intimately familiar with the area's environmental and social conditions. The CVRP's attempts to maximize local participation and thus the local suitability of their programs is another example of its adherence to FSR&E concepts.
Development Participation - Sumayao (1983) synthesized various definitions of participation in development. For this study, development participation will include the involvement of a target audience (specif ically the farmers and fishermen working with the CVRP in Bohol Province) in the following components: 1) Planning - The target audience is involved in the decision making
process regarding a program's activities and methods.
2) Implementation - The target audience determines its contributions
of resources and effort toward a program.
3) Evaluation - The target audience helps determine criteria for a
program's success and measures the degree to which those criteria
are met. They also are involved in determining how the benefits
are shared.
This study examines development participation by measuring perceived performance and importance in twenty-three activities relating to program planning, evaluation and implementation. For purposes of this study, these are called participation activities and are to be distinguished from the program activities conducted in rural areas by the CVRP.
Environmental Terms - A watershed is the natural system of drainage that is formed by the continual water runoff across the land to the sea.
The CVRP uses this as the natural unit by which resources are managed
(CVRP, 1989), It is divided into units of successively lower area, the smallest being the gully watershed or micro-watershed, ranging from one to ten hectares (up to twenty four acres).
The major on-farm conservation measure employed by the CVRP is
Contour Farming in which plowing and plant establishment is done against the slope of the land, minimizing soil loss during rain. Agroforestry is the establishment of forest trees, fruit trees, beverage crops and agricultural crops in a combination that maximizes land use (CVRP, 1989).
Data Analysis Terms - In examining the differences between perceived performance and perceived importance of participation activities, two types of differences were used. When a t-te s t score exceeds a critical
value, there exists a statistically significant difference between the two groups. However, given a small standard deviation or a large sample size, the difference might not have to be large to be statistically significant.
Gold (1969) wrote that such differences are not necessarily large enough to justify conclusions and recommendations and suggested that researchers define substantively significant differences. This difference should be large enough to be significant in both statistical and real terms. The author decided that a difference of at least one half point (from a scale of 0-4) would identify a participation activity as being substantively higher in importance, relative to performance. This would identify those activities for which the CVRP should give priority in increasing local participation.
Significance of the Study
This study examined areas where client participation could be improved in the CVRP. This should benefit both the Project's operations and its intended beneficiaries. The program is designed to maximize its clients' ability to manage their resources and their livelihoods. This ability should continue after the program is concluded at the end of 1991.
Increasing the clientele's management abilities is therefore a major strategy in maximizing the sustain-ability of the CVRP's benefits. If the clients assume a larger role in the CVRP's activities, they should be more prone to self reliance and independence from outside agencies in the future.
The study's results could form the basis for recommended program thrusts for the CVRP. While the study took place in only one working 10
area, the provinces of the Central Visayas share the same language and
have many social and environmental sim ilarities. This would give the CVRP
reason to at least consider generalizing the study's findings to the whole
region. The CVRP could infer that it should give special attention to the
participation activities that have a significantly higher score for
perceived importance than for performance. The relationship between these
activities and the three program variables also could provide useful
information for specific programs or community organizations.
Participation activities that do not show a significant difference
between perceived performance and importance would be indicative of the
CVRP's success in promoting client participation. Such findings would
help document the Project as a positive example to other programs in the
field of FSR&E.
The CVRP's current operations justify its identification as a development program employing an FSR&E approach. Specifically, since most
of its activities are related with the diffusion of established tech
nologies in its working areas, the CVRP could be classified as being in
the Extension stage of the process. Findings from this study would be of
interest to managers of other FSR&E projects. As stated by Villa (1988), participation is a critical issue of FSR&E. Any achievements in address
ing this issue could enhance FSR&E effectiveness in fostering meaningful rural development. CHAPTER TWO
THE STUDY SETTING
This chapter's purpose is to report information that is relevant to
the design of an instrument that will measure client participation in the
Central Visayas Regional Project 1.
The Central Visavas Region of thg Philippines
The Visayas is a cluster of islands located between Luzon and
Mindanao, the two main islands of the Philippines. It consists of three
of the thirteen administrative regions of the Republic. This includes
Region VII, the Central Visayas. This region consists of four island
provinces: Bohol, Cebu, Negros Oriental and Siquijor. It is bounded on
the north by the Visayan Sea, west by the Province of Negros Occidental,
south by the Mindanao Sea and east by the Comotes Sea and the island of
Leyte.
The region's land area totals almost 1.5 million hectares (about
5,655 square miles) or 5% of the entire Philippine land mass (Segura-
Ybanez, 1989). Its topography is marked with mountain backbones, rolling hills with plateaus and valleys and narrow coastal lowlands. Mean temperature is 27.7* C (about 82* F) and average annual rainfall ranges from 150 to 260 centimeters (59 to 101 inches) among the provinces.
In 1988, the Central Visayas's total population was about 4.446 million, roughly 7.6% of the country's total. About 68% of those were in the rural areas and about 54% of the labor force were employed in agriculture (Segura-Ybanez, 1989). This included farmers, fishermen and forest inhabitants.
11 Political and Economic Issues - In the Philippines, local government units exist on the provincial level, the city or municipal level and the barangay (village) level. Each of the four provinces in the region has an elected governor, with staff, and an assembly. The region's 123 municipal governments and nine city governments are headed by elected mayors, each of whom have their staff, and a local assembly. Barangay captains and councilors are the elected officials on the village level.
Regional Line Agencies represent various government departments on the local levels. These include the Departments of Agriculture, Natural
Resources, Health, Local Government and others. They have offices on the regional, provincial, municipal and sometimes the barangay level and are mandated to work with Local Governments in promoting local development.
Segura-Ybaftez (1989) discussed several institutional constraints to development found in the Central Visayas. Policy and budgetary authority is excessively centralized in the capital city of Manila. Many projects are centrally designed and managed which provides little flexibility for local conditions. Local associations or governments often have to apply to Manila for authorization of their activities, a time consuming and frustrating process.
The resources and incentives available to government workers often are insufficient for the responsibilities of a committed public servant.
Staff preparation for many Regional Line Agencies often is limited to large scale technologies which are inappropriate to the small scale realities of the Central Visayas. Furthermore, the compartmentalized approach of the government departments conflicts with the principle of integrated or systems development (Segura-Ybafiez, 1989). A farmer with diverse activities might have to deal with several agencies, each with
its own procedure and bureaucracy. In the absence of clear division of
responsibilities, different departments might have overlapping functions.
This can result in competition and conflict, Instead of cooperation and coordination.
The region's small producers face their own institutional con
straints. Uncertain tenure status and the lack of users' rights dis courage many farmers and fishermen from investing in long term production
systems (Segura-Ybanez, 1989). They concentrate on exploitative practices that are efficient in the short term but are disastrous to long term productivity. Community organizations might increase their political or economic power. However, many farmer groups are just social groups and are not exposed to decision making or management responsibilities. As such, few cooperatives in the region increase their members' access to technology or resources. Lastly, components of infrastructure, such as water supply, roads and markets, are woefully inadequate in the region and limit the potential for rural development.
These problems have contributed to the region having the fourth highest poverty rate in the country. In the Central Visayas, 54% of the families live in the bottom 30% of national population in terms of per capita income (Segura-Ybanez, 1989). Three fourths of these families live in the rural areas and include subsistence farmers, marginal fishermen and landless agricultural workers.
Environmental Issues - The region's economic problems are closely related to the environmental conditions. Segura-Ybafiez (1989) listed several factors that have damaged the region's long term productivity. Heavy rains following prolonged drought have washed topsoll from upland areas and deposited the silt In the coastal areas. This has resulted in
such degradation as receding tree lines, wasted grasslands, silted marine areas and salt water Intrusion Into the ground water tables.
This degradation Is accelerated by population pressure and des tructive production habits. Such habits In upland areas Include the following:
1) Monocropping - The continued planting of a single crop depletes
the soil's fertility and is vulnerable to pests and diseases.
2) Illegal Logging - This excessive removal of the region's forest
cover hastens soil erosion and lowers the water table.
3) Kalngin - This is the local term for a shifting, "slash and burn"
type of agriculture. Subsistence farmers clear a forest and
plant crops. When the soil fertility is depleted, the farmers
would move to another area. When the population was low, areas
were left fallow long enough to regain fe rtility . However, the
current population prevents this and results in more cleared
areas prone to erosion.
{Segura-Ybinez, 1989)
There are several fishing practices that damage or destroy the coral reefs that are necessary habitats for growing fish. These include net trawling, dynamite fishing, the use of cyanides and moro-ami. The la tter is a large scale fishing operation in which chains are droppedon the coral to herd the fish into waiting nets.
Segura-Ybafiez (1989) reported agricultural production of corn, rice, coconuts, fish and livestock for the region from 1978 to 1985. There were 15 periodic yield Increases resulting from government programs. However, the yields were not sustained after the programs were terminated. Segura-
Ybanez noted an inadequate agricultural water system and the lack of low cost, appropriate technologies.
These institutional and environmental constraints have Increased the economic disparity between the rich and the poor in the Central
Visayas. Segura-Ybafiez warned of increased social tensions and instability if this disparity were not addressed.
The Central Visavas Regional Pro.iect \
The Central Visayas Regional Project 1 (CVRP) is the firs t major foreign-assisted project to support integrated regional rural development in the Philippines (CVRP, 1989). The Project was started in June 1984 and is scheduled to end in December 1991. It is financed by a loan of $25.6 million from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development with a government counterpart of $9.8 million. The Project specifically aims to do the following:
1) Raise the living standards of small scale rural producers;
2) Improve the resource base in the critical watersheds in the
region;
3) Reinforce the government's regionalization program to ensure
greater local autonomy.
(CVRP, 1989)
The Project area consists of six critical watersheds in four provinces. These are shown in Figure One, a map of the region, and municipalities covered in the Project are listed in Table One. Eleven
Site Management Units are responsible for the execution of the Project within these areas. Before a recent reduction, each Site Management Unit consisted of a manager, six to eight technical staff members and eight to ten support staff members. The Project is coordinated by a Regional
Projects Office (RPO) in Mandaue City, Cebu. The CVRP Board of Directors, consisting of the four provincial governors and other leading government officials in the region, is the policy body of the CVRP. 17
FIGURE ONE - THE STUDY SETTING
The Central Visayas and Areas Covered by the CVRP*
< \ 4-./Ayungor> - B in d o y W aters bed, 6. Cent ral Cebu N egros Oriental W atersh ed
5, J.pi I River, Bohol
2. Bach an - Alegria Watershed. Cebu lOOMl/tJi too k‘,lom«ter< i/a waft
1. Maria U/at> ershed_, Negros 0rienta S i^ u i jo r
•Region corresponds to shaded area in national map at top right. Municipalities covered by the Project are signified by a le tte r corresponding to Table One. 18 Table 1 Areas Covered by the CVRP Municipal1tie s Covered Watershed Areas Up!and Coastal Forestry
1. Marla Watershed, S1qu1jor Siquijor Siquijor San Juan San Juan Larena Larena Enrique Enrique Villanueva Villanueva Maria Maria Lazi Lazi
2. Badian-Alegria Watershed, g Malabuyoc Cebu h Badian h Badian i Alegria i Alegria j Moalboal k Alacantara 1 Ronda
3. Bayawan River, Negros m Bayawan m Bayawan* Oriental
4. Ayongon-Bindoy Watershed, n Manjuyod Negros Oriental o Bindoy o Bindoy p Ayungon p Ayungon q Tayasan
5. Ipil River, Bohol (the area r Talibon r Talibon covered in this study) s Trinidad t San Miguel u Danao v Bien Unido w Ubay x Carlos P. Garcia
6. Central Cebu Watershed y Cebu City*
Note. Areas marked with asterisks are newly covered as of 1989. Source is Central Visayas Regional Project 1, 1989.
The CVRP uses a systems approach in targeting families, communities, local governments and rural production systems. In doing so, it employs
Community-Based Resource Management in which rural communities are enabled to manage their environmental resources. Such an approach involves the promotion of self reliance, including a higher access to resources and an increased self worth. This is done at barangay, municipal and provincial levels. Barangay Councils and Barangay Development Councils mobilize their communities to assess local needs and address those needs.
Municipal officials and line agency workers at the municipal level can provide technical assistance to these communities. Barangay and municipal governments can form Resource Management Committees to coordinate activities on those local levels. However, the primary coordinating responsibility falls on the Provincial Resource Management Committee.
Regional officials can provide policy and administrative support.
Community organizing is a key component of Community Based Resource
Management. This includes efforts to ensure that the locally based organizations can contribute to the development process. Barangay
Development Councils consist of sectoral and organizational community leaders and should in itiate the development planning process in their communities. People-based community organizations are formed to help their members in a common activity, be it farming, fishing or other local endeavor.
To insure that this community approach continues after its conclusion, the CVRP has adopted a Provincialization Program. This is a process of transferring full management responsibilities to local government units. This specifically involves enabling the Provincial
Resource Management Committee to do the following:
- determine implementing - supervise technical assis- rules and guidelines tance
- review plans and budgets - manage personnel
- monitor progress 20
Technical and Support Components - The CVRP has four technical components to address the problem of rural poverty and environmental degradation. They are Upland Agriculture, Nearshore Fisheries, Social
Forestry and Infrastructure.
The Upland Agriculture component is specifically designed to counter rapid rain water runoff and soil erosion. Its specific activities include the following:
1) Land Tenure Program - This refers to the legal provision of
access and utilization of land and resources to the rural
occupants. Security of tenure is provided through certificates
of stewardship and ownership. This often is necessary because
rural families are more prone to adopt improved resource
management practices if their legal right to those resources is
assured (CVRP, 1989).
2) Micro-watershed Management - The CVRP considers the micro
watershed as a system appropriate to the operation of small scale
farmers. These micro-watersheds often are cultivated by three
to five farmers who can work together through groups called
alayons formed by the CVRP. These groups are targeted for CVRP
sponsored activities that promote water and soil conservation
leading to higher long term productivity.
4) Agroforestry and Off-Farm Reforestation - The planting of forest
and fruit trees increases soil fertility and productivity.
5) Livestock and Upland Fisheries - The Project distributes ruminant
livestock breeders (mostly cattle), tilap ia fingerlings (a tropical fresh water fish), clams and snails to its bene
ficiaries. This is designed to increase family income, Improve
soil fertility and supplement available protein. In the CVRP's
livestock dispersal program, a beneficiary who receives a heifer
keeps that heifer's first calf and passes the mother to another
beneficiary.
Table 2 shows the major accomplishments of the CVRP's Upland
Agriculture Component.
Table 2
Major Activities of the CVRP's Upland Agriculture Component
Orlainal Taraet Total as of Ma.1or Indicators Units 1984-1989 December 1989
Barangays Covered number 103 99
Micro-watershed Planning number 787 694 and Implementation
Adopters number 5,696 7,569
On-farm Soil Conserva hectares 7,696 4,444 tion
Agroforestry Oevel opment hectares 2,333 2,445
Off-farm Reforestation hectares 2,505 1,068
Stewardship Contracts number 4,443 991
Livestock Dispersed number 4,913 2,187
Livestock Redispersed number 849 738
Upland Fishponds number 810 811
Note. The CVRP was granted an extension to 1991 to meet its targets.
Note. Source is Central Visayas Regional Project 1, 1989. 22
The CVRP's Nearshore Fisheries Component combats coastal degrada tion. This component's activities include the following:
1) A rtificial Reef Establishment - This Project establishes
structures that serve as fish shelters and habitats when placed
on the ocean floor. A concrete tripod model has replaced the
original bamboo pyramid model which does not last as long and
threatens the local bamboo supply. As partners in planning, the
Site Management Units provide materials and transportation while
the fishermen contribute labor and later will replace the units
at their expense.
2) Mangrove Reforestation and Management - Mangrove shoreline areas
provide firewood, building areas, habitat for seafood and
protection from shore erosion. The Site Management Units provide
planting materials and stewardship contracts allowing legal
access to the mangroves for the fishermen who plant and maintain
them.
3) Coral Reef Management - The CVRP and participating fishermen work
together to identify and establish coral sanctuaries which are
vital habitats for growing fish.
Table 3 shows the major accomplishments of the CVRP's Nearshore
Fisheries Component. 23
Table 3
Major Activities of the CVRP's Nearshore Fisheries Component
Orlalnal Taraet Tptal i s af Major Indicators Units 1984-1989 December 1989
Barangays Covered number 185 156
Artificial Reef Clusters number 1,375 834
Mangrove Reforestation hectares 997 855
Coastal Reef Area Man hectares 3730 2,566 agement
Families Benefited number 5,814 7,096
Livestock Dispersed number 153 69
Stewardship Contracts number 2,506 1,224
Note. The CVRP was granted an extension to 1991 to meet its targets.
Note. Source is Central Visayas Regional Project 1, 1989.
The CVRP's Social Forestry Component aims to conserve the region's forest resources, increase wood supplies and increase the forest inhabitants' income. This component consists of the following two interventions:
1) People-oriented Reforestation - The Project provides seedlings,
inputs and technical assistance. There are several schemes
employed to encourage forest occupants to plant trees. One is
the Community Tree Farming Approach, in which the trees are owned
by the occupants. In Contract Planting, the occupants are paid
for planting while the trees are owned by the government. The
occupants also are paid under Community-Based Contract reforesta
tion but they are allowed to harvest the trees if they follow
certain conditions and limitations. 2) Forest Stand Improvement - This involves forest thinning and the
production of hand-sawn lumber by forest inhabitants. The CVRP
helps them to organize into Forest Steward Associations and apply
for a Small holders Concession Licence so they can thin and
harvest dead or mature trees.
Table 4 shows the major accomplishments of the CVRP's Social
Forestry Component.
Table 4
Major Activities of the CVRP's Social Forestry Component
Oriainal Taraet Total as of Major Indicators Units 1984-1989 December 1989
Barangays Covered number 12 12
Forest Steward Associa number 26 27 tions Organized
Beneficiaries number 1,200 1,312
Reforestation (area cov hectares 5,050 1,250 ered)
Reforestation Mainten hectares 3,550 1,248 ance (yearly)
Community Timber U tiliz number 26 27 ation Permits
Stewardship Contracts number 1,200 251
Agroforestry Farm Devel hectares 700 842 opment
Note. The CVRP was granted an extension to 1991 to meet its targets.
Note. Source is Central Visayas Regional Project 1, 1989.
The Infrastructure Component is the CVRP's largest in terms of monetary investment (CVRP, 1989). It aims to provide access from project sites to markets and input sources through the construction, improvement and maintenance of roads, tra ils and other structures. In building or
Improving tra ils , water supply and buildings, the component emphasizes the
Labor-Based, Equipment-Supported approach. This keeps much of the expenditures at the local level and increases community appreciation for the need for maintenance. Table 5 shows the major accomplishments of the
CVRP's Infrastructure Component.
Table 5
Major Activities of the CVRP's Infrastructure Component
1Oriainal Taraet Total as of Major Indicators Units 1984-1989 December 1989
New Roads kilometers 100.09 62.15
Road Improvement kilometers 130.32 92.15
Trails kilometers 240 70.12
Water Supply units 210 64
Note. The CVRP was granted an extension to 1991 to meet its targets.
Note. Source is Central Visayas Regional Project 1, 1989.
The CVRP has the following support components to assist in its operations:
1) Research Component - This aims to institutionalize the management
of regional research and development that is oriented to the
CVRP's beneficiaries. It also generates, verifies, and dissem
inates technology. In doing so, it uses a Farming Systems
Research and Extension Approach in that it concentrates on
technologies that are appropriate to the watershed systems. It
also tests those technologies at the project sites. 2} Development Communications Component - This component develops
and conducts strategies to promote knowledge and attitudes that
are favorable toward adopting CVRP's approaches. It also
involves the encouragement of non-traditional communication such
as community theatre or neighborhood newsprints.
3) Training and Manpower Development Component -This component aims
to improve the skills of staff, beneficiaries, Local Governments
and Regional Line Agencies for effective project execution.
Training programs are conducted by the training task forces at
the local, Provincial and line agency levels, supported by the
training staff from the Regional Project Office. These programs
emphasize experiential learning and include courses in Human
Resource Development, Community Organizing, Appropriate Tech
nology, Community Based Resource Management and Organizational
Development.
4) Monitoring and Evaluation Component - This component coordinates
the gathering and reporting of data regarding the Project's
achievements in comparison to its goals and targets. It also
evaluates project achievements in terms of impact in the project
areas.
Current Issues Facing the CVRP - The CVRP Fact Sheet (1989) lists several problems facing the Project. Land tenure constraints continue to result in beneficiaries' reluctance to adopt proper management techniques.
This problem often is caused by previously held, illegal or conflicting land title s . While the CVRP is designed to promote local autonomy, government authority still is excessively concentrated in the capital city 27 of Manila. As such, the process for obtaining budgetary decisions, permits and licenses is greatly centralized. This often results in lost time and fund releases that are not timely in relation to project needs.
The CVRP's operations have been slowed by recent Philippine history
(Integrated Training Task Force, 1989). When the project started in 1984, the country suffered from political and economic instability resulting from the assassination of political opposition leader Benigno Aquino.
When Ferdinand Marcos lost power to Aquino's widow, Corazon, the Project had to defend itse lf against charges of being a legacy of the discredited regime.
Federal and local elections have resulted in the CVRP having to develop working relationships with a changing group of government officials. Some of these new officials have personal agendas that conflict with the CVRP and with each other. One example is the coastal barangay of Achila in Bohol whose newly elected executive is a salt manufacturer. According to a Senior Development Management Officer of the CVRP, the new barangay captain's policy reflects his personal concerns and conflicts with that of the local fishermen and barangay councilors.
They wish to improve the local water supply. In the event of such political conflict, the CVRP concentrates its efforts with the Fishermen's
Association.
Fortunately, the Project did not draw on most of its funds during these slow periods so the International Reconstruction and Development
Bank granted it a two year extension to 1991. The CVRP's goals for 1990 reflect the need to make up for lost time (ITTF, 1989). Its annual budget 28 of 95 million pesos (about $4.6 million) 1s allocated to the following two goals:
1) Completion (55 million pesos) - The CVRP's activities 1n this
endeavor should promote sustainability of the Project's
Improvements after its conclusion.
2) Expansion (40 million pesos) - The CVRP should expand to cover
at least one target barangay In each of the roughly 100 mun
icipalities in the region not covered by the project. The CVRP
will concentrate on Nearshore barangays assuming the Department
of Agriculture and Natural Resources can cover the upland areas.
The CVRP has several structural characteristics to promote institutional sustainability. One is the use of premier barangays, areas that receive special consideration in the application of appropriate technologies. The CVRP's management hopes that these premier barangays will serve as experimental and training centers after the project's conclusion. Some, such as Magsaysay in upland Bohol, already are performing this role.
The CVRP also is encouraging the Local Governments to assume a large role in the execution of the Project's operations. This was promoted by the CVRP retrenchment policy in which half of the Site Management Unit's technical positions were eliminated (ITTF, 1989). The Cebu City govern ment already has assumed responsibility for all its project sites. Other strategies include cooperating with Non-Government Organizations, such as the Cebu Nearshore Site Management Unit's work with Plan International.
In 1988, a task force from the Asian Institute of Journalism evaluated and documented the CVRP (Rosario-Brald, 1988). This evaluation 29 used In-depth and panel interviews with beneficiaries, government officials and CVRP staff for the collection of baseline data and percep tions.
Rosar1o-Bra1d (1988) found that the Site Management Units often responded to the immediate concerns of their clients and that their technologies generally were appropriate. Local organizations have internalized resource management concerns and proper organizational procedure. The CVRP often scheduled activities during slack work periods.
The capital generated by cooperatives is an indicator of potential independence after the CVRP's completion.
Rosario-Braid (1988) reported the perceptions of beneficiaries, CVRP staff and cooperating local officials. The statements show a range from acceptance of dependency, through acceptance of increased reliance to a desire to accelerate the transfer of responsibility.
Rosario-Braid (1988) identified "consensus building" as the primary vehicle for decision making in Barangay Development Councils and Community
Organizations. While these organizations do participate in the decision making process, they often concentrate on project directed activities to the exclusion of other sectors such as health. There is a continued high dependence on Site Management Units for initiation, planning, training and logistical support. As such, the evaluators voiced concerns regarding the sites' ability to function independently after the Project's completion.
Attendees at the Integrated Training Task Force (ITTF) General
Assembly held in October 1989 voiced other concerns. While that assembly was concerned primarily with training, these concerns are relevant to other CVRP areas. 30
- The need to provide social or inter-personal skills before
technical ones.
- Increased integration of activities and clarification of roles
and relationships.
- Shortages of resources, particularly transportation
- Staff development, particularly in response to the retrenchment
and increased Local Government responsibilities.
(ITTF, 1989)
Conclusions from the Study Setting
The situation of the Central Visayas Region of the Philippines and the activities of the Central Visayas Regional Project 1 were examined in this chapter. This information is relevant to popular participation in the CVRP's activities. This is an important issue because local ben eficiaries and Local Governments are supposed to assume a greater responsibility for the management of CVRP projects.
Higher participation should result in the beneficiaries' increased ability to integrate various skills toward the completion of CVRP targets and the development of their communities. Such skills include community organization, community based resource management and appropriate technology. How this is helped by further integrating the CVRP's support components (Research, Development Communications, Training and Evaluation) should be examined. The degree to which the CVRP's activities are perceived worthwhile by its clientele is another consideration. An instrument that can assess these factors could help the CVRP address its goal of active beneficiary participation. CHAPTER THREE
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter's purpose 1s to present Information relevant to popular participation In the CVRP's activities. This information 1s to come from two sources: the study setting and a review of the relevant disciplines.
This review covers Farming Systems Research and Extension which provides a theoretical framework for the CVRP. It also covers the issue of popular participation in rural and educational programs. Such topics should be of concern to the CVRP or any other program that aims to increase the active involvement of its clientele.
Farming Systems Research and Extension
Many change agents have sought to design international development projects that are appropriate to local needs and conditions by undertaking research that includes the active participation of members in a rural community. Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR&E) is one such activity. It actively seeks farmers' inputs in determining and carrying out their research. FSR&E is an important idea because it attempts to foster development from the perspective of its ultimate beneficiaries
(Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl, 1982)
FSR&E uses a holistic view of a given farming system in analyzing that system's problems. This system has several interrelated components including farmers' inputs and expected production. In order to fully understand these components, their relationships to each other and to outside aspects, one must employ expertise in several disciplines. Dar
(1984) noted the importance of a multi-disciplinary approach in upland agriculture with the following observation:
31 32
"The different constraints on Highland Agriculture have led
to emphasis on the formation of various strategies that
conserve and sustain productive and ecologically sound farming
systems" (p 8).
Both the collection of data and the planning, implementation and evaluation of solutions is done with the cooperation of the participants
(Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl, 1982). Although the issues of social change and conflict are not highly pronounced in FSR&E they are hardly ignored
(Mammy, 1985). FSR&E usually concentrates on working with individual households rather than group organizations in trying possible solutions.
This is not unjustified, as De Vries himself (1983) points out that per sonal gain is usually a stronger incentive than communal responsibility.
Methodology - Literature regarding the practical aspects of methodology in FSR&E is extensive. Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT, 1980) outlines an eighteen month process from in itial preparation to evaluation of experiments in which the various activities of the research coincide with appropriate occurrences in the area's planting cycle. One of the first activities is to organize and train a staff to work throughout the process. Training is particularly important because it familiarizes the staff with the significance, objective and procedure of each step in the process. It also should insure that they possess the all-important communication skills in order to deal with the participants.
The FSR&E method employs all three principal methods of research.
The f irs t, descriptive, is accomplished through an informal, or exploratory survey. An initial purpose of the informal survey is to 33 familiarize the researchers with the farming systems in an area. Farming practices and general problems are discovered and key members (both village leaders and progressive farmers) of the community are identified.
A principal result of the informal survey is to specify the issues to be addressed in the formal survey. This is to be done in part through stratifying the subjects into categories of similar characteristics and by obtaining a proper frame for the population.
Since the formal survey will suggest possible experimental solutions to perceived problems, the utmost care should be employed in its design.
Farmers should be screened in order to determine if they f i t a given characteristic that the formal survey will examine. With variability being the main determinant of sample size, CIMMYT suggests that thirty to fifty subjects usually will be sufficient if appropriate measures for replacement and follow-up are taken.
The actual instrument involved should be a spoken interview in which the interviewer records the farmers' responses so the data easily can be analyzed later. CIMMYT suggests that the interview should be no longer than 90 minutes and should have a logical flow for the farmer regarding the major issues being examined. Such issues usually pertain to the management and inputs employed in a given target activity and the resulting outputs. In order to obtain precise information on these issues, special care must be given to the wording of the questions. Once a questionnaire is devised, it should be pretested to determine its validity and to acquaint the interviewers with the instrument. The subjects also should be fully informed of the purpose and procedure of the questionnaire to insure their participation (CIMMYT, 1980). 34
On-Farm Experiments refers to those experiments or tria ls that take place In a participating farmer's field rather than at an experiment station. The Immediate purpose of these experiments is to determine if the innovations Introduced in the experiments are appropriate to the farmer's situation and why. This requires considerable preparation to ensure that the experiment reflects the farmer's environment and is relevant to the farmer's needs.
Hypotheses regarding practical changes of the farmer's current management and the cost and benefit of those changes to the farmer should determine the selection of an appropriate solution. Issues relevant to those hypotheses include the priority of the household's problems or opportunities, the research organization's capabilities and the proposed changes' anticipated results (CIMMYT, 1980).
Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl (1982) listed the necessary steps in planning an on-farm experiment. They stated that the experiments should be designed within the existing conditions of the farm household such as accepted cultural practices and available resources. They also stated that experimental objectives should be determined. In itially , emphasis should be given to development or introduction of technology while later consideration should be given to analyzing farmer adoption of that tech- nology.
After the objectives are determined, an experimental method should be chosen. Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl listed three possible methods.
First are researcher managed trials in which the researcher takes full responsibility for the implementation of the experiment. Farmers assume the responsibility for the experiment in farmer-managed tests; while in superimposed tria ls , a single experimental factor is introduced to the farmers' current activities. After the basic method is chosen, the following procedural issues must be settled: participants and their responsibilities, data to be collected and criteria for evaluation.
During execution, care must be taken to follow any current cultural practices that are not subject to experimental variation to maximize the similarity to on-farm conditions.
Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl (1982) likened the experimental analysis component of FSR&E to its other components in that it should take a holistic approach and reflect the farmer's household. The purpose of the analysis component is to determine if the innovations covered in the experiments result in a biologically, economically and culturally acceptable improvement for the farmer.
Shaner, Philipp and Schmehl wrote that it is the responsibility of researchers to appreciate the farmers' reasons for accepting or not accepting a proposed innovation. Rogers (1963) added that characteristics of innovations influence the rate of their adoption by farmers. Under standing both types of characteristics is important for the researchers to provide useful help to their clientele.
FSR&E's extension component is characterized by the promotion of technologies verified by on-farm experiments and the measurement of their adoption rates. Marsh (1988) described how participatory principles were employed by Consultores del Campo in Michoacan, Mexico. This organization selected, trained and employed local farmers as extension agents and received favorable adoption rates and productivity increases. Extension programs with a systems focus also take an integrated approach. Some 36 programs of the U.S. Cooperative Extension System have shifted their emphasis from promoting Increased production to the improvement of overall productivity (Powell, 1988). In doing so, the programs are based on the farming systems' problems instead of specific technologies. In solving such problems, the programs identify and address the interrelated components of a farming system to increase economic efficiency.
Theoretical Issues - A basic concern is that initial action be taken to establish the credibility of any program employing FSR&E to the clientele and insure their participation. Immediate help to the clientele
(described later) or participation by a program's personnel in the activities or institutions of the clientele's community might accomplish this. Chambers (1983) commended the second method as both establishing the credibility of the program in the eyes of the community and increas ing the staff's appreciation of the community's condition. However,
Maxwell (1986a) felt that such a principle should not be employed in the diagnostic stage of the process or it would bias the data. While this is a theoretically sound notion, one has doubts about the ease of maintaining a participant's enthusiasm for a project, particularly one as time consuming for the participants as the one undertaken by Maxwell. Unless one is incredibly skilled in the art of sustained motivation, a little sacrifice of objective evaluation might be necessary to maintain subject interest.
Another problem is the application of the multi-disciplinary approach in FSR&E programs. This often is hindered by a conflict between social scientists and "pure" agriculturalists. Maxwell (1986b) points out the importance of anticipating and resolving such a potential crisis 37 because of the multi-disciplinary approach required to address the problems of a farm system. Natural scientists often are skeptical of the merits of a social scientist and easily resent any challenge to the established routine of an experiment station brought about by a newcomer.
A proponent of FSR&E may need sound interpersonal skills to be successful in obtaining help from agricultural specialists.
Selected Studies - The principles explained above would be best illustrated with some practical examples. An example of recommendation domains described by CIMMYT is an extension program in Kenya that firs t categorized farmers into degrees of progressive farming practices (Monu,
1980). Training programs then were tailored for each category and, with the completion of a program, farmers could advance to the next highest level. The program provided free training and material inputs to enable the farmer to conduct small on-farm tria ls at lower risk. While a low percentage of the farmers accepted the training, a larger percentage accepted the inputs. Monu stated that for each farmer that participated in the program, three others had adopted the innovation by the next planting season. He said that this illustrated the speed of diffusion among farmers of the same background as opposed to that between richer and poorer farmers.
In their description of a training seminar for extension agents in
Somalia, Long, Beckstrand, Boateng and Smith (1986), described the link between Research and Extension in FSR&E. The gap between agricultural research and extension traditionally has been a hindrance to agricultural development in the Third World. However, in the region described in their work, the centers for research and extension are physically next to each 38 other. Experiments can take place at either center, at the farm or at all three locations.
Mammy (1985) described the activities of the Adaptive Crop Research and Extension (ACRE) Project in Sierra Leone. The testing stage required an on-farm experiment to test the success of a proposed solution. The primary step of the experiment was the selection and training of the participating farmers. Proper orientation then was provided to the farmers so they understood ACRE'S goals. Should the experiment prove to be worthwhile, it would be of immediate benefit to the participants. This should hasten the adoption of the technology by the community and strengthen the link between research and extension.
Mammy (1985) compared a group of participants in ACRE'S program with a group of non-participants. He found that ACRE participants were much more likely to adopt improved rice varieties, recommended fe rtility levels and planting times, and participate in training programs than were non participants. Some of the non-participants who did adopt such measures mentioned ACRE as a major influence.
Although these results do bode well for the potential of ACRE'S worth, Mammy did have several reservations. He suspected that some extraneous variables affected the relative rate of adoption between his two groups. The farmers who participated in ACRE'S program were chosen for their reputation for innovation and for their status in the community.
It would stand to reason that they would have the inclination and (since they were probably of a higher socio-economic status) the resources to adopt the suggested practices at a greater rate than the non-participants.
Mammy feared the implication that ACRE was helping only the richer farmers and creating an income gap within the community. He also acknowledged the practical limitations that probably forced ACRE to take such an action.
Newly formed and probably under-funded and under-staffed, it undoubtedly fe lt compelled to make a favorable firs t impression in order to become established. This would entail concentrating its efforts within a given range of issues and initially working with a clientele that would show a high potential for adopting the suggested innovations. The next challenge for ACRE would be to broaden its clientele to those who most need its services and to expand its activities to include social and economic concerns.
Sthapit, Balugon and Seely (1988) described many of the recurring issues in FSR&E as addressed by the Experimental Station in Lumld, Nepal.
The station has adopted an FSR&E approach in adopting three specific activities: rapid rural appraisal, research thrusts and representative research areas.
The rapid rural appraisals were designed to acquaint the research staff with the farmers' conditions that they were to address. In con ducting the appraisals they had to overcome the cultural differences between them and the farmers to obtain accurate information. Speaking to women was particularly difficult in some areas. The researchers found enormous differences in geography, culture and farming practices between the areas surveyed. They concluded that any proposed innovations had to be tailored for a given area.
The research thrusts consisted of up to ten staff members in various fields working in a given area. The authors voiced concerns regarding tensions among specialties. This was greatly due to the difficulty in 40 research collaboration. Experimental results took different times for different fields, ranging from one month for a social survey to several years for an agro-forestry project. This and the different journal styles hindered collaborative publishing.
Five representative research areas were chosen throughout the station's zone of operations. Their isolated nature helped the members from each research thrust understand each other's field since their contact was so extensive. However, the authors noted the interpersonal skills needed to reach consensus.
Sthapit, Balugon and Seely (1988) described some of the Station's achievements in light of these conditions. They identified cold weather rice varieties and green manure crops that were successful in some of the areas and adapted them to others. They reconciled the differences between
"recommended" compost procedures and the farmers' actual activities. They developed a bedding and housing plan for livestock, adjusting objectives to meet different conditions. These activities show FSR&D's flexibility and adaptability in selecting and testing appropriate innovations.
Popular Participation
Many programs in developing areas, such as the CVRP depend on local participation. This is similar to the concerns expressed by many adult education programs for increasing learner participation. Program designers must try to "market" their programs to their potential clien tele. Smith (1986) wrote that any marketing plan for an adult education program requires a systematic approach with a solid focus. This study could identify such a focus for the CVRP. 41
Mackenzie (1984) listed the following barriers to participation in adult education programs:
- lack of confidence and comfort in an educational setting;
- lack of information about a program;
- lack of encouragement or incentives to participate;
- scheduling conflicts.
To overcome these constraints, Beder (1986) summarized several marketing principles that can increase learner participation:
- a program that is demonstrably tailored to clients' needs and
wants;
- a promotion strategy which communicates the program's favorable
characteristics to the potential clientele;
- a convenient schedule and location.
FSR&E and Local Participation - Insuring the clientele's par ticipation is an important concern in an FSR&E program. Villa (1988) believed that it should promote "people's ability and willingness to in itiate and maintain changes that benefit their own" (page 2). There are two reasons for the promotion of increased farmer participation. The first is that farmers are more likely to adopt innovations when they are familiar with the selection, design and execution of experiments testing those innovations. The second is the empowering of farmers to control their lives and influence their communities. Such a concept is poten tially antagonistic to those with political or economic power.
Villa examined FSR&E symposium proceedings of three years to determine the progress in inducing farmer participation in FSR&E programs.
He found a participation "spectrum". One end was the paternalistic mode 42
in which fanners' decisions were limited to whether or not they should
accept a pre-packaged technology. On the other was the populist mode In which farmers do their own research with little or no outside help. FSR&E
should help farmers adopt the second mode, but a varying mix of both 1s needed in most development situations.
Villa noted that many proponents of increased farmer participation
base their premise on the agricultural development of the United States.
However, this development was influenced by a tradition of popular democracy and farming as a prestigious occupation. This led to an easy partnership between farmers and researchers and to farmers taking the
initiative in adopting innovations. In many developing countries, research is geared toward export commodities and most of the benefits tend to accrue to the elite. The small farmer has little power or prestige and does not receive much attention from national research and extension services. Villa wrote that these constraints must be addressed to induce small farmer participation.
Gilbert and others (1980) implied that the FSR&E process was, by itself, an effective vehicle for motivation. As mentioned earlier,
FSR&E's diagnostic component consists of initial community surveys followed by more intensive farmer questionnaires. These activities should lead to community interest in a project and, by its nature, provide farmers with an opportunity to participate in the planning process. When participants realize that their input is sought in the planning stage of any program, they should be induced to increase their efforts in implemen tation. FSR&E also consists of on-farm experiments that are not only more relevant than those in laboratory conditions but physically are closer to 43 the farmers, thus encouraging participation. Continual, public evalua tions of these experiments would complete this process. Gilbert (1980) listed agricultural centers in Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Colombia that employed such methods.
It would be naive, however, to assume that the very nature of FSR&E would be sufficient to induce a target community to participate in a program. While these programs are philosophically encouraging for clientele participation, the author feels that concrete steps should still be taken to ensure such participation. Change agents firs t should identify the target population of any development program. They then must understand the socio-economic condition of these potential participants and use this knowledge to employ appropriate motivational methods. The participants should appreciate the goals and methods of the program.
During implementation of the on-farm experiments, tangible motivational aids might have to be employed. An example of such an aid is the development of linkages with local credit and marketing institutions.
This would have the dual effect of establishing credibility with local farmers and of providing those farmers with access to inputs thus encouraging higher participation in FSR&E activities. Gilbert (1980) cited the activities of the Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnologia Agricolas in Guatemala as an example of this technique.
Suggestions in Application - A diffusion or communication strategy reflects Smith's concepts on promotion in that it aims to increase the consciousness of the participants to the program's features. Colle (1976) gave several guidelines for a development based communications strategy as shown below: 44
- responsiveness to multiple related Issues In local areas;
- a provision for audience feedback;
- links with established local groups;
- accessibility to the audience;
- cost and simplicity.
Group discussion is an effective way to induce participation in adult education programs especially when methods of promotion, such as mass media, are expensive. Bhola (1979) examined the need to reach a consensus in assessing community needs. Negotiation issues in reaching a consensus include selecting representatives from each group in the community and resolving conflicts. These conflicts arise both from within the group and between the group and outside interests. Solutions and compromises are needed for a consensus which maximizes participation.
Discussion has been shown to be more useful when it is used in conjunction with other methods that induce participation. These include folk culture or popular theatre. Kraii (1979) wrote that discussion can be an effective motivating technique because it builds the participants' self confidence and uses their creative talents. However George's (1984) examination of community drama led him to believe that the links between it and community development activities should be as strong as possible.
Linkages, both internal and external, provide another motivational aid for a development program. Internal linkages would be the iden tification and development of local leadership. Since many traditional societies have a strong respect for local leaders, a program advocated by those leaders is likely to enjoy popular acceptance. External linkages, such as those with local credit and marketing institutions, could 45 establish a program's credibility in a community. They also would increase farmers' access to resources thus encouraging greater adoption of program themes (Gilbert, 1980)
Some of the tasks for effective local leaders were listed by Sumayao
(1983). These include information dissemination, advising community members, initiating projects and acting as a liaison with outside institutions. These duties were categorized into task orientation (in which goals are met) and group orientation (in which the social groups are maintained).
Sumayao found that participation of surveyed lay leaders in Southern
Luzon, Philippines was primarily in program implementation, and minimal participation levels were found in planning and evaluation. This was due, in part, to extension agents' lack of enthusiasm regarding lay leader participation in these fields. Three reasons for this lack of enthusiasm were their belief that leaders are not qualified for such duties, their reluctance to relinquish authority and the traditionally centralized nature of the development policy in the Philippines. However, lay leaders did show a high desire to at least participate in the planning process.
While specifically geared toward measuring lay leader participation, the principles found in Sumayao's study can be applied to examine local participation in programs with an FSR&E focus. She advocated the development of a strong empirical base on development participation that could be used by change agents.
Conclusions from the Literature
A review of the preceding disciplines is relevant to the study which is to measure the degree to which rural clients participate in the 46 planning,Implementation and evaluation of CVRP activities. This reflects the participatory nature of FSR&E.
Popular participation 1s facilitated when clients can apply a program's materials and activities to the resolution of their problems.
This is evidenced by the definition of community problems and the active involvement in the planning, execution and evaluation of experimental activities. Another sign of high participation is the communication of program thrusts and technologies among neighbors.
Such participation would require the coodination of the CVRP's different program components and the development of a community based promotion strategy. The material in this chapter would provide relevant information for the development of an instrument that can clarify such issues. CHAPTER FOUR
METHODOLOGY
This study's primary purpose was to measure the degree of popular participation in the CVRP covered areas 1n Bohol Province, Philippines.
This chapter will examine the procedure used in addressing the study's objectives.
These objectives were met using a personal interview with a sample of CVRP beneficiaries in Bohol Province. This survey is presented in
Appendix B. The following steps in preparing and carrying out this survey are consistent with the suggestions given by Scott (1980):
1) Develop survey firs t draft;
2) Make initial revisions and translation with CVRP staff;
3) Field test survey and make appropriate revisions;
4) Obtain approval from CVRP Management Group;
5) Determine sample group and interview schedule;
6) Select and prepare data collection staff;
7) Prepare data collection kit;
8) Coordinate data collection and tabulation;
9) Analyze, interpret and report data.
The Instrument
The interview's firs t part covered general information regarding the respondents' involvement in the CVRP. The firs t question asked the length of time since the respondent firs t participated in a CVRP sponsored activity. If these responses conflicted with CVRP records regarding entry into each barangay, the records were used instead of the responses. The second dealt with the respondents' affiliation in CVRP affiliated
47 community organizations. The third asked the respondents in which program activities they participated.
The Interview's second part measured participation in activities relating to program planning, evaluation and implementation. This part was adapted from the instrument prepared by Sumayao (1983). Sumayao asked lay leaders and extension workers the following two questions:
1) Was this activity performed by lay leaders in the extension
program?
2) Is it important for lay leaders to perform this activity?
The author revised and translated this survey. Responses cor responded to a modified five point Likert type scale. To the questions regarding the degree to which each activity was done by the clients, the appropriate responses were as follows:
Never done (scored with a 0) Done often (scored with a 3)
Done least (scored with a 1) Done most often (scored with a
Done to an average degree (scored with a 2)
In the questions regarding importance of the activity to the clients, the appropriate responses were as follows:
No importance (scored with a Large importance (scored with 0) a 3)
Least importance (scored with Largest importance (scored a 1) with a 4)
Average importance (scored with a 2)
Wergin (1976) described an evaluation model that resulted in changes in a guidance and counseling program in a public school system. This 49 model noted activities 1n the field that need Improvement by analyzing the
perceived performance and perceived Importance for each activity. The
author felt that this principle could be applied to this study and
identify areas that the CVRP must improve to increase local participation.
The following activities relating to program planning, evaluation
and implementation were listed in the survey: 1) PLANNING
a) Giving the CVRP local information to be used in planning
b) Analyzing local needs and problems
c) Forming project objectives
d) Setting priorities among objectives (to choose which should
receive attention first)
e) Holding community dialogues or meetings to form barangay
development plans and to reach a consensus regarding program
activities
f) Assessing/seeking local resources required for each objective
(local resources are defined as those produced and obtained
from within the barangay, such as animal manure or bamboo).
g) Assessing/seeking outside resources required for each
objective (these are defined as resources that are acquired
outside the barangay, such as agro-chemicals or cement) 2) Evaluation
a) Monitoring and measuring project activities
b) Deciding on criteria and methods to be used in evaluation
c) Keeping records of project activities
d) Judging worth or outcome of project/activity 50 3) Implementation
a) Encouraging neighbors to work on the project
b) Encouraging neighbors to join organizations
c) Teaching/Orienting organization officers and members to their
duties and responsibilities
d) Securing legal/formal registration of associations
e) Giving technical assistance to neighbors/Helping neighbors
with new technology
f) Experimentation/testing new technology
g) Training and development of neighbors in teaching technology
h) Establishing working relationships with other agencies
(includes government and private organizations that could help
the community)
i) Communicating notices or directives regarding project
activities to neighbors
j) Organizing cross visits or exhibits (These usually are
overnight trips for technical training sessions. These trips
would either be to a training center, such asthe one at the
premier upland barangay of Magsaysay, or outside the province
for advanced programs.)
k) Enforcing barangay or association laws and regula-
tions/Disciplining delinquent members (or non members) of an
association or barangay
1) Serving as representative for CVRP field staff in meetings or
activities. Field Testing. Revisions and Approval - The instrument's content validity was reviewed by a panel of experts holding the following positions in the CVRP:
Technical Coordinators Management Group
Acting Executive Director
Project Manager for Operations
Provincialization Consultant
Training Coordinator
Monitoring and Evaluation Coordinator
Bohol Site Management Units (2)
Site Managers (2)
Development Management Officers (2)
The panel approved the instrument's general content but recommended several changes regarding translation into the Visayan language.
The author first field tested the instrument by interviewing beneficiaries in the Nearshore Site Management Unit in Ronda, Cebu and then in both upland and nearshore areas in Bohol. Based on this experience, questions that were redundant or irrelevant were eliminated.
Other issues, such as organizations or assessing resources were expanded.
The author also found that respondents tended to give the same value to each question. He decided that he had to ask them to compare the degree of performance and importance of the participation activities within each section (planning, evaluation and implementation) of the instrument. To facilitate this, the author prepared a visual list of each participation activity, included in Appendix B. 52
The respondents often found the survey's activities regarding participation vague. When asked about which activities had the largest importance or degree of performance, they often Ignored those mentioned in the survey. Instead, they talked about such tangible program activities as soil conservation. To address this problem, interviewers were Instructed to ask about the types of participation in terms of the program activities in which the respondents participated, as mentioned in the survey's first part. This gave the respondents a frame of reference when assessing their participation. Similarly, the respondents were to be asked about the participation activities' performance and importance in terms of the organizations that they named in the survey's firs t part.
These measures were taken to make the questions as tangible as possible to the participants.
Population and Sample
This study's target population was the approximately 2,300 client beneficiaries in the seven CVRP covered municipalities in Northern Bohol.
These beneficiaries worked with the Upland Agriculture and Nearshore
Fisheries Site Management Units in the province. These municipalities included the following: UPLAND MUNICIPALITIES NEARSHORE MUNICIPALITIES
Tallbon (six barangays, 413 Tallbon (eight barangays, beneficiaries) 241 beneficiaries)
Trinidad (six barangays, Bien Unido (seven baran- 237 beneficiaries) 9ays, 273 beneficiaries)
San Miguel (eight baran- Ubay (eight barangays, 269 gays, 563 beneficiaries) beneficiaries)
Danao (four barangays; 219 Carlos P. Garcia (four bar- beneficiaries) angays, 68 beneficiaries)
Sample size was determined using Cochran's formula (Cochran, 1977).
Given an acceptable five percent error at a 95% confidence level, an initial sample size of 384 was determined. Since the population was found to be 2,283, the sample was adjusted with the following equation:
n = ng/U+tnq/N)) = 384/{1+(384/2,283)) - 329
Respondents were selected through a systematic random sample. The author compiled a list of all the beneficiaries as prepared by the CVRP.
This was the accessible population. The ratio of the sample divided by the population is .144 or approximately 1 in 6.9. At the top ofthe master lis t, the author started with the beneficiary who corresponded with a one decimal number randomly selected from one to six point nine and rounded to the nearest whole number. Then the author selected every succeeding beneficiary by adding six point nine to the preceding number in the sample and rounding off. Rounding errors resulted in a sample size of 331 respondents. If a sample member could not be interviewed, then the beneficiary listed below on the master list was chosen as an alternate. 54
ErepqEfltj.on im i M l Collection The author spent one month preparing for data collection. This included determining the sample (as described in the previous section) and resulting interview schedule. Given the sample size and the estimated daily survey rate per interviewer (four a day in the upland areas and six for the nearshore areas), the data collection was estimated to take about
73 man days. The author also informed as many local government leaders in the area as possible of the survey and the methods for respondent selection.
Staff selection and development was an important part of prepara tion. The author hired eight staff members for a two week working period.
Interviewers were selected on communication skills and the willingness to travel throughout the target barangays over that period. The Bohol Site
Management Units were helpful in recommending potential staff members.
Since the surveys were collected during school vacation in the
Philippines, the author was able to hire four teachers from the local school system. Three other interviewers were former workers of the CVRP and another had experience in reforestation. Payment was one hundred pesos a day plus expenses when the daily interview quota was met.
Staff members underwent a two day training session. The firs t section was an orientation to the survey's characteristics and the interviewers' roles and duties. This was followed by simulated interviews and field exercises in two nearshore barangays in Talibon. The session also covered logistical issues and concluded with assigning interview schedules to the staff members. The training design and related notes on this seminar are presented in Appendix C. A major objective of the 55 session was that the staff members would consistently ask the same questions 1n the same manner to each respondent.
The author prepared an Interviewer's kit for each member. It
Included the following materials:
1) Population, sample lis t and schedule for each staff member's
assigned area
2) Copies of surveys
3) Survey visual aids
4) Sheet for expenses
Data Collection - Backstrom and Hursh (1963) stated that an interviewer should conduct the same survey for as short a time as pos sible, ideally no more then two weeks. Surveys of long duration risk interviewer fatigue and historical events that will bias later responses compared to earlier ones. Most of the interviewers completed their assignments within this time; one took an extra two days. The author personally conducted a minimum of the interviews. His primary role of coordinating the data collection and tabulating the responses employed most of his time. He also wished to minimize the potentially biased responses that the beneficiaries might give to a foreigner.
The instrument itse lf was a spoken interview that, on the average, took no more than fifteen minutes. Most of the interviewers' time was taken up finding the respondents in the barangays. One team of two interviewers used a motorcycle. The others had to depend on public transportation and walking.
The author took special care in staff selection and development to ensure that the interviewers would adhere to the survey procedure. As 56 the two week data collection period was adopted, interviewer fatigue diminished as a potential cause for inaccurate reporting. However, the possibility could not be eliminated. Therefore, the author staggered the starting period for some of the staff members so he could supervise them on their firs t day.
Data Analysis
The study's data analysis reflected the objectives to be addressed by the instrument. Means and standard deviations were calculated for the respondents' perceived performance and importance scores for each of the participation activities mentioned in the survey. A Spearman Correlation
Coefficient {Spearman's Rho) was computed to determine the degree of correlation between the ranking of performance scores and importance scores for the participation activities. T-tests were performed for each participation activity to determine which had a significantly higher mean score for perceived importance than perceived performance. This identified those activities in which client participation should be improved.
Since all of the participation activities showed a statistically higher score for perceived importance the author identified those with
"substantive" significance. This term was described by Gold (1969) as findings that are considerable enough to justify conclusions and recommendations. He wrote that statistical significance is a minimal, not sufficient criterion for substantive significance. He felt that many studies reported their findings as significant even though they were inconsequential. To avoid this, participation activities for which perceived importance was more than half a point higher than perceived 57 performance were classified as being substantively higher in importance.
This also controlled the threat of multiplication of statistical error.
Further analysis was done on those participation activities with a substantively higher importance score relative to perceived performance.
Specifically, program variables obtained in the survey's first part were examined as potential influences of participation. Statistical analyses used for this purpose included the following:
1) Years of CVRP Participation - Pearson's Correlation was performed
to determine the relationship between a member's duration of
participation with the CVRP and perceived performance.
2) Participation in Organizations or Program Activities - This
concerns major organizations or program activities. The author
defined major organizations or activities as those in which at
least ten percent of the respondents claimed participation. He
fe lt that these had a high enough number to be considered as
legitimate program variables. Multiple t ratios were obtained
to find significant differences between these subgroups and the
rest of the sample. In this situation, c comparisons (each with
an error rate of «) would result in a total error rate ac. This
is shown by the equation below:
ae - 1 - (1 - *)c To insure that the total error rate «c remains at an acceptable
level, critical values were taken from the Studentized Range
Distribution. The critical values in this distribution rise for
each increase in the comparisons to be done. This avoids the multiplication of statistical error (Harter, 1969; Hochberg and
Tamhane, 1987).
3) Leadership Positions - A t-te s t determined whether or not local
leaders had a significant difference in perceived performance
relative to non leaders. CHAPTER FIVE
FINDINGS
Three hundred and thirty one respondents were interviewed for this survey. They were selected from the 2,283 upland and nearshore bene ficiaries in the Ipil River Watershed area of Bohol Province. The respondents included 207 upland farmers, 123 nearshore fishermen and one person who participated in both areas.
The findings in this chapter reflect the study's objectives. The first objective is addressed in the findings from Part Two, Selected
Participation Activities. One tailed t-tests were used to identify those program activities in participation which received a significantly and substantively higher score for perceived importance than for performance.
This met the study's second objective.
For those activities identified as having substantively higher importance scores, statistical tests were done to address the third objective and determine their relationship with selected program vari ables. These variables included length of participation (in months), major organizations and activities (those having at least ten percent of the respondents as participants) and leadership positions. Pearson's cor relation determined whether or not a significant relationship existed between length of participation and perceived performance. Multiple t ratios (with higher critical values) contrasted the performance scores between participants of major organizations and activities and the rest of the sample. Lastly, t-tests examined the difference in perceived performance between local leaders and other clientele.
59 60
First and Second Ob.lectives - Participation Activities
First Objective - To meet the study's first objective, twenty-three activities relating to project participation were rated by the respondents in terms of perceived performance and importance. These ratings were based on a scale of zero to four. Mean scores and standard deviations for all variables are shown in Table 6. These participation activities were divided into three sections: planning, evaluation and implementation. For each participation section they were ordered by performance score.
The participation activities receiving the highest mean score for perceived performance in each section were as follows: in Planning,
Holding Meetings (2.99); in Evaluation, Keeping Records (2.79) and in
Implementation, Helping Neighbors with New Technology (3.27). Those with the lowest mean score for perceived performance were Looking for Outside
Resources (1.68) for Planning, Judging the Project (2.66) for Evaluation and Organizing Trips (1.63) for Implementation.
Holding Meetings (3.33), Keeping Records (3.27) and Helping
Neighbors with New Technologies (3.68) also had the highest perceived importance scores in their respective sections. While Looking for Outside
Resources (2.67) and Judging the Project (3.13) had the lowest mean importance score in their sections, Registering Associations (2.78) had the lowest score for implementation. 61 Table 6 Perceived Performance and Importance of Participation Activities
Performance Imoortance Activity Mean St.Dev. Mean St.Dev.
1) Planning
Holding Meetings 2.99 .89 3.33 .90
Forming Project Objec 2.93 .78 3.25 .89 tives
Giving Information to 2.69 .82 2.97 .96 CVRP
Looking for Local 2.67 .81 3.03 .96 Resources
Analyzing Local Situa 2.63 .80 2.97 .95 tions
Prioritizing Project 2.61 .81 3.07 .95 Objectives
Looking for Outside 1.68 1.25 2.67 1.21 Resources
2) Evaluation
Keeping Records 2.80 1.04 3.27 .90
Measuring Results 2.79 .79 3.19 .94
Choosing Evaluation 2.76 .84 3.19 .99 Methods
Judging Project 2.66 .80 3.13 .95
3) Implementation
Helping with new Tech 3.27 .68 3.68 .65 nology
Promoting Membership 2.89 .89 3.23 .96
Establishing Working 2.84 .87 3.16 .94 Relations (continued) 62 Table 6 Perceived Performance and Importance of Participation Activities (cont.)
Performance Importance Activity Hean St.Dev. Mean St.Dev.
Soliciting Support for 2.81 .89 3.20 1.00 Program Activities
Teaching Association 2.75 .74 3.12 .88 Officials/Members
Experimentation 2.69 .79 3.20 .93
Spreading News 2.69 .85 3.10 1.00
Training Neighbors 2.64 .74 3.10 .94
Enforcing Laws 2.57 1.04 3.20 .94
Representing CVRP 2.38 .89 2.86 1.02
Registering Associations 2.22 1.16 2.78 1.23
Organizing Trips 1.63 1.21 2.85 1.15
Note, n = 331
Table 7 shows the rank order of both the performance and importance scores of the twenty-three participation activities. A Spearman correlation coefficient (Spearman's Rho) was computed to determine the relationship between the two sets of rankings. The computed value was r
= .860 (p < .001). This shows a highly significant relationship between the order of the performance scores and that of the importance. Table 7 Ranked Mean Values of Perceived Performance and Perceived Importance of Participation Activities
Rank PfifPO.IVfid Rank Perceived Order Performance yalpe Order lmoortance Value
1 Helping with New 3.27 1 Helping with New 3.68 Technology Technology
2 Holding Meetings 2.99 2 Holding Meetings 3.33
3 Forming Project 2.93 3 Keeping Records 3.27 Objectives
4 Promoting Member 2.89 4 Forming Project 3.25 ship Objectives
5 Establishing Work 2.84 5 Promoting Member 3.23 ing Relationships ship
6 Soliciting Support 2.81 6 Soliciting Support 3.20 for Project for Project Activities Activities
7 Keeping Records 2.79 7 Experimentation 3.20
8 Measuring Results 2.79 8 Enforcing Laws 3.20
9 Choosing Evalua 2.76 9 Measuring Results 3.19 tion Methods
10 Teaching Associa 2.75 10 Choosing Evalua 3.19 tion Offi tion Methods cial s/Members
12 Experimentation 2.69 11 Establishing Work 3.16 ing Relationships
12 Spreading News 2.69 12 Judging Project 3.13
12 Giving Information 2.69 13 Teaching Associa 3.12 to CVRP tion O ffi cials/Members
14 Looking for Local 2.67 14 Spreading News 3.10 Resources (continued) 64 Table 7 Ranked Mean Values of Perceived Performance and Perceived Importance of Participation Activities (cont.)
Rank Perceived Rank Perceived Order Performance Value Order Imoortance Value
15 Judging Project 2.66 15 Training Neighbors 3.10
16 Training Neighbors 2.64 16 Prioritizing Pro ject Objectives 3.07
17 Analyzing Local 2.63 17 Looking for Local 3.03 Situations Resources
18 Prioritizing Pro 2.61 18 Giving Information 2.97 ject Objectives to CVRP
19 Enforcing Laws 2.57 19 Analyzing Local 2.97 Situations
20 Representing CVRP 2.38 20 Representing CVRP 2.86
21 Registering 2.22 21 Organizing Trips 2.85 Associations
22 Looking for Out 1.68 22 Registering 2.78 side Resources Associations
23 Organizing Trips 1.63 23 Looking for Out 2.67 side Resources
Note. When tied values were equal to three decimal places (third decimal not shown), tied rankings were averaged.
Note. Correlation between rankings = .860 (p < .001; Spearman Cor relation Coefficient).
Appendix D shows the results of factor analysis performed on the participation activities as computed by both performance scores and impor tance scores. The activities could load into three groups when computed by either set. The factor groups loaded for each set of variables were not compatible. When examining the three factor groups for both sets, 65 four of the variables could not be placed Into corresponding groups. As such, the author could not Inferr anything conclusive and excluded the factor analysis procedure from the main body of this study.
Second Objective - The next objective was to identify the par ticipation activities that have both a significantly and substantively higher score for perceived importance relative to perceived performance.
As shown in Table 8 (in which the participation activities were ordered by the difference in means) t-te sts were performed to address this objective. All t values were significant beyond the .001 level. However, only five activities for which the importance score exceeded the perfor mance score by at least half a point were classified as substantially different. Those activities with the largest difference in mean values were Organizing Trips (1.22) and Looking for Outside Resources (.99). As noted in the previous chapter, organizing trips usually refers to arranging the logistics for overnight technical training sessions. These would either be to a provincial training center, which has the appropriate facilities for lectures and field experiences, or outside the province for programs that are beyond the capacity of such centers. Looking for outside resources refers to seeking the inputs necessary for the program activities that are not generally available in the barangay. This could include agricultural inputs, building materials or finances. Sources could include institutions in municipal centers or outside the province. Table 8 t-Tests Comparing Perceived Performance and Importance of Participation Activities
Difference t Activity in Means Value
Substantively and Statistically Signif icant
Organizing Trips 1.22 15.32
Looking for Outside Resources .99 12.41
Enforcing Laws .62 11.06
Registering Associations .56 11.19
Experimentation .51 13.58
Statistically Significant Only
Keeping Records .48 10.59
Representing CVRP .48 11.94
Judging Project .47 12.45
Prioritizing Project Objectives .46 11.50
Training Neighbors .46 11.63
Choosing Evaluation Nethods .43 10.96
Spreading News .41 11.90
Helping with New Technology .41 10.53
Measuring Results .41 10.39
Soliciting Support for Program .39 11.26 Activities
Teaching Association Officials/Members .37 10.12
Looking for Local Resources .37 9.98 Analyzing Local Situations .34 8.45 (continued) 67 Table 8 t-Tests Comparing Perceived Performance and Importance of Participation Activities (cont.) Difference t A ctivity In Means Value Promoting Membership .34 9.88 Holding Meetings .34 8.46 Forming Project Objectives .32 8.33 Establishing Working Relationships .31 9.67 Giving Information to CVRP .28 8.45
Note. All t values are significant beyond the .001 level.
Note. Participation Activities are classified as substantively significant when importance scores exceed performance scores by more than half a point.
Third Objective - Selected Participation Activities
and Program Variables
Further statistical analysis was performed on the five activities identified as substantively significant. This was to meet the study's third objective which was to determine the influence that selected program variables had on the performance of those activities. These variables were recorded in the Survey's First Part, General Information, and included length of participation, participation in major organizations and activities and leadership positions.
Length of Participation - Length of participation ranged from one to 94 months, the average time being just under 41 months. The distribu tion of the responses for this survey item is shown in Table 9. 68 Table 9 Responses about Length of Participation In the CVRP
Lenath of Participation Responses (in Months) Ouantltv Percentaae
1 - 1 2 22 6.6
13 - 24 61 18.5
25 - 36 86 26.0
37 - 48 57 17.2
49 - 60 77 23.2
61 - 72 17 5.2
73 and over 11 3.3
TOTAL 331 100.0
Note. Mean length of participation is 40.95 months.
Pearson's Product Moment Correlation Coefficients were computed to determine the correlation between length of participation (in months) and perceived performance scores for each of those program activities. Only one of those coefficients proved to be statistically significant, that corresponding to Looking for Outside Resources (r = .139). The correla tion values for each activity are shown in Table 10. 69 Table 10
Pearson's Product Coefficients for Correlation between Length of Par ticipation and Perceived Performance for Selected Participation Activities
E Activity Value
Looking for Outside Resources .139*
Registering Associations -.034
Experimentation .077
Enforcing Laws -.033
Organizing Trips .087
Note, n « 331
*p < .05
Ma.ior Organizations and Program Activities - Statistical analysis was done to determine whether or not participants in major organizations or program activities gave significantly different values for perceived performance. As mentioned in the previous chapter, major organizations or program activities were defined as those in which at least ten percent of the respondents claimed participation.
All but 57 (17.2 percent) of the respondents reported belonging to one or more CVRP affiliated organizations. The most common response was
Farmer Associations (79 responses or 23.9 percent). As with Fishermen
Associations and Mangrove Planters Associations, these usually were barangay wide organizations formed specifically for CVRP program activities. Cooperatives, Samahang Nayons and Free Farmer Federation
Chapters typically were pre-existing organizations with which the Site
Management Units established working relations when they entered a 70 barangay. Alayons and Sitlo organizations consist of neighbors within a barangay subdivision (often called a sitio or purok) who cooperate 1n working their land, often a single micro-watershed. Table 11 shows the organizations that, having at least ten percent of the respondents as members, are defined as major organizations. Participants of these major organizations were compared with the rest of the sample for perceived
performance of the selected participation activities. Other groups
include local government units, artificial reef associations and Community
Based Contract Reforestation organizations. A list of all organizations mentioned in the survey is included in Appendix E.
Table 11
Responses about Participation 1n CVRP Affiliated Organizations
Ma.1or Organizations Responses (at least 10% of total respondents) Quantity Percentage
Farmers Associations 79 23.9
A1ayons/Sitios 57 17.2
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free Farmer 56 16.9 Federation Chapters
Mangrove Planters Associations 52 15.7
Fishermen Associations 38 11.5
No Organizational Affiliation 57 17.2
Note. Many respondents belonged to more than one organization.
All but two of the respondents mentioned CVRP program activities in which they were involved. As the central activity in the Upland Program,
Contour Farming was by far the most common activity (207 responses or 62.5 percent). Table 12 lists those program activities in which at least ten percent of the respondents claimed participation and so were defined as 71 major activities. These were later analyzed as potential influences of performance of the selected participation activities. Other activities
(listed in detail in Appendix E) included the following:
Intercropping Sea Farming
Agroforestry/Nursery Man- Barangay Development agement Action Plans
Upland Fisheries
Table 12
Responses about Participation in CVRP Program Activities
Ma.ior Activities Resoonses (at least 10% of respondents) Quantity Percentaae
Contour Farming/Soil Conservation 206 62.2
Livestock Dispersal 94 28.4
Mangrove Planting 90 27.2
Artificial Reef Installation 49 14.8
Reforestation 39 11.8
Note. Many respondents participated in more than one activity.
Multiple t ratios were done to examine participation in the major organizations and program activities shown in Tables 11 and 12. They determined whether participation resulted in significantly different perceived performance scores. Critical values were obtained from the
Studentized Range Distribution. These higher critical values maintain the desired levels of significance for multiple comparison (eleven for each participation activity examined) by avoiding multiplication of statistical error.
Tables 13 through 17 show the eleven comparisons for each selected participation activity (Looking for Outside Resources, Registering 72
Associations, Experimentation, Enforcing Laws and Organizing Trips).
These comparisons were made between those who responded that they participated In the major organizations or activities (signified by n,) and the rest of the sample (signified by n2) Thirteen significant differences were found, although none were associated with Registering
Associations or Organizing Trips. This includes a significant difference for Looking for Outside Resources between respondents who had no organizational affiliation and the rest of the sample. High positive t values were typically associated with upland organizations or activities while high negative t values corresponded to nearshore organizations or activities. One could infer that the perceived performances were generally higher for participants of upland groups and lower for participants of nearshore groups relative to the rest of the sample. 73 Table 13 Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Looking for Outside Resources between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organizations and Activities
Means D1fference % Oraanlzat1on/Act1vltv Di n2 In Means Values Farmers Associations 2.13 1.54 .59 4.42
Alayons/Sltlo Organizations 2.61 1.41 1.20 7.75****
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free 1.89 1.64 .23 1.29 Farmer Federation Chapters
Mangrove Planters Associations 1.19 1.77 -.58 -3.20
Fishermen Associations .87 1.79 -.92 -5.90***
No Organizational Affiliation .98 1.83 -.85 -4.71*
Contour Farming/Soil Conserva 2.14 .93 1.21 9.73**** tion
Livestock Distribution 2.20 1.47 .73 5.36**
Mangrove Planting 1.01 1.93 -.92 -6.47****
Artificial Reef Installation .88 1.82 -.94 -5.89***
Reforestation 1.80 1.66 .14 .74
Note. Sub-samples denoted by n, are for participants of each major organization and activity (and for those with no organizational affiliation). Sub-sample sizes correspond with Table 11 and 12. Control sub-samples, n2, correspond to the rest of the respondents (331 - n,).
Note. Critical values from Studentized Distribution Ranges were used. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .005. ****p < .001 74 Table 14 Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Registering Associations between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organizations and Activities
Means D1fference Oroanlzat1on/Act1v1ty n, n2 1n MeM$ Values Farmers Associations 2.14 2.24 -.10 -.74
Alayons/Sltlo Organizations 1.54 2.35 -.81 -3.84
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free 2.59 2.14 .45 2.73 Farmer Federation Chapters
Mangrove Planters Associations 2.29 2.20 .09 .61
Fishermen Associations 1.82 2.27 -.45 -2.60
No Organizational A ffiliation 2.65 2.12 .53 3.52
Contour Farm1ng/So1l Conserva 2.11 2.39 -.28 2.36 tion
Livestock Distribution 2.08 2.27 -.19 1.29
Mangrove Planting 2.53 2.10 .43 3.66
A rtificial Reef Installation 2.04 2.25 -.21 -1.28
Reforestation 2.54 2.17 .37 1.95
Note. Sub-samples denoted by n1 are for participants of each major organization and activity (and for those with no organizational affiliatio n ). Sub-sample sizes correspond with Table 11 and 12. Control sub-samples, n2, correspond to the rest of the respondents (331 - n,).
Note. Critical values from Studentized Distribution Ranges were used. There were no significant t values. 75 Table 15 Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Experimentation between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organizations and Activities
Means D1fference t Oraani zati on/Activ1 tv n2 1n Means Values
Farmers Associations 2.91 2.62 .29 3.67
Alayons/Sitio Organizations 2.86 2.66 .20 1.81
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free 3.05 2.62 .43 4.41 Farmer Federation Chapters
Mangrove Planters Associations 2.23 2.78 -.55 -4.32
Fishermen Associations 1.68 2.82 -1.14 -7.74****
No Organizational Affiliation 2.84 2.66 .18 2.03
Contour Farming/Soil Conserva 2.94 2.28 .66 7.49**** tion
Livestock Distribution 3.04 2.55 .49 6.00***
Mangrove Planting 2.42 2.79 -.37 -3.95
Artificial Reef Installation 2.02 2.81 -.79 -5.26**
Reforestation 3.13 2.63 .50 5.57***
Note. Sub-samples denoted by n, are for participants of each major organization and activity (and for those with no organizational affiliation). Sub-sample sizes correspond with Tables 11 and 12. Control sub-samples, n,, correspond to the rest of the respondents (331 - n,).
Note. Critical values from Studentized Distribution Ranges were used. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .005. ****p < .001. Table 16 Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Teaching Neighbors between Participants and Non-particl pants of Major Organizations and Activities
Mean? Difference £ Oreanizatlon/Actlvitv Hi n2 in Means Values Farmers Associations 2.58 2.57 .01 .07
Alayons/S1t1o Organizations 2.51 2.59 .08 .43
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free 3.02 2.48 .54 4.59* Farmer Federation Chapters
Mangrove Planters Associations 2.27 2.63 -.36 -2.84
Fishermen Associations 2.13 2.63 -.50 -3.14
No Organizational A ffiliation 2.75 2.54 .21 1.74
Contour Farming/Soil Conserva 2.70 2.36 .34 3.16 tion
Livestock Distribution 2.87 2.46 .41 3.46
Mangrove Planting 2.43 2.63 -.20 -1.72
Artificial Reef Installation 2.29 2.62 -.33 -2.34
Reforestation 2.87 2.53 .34 2.23
Note. Sub-samples denoted by n, are for participants of each major organization and activity (and for those with no organizational affiliation). Sub-sample sizes correspond with Tables 11 and 12. Control sub-samples, n2, correspond to the rest of the respondents (331 - n,).
Note. Critical values from Studentized Distribution Ranges were used.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .005. ****p < .001. Table 17 Comparisons of Perceived Performance for Organizing Trips between Participants and Non-participants of Major Organizations and Activities Means Difference £ Oraanlzation/Activity In Means Values
Farmers Associations 2.04 1.50 .54 3.80
Alayons/S1t1o Organizations 1.32 1.70 -.38 -1.81
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free 1.95 1.57 .38 2.12 Farmer Federation Chapters
Mangrove Planters Associations 1.64 1.63 .01 .03
Fishermen Associations 1.16 1.69 -.53 -3.52
No Organizational Affiliation 1.44 1.67 -.23 -1.34
Contour Farming/Soil Conserva 1.81 1.34 .47 3.67 tion
Livestock Distribution 2.03 1.47 .56 3.70
Mangrove Planting 1.52 1.67 -.15 -1.07
A rtificial Reef Installation 1.18 1.71 -.53 -3.35
Reforestation 2.10 1.57 -.53 -2.72
Note. Sub-samples denoted by n, are for participants of each major organization and activity (and for those with no organizational affiliatio n ). Sub-sample sizes correspond with Tables 11 and 12. Control sub-samples, n,, correspond to the rest of the respondents (331 - n,).
Note. Critical values from Studentized Distribution Ranges were used. There were no significant t values.
Leadership Positions - T - tests were performed to determine whether or not leaders gave significantly different performance scores relative to other respondents. For this exercise, twenty-five respondents were classified as major leaders and compared with the rest of the sample.
These were defined by the author as offices with significant respon- 78 s1b1lities for the operation of an organization. Such positions Include the following:
1) Association Officials - Includes presidents, vice presidents,
treasurers, secretaries and chairmen of active committees or
boards.
2) Local Government Officials - Includes barangay captains and
council members, members of barangay development councils and
municipal council members.
Significant differences were found for three participation activities: Experimentation, Enforcing Laws and Organizing Trips. Table
18 shows the comparative means and resulting t values for each activity.
Table 18 t-Tests Comparing Perceived Performance of Selected Participation Activities between Leaders and Non-Leaders
Heans Difference t Activity Leaders Others in Heans Value
Looking for Outside Resources 1.840 1.667 .073 .64
Registering Associations 2.400 2.199 .201 .72
Experimentation 3.000 2.667 .333 2.43*
Enforcing Laws 2.960 2.543 .427 2.34*
Organizing Trips 2.240 1.582 .658 2.45*
Note, n, - 25, n2 - 293
*p < .05.
Chapter Summary and Interpretation
Three hundred thirty-one CVRP beneficiaries in Northern Bohol were interviewed in the survey. To address the study's firs t objective, twenty-three activities relating to project participation were measured 79
for perceived performance and Importance. Many of the activities with
high performance scores also had high importance scores. In fact, a
Spearman Correlation Coefficient of .860 showed a very high relationship
between the rank orders of perceived performance and perceived importance.
The study's second objective was met when t-te sts determined which of those participation activities had a significantly higher score for perceived importance relative to performance. All of the activities had statistic a lly higher importance scores. However, only five had substan tively higher importance scores which exceeded the performance scores by at least one half point. These were led by Organizing Trips and Looking for Outside Resources (refer to Table 8).
As required in the Third Objective, a connection was sought between the perceived performance of the five activities with substantively higher
importance scores and several program variables. Length of participation had a small relationship, signified by an r value, with Looking for
Outside Resources (Table 10).
Five organizations and five program activities were defined as program variables because each had at least ten percent of the par ticipants as the respondents. There also was a large number of respon dents who reported belonging to no organization at all. Since these findings met the criteria to be defined as major organizations or activities, they were used for further analysis. Analysis using multiple t ratios showed a significant difference between participants and non- participants in major organizations or program activities in twelve cases.
In these cases, performance scores for upland activities and organizations were generally higher relative to those in nearshore activities and organizations. T-tests showed that leaders showed significant differ ences in perceived performance relative to non leaders in three participa tion activities: Experimentation, Enforcing Laws and Organizing Trips.
The implications of these findings will be discussed in the next chapter. CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The Central Vlsayas Regional Project 1 (CVRP) aims to raise the living standards of its beneficiaries, improve their environmental resource base and promote greater local autonomy. In doing so, it employs a Farming Systems Research and Extension (FSR&E) approach in which it addresses the interrelated components facing the rural household system.
One of the major principles of the CVRP and FSR&E is the emphasis on the participation of its beneficiaries. This study was conducted to measure the degree to which popular participation occurs in one of the CVRP's working areas, the Ipil River Watershed of Bohol Province.
The study was to do this by meeting the following objectives:
1) To measure the CVRP participants' perceived performance and
perceived importance for a set of activities relating to the
planning, execution, and evaluation of CVRP sponsored projects.
2) To determine which of the participation activities has a higher
score for perceived importance than for performance.
3) To determine the relationship between the following CVRP program
variables or participant positions in their community and the
participants' responses regarding those activities:
- Duration of involvement with CVRP;
- A ffiliation with CVRP sponsored community organizations;
- Participation in the CVRP's program activities.
Cultural differences, institutional issues and the logistical problems inherent in conducting social research in a developing setting
81 82 hampered the study. However, the study has considerable potential in helping the CVRP identify those participation activities that should be increased to realize its goal of enabling the beneficiaries to become de- facto managers of their resources.
Analysis of the CVRP showed its progress in achieving their physical targets and its ability to respond to its clientele's concerns. However
Rosario-Braid (1988) saw a continued dependence of the rural clients on the CVRP field staff for project initiation and planning.
A review of literature characterized FSR&E as holistic and applied to the on-site characteristics of the rural beneficiaries. As such, popular participation is stressed because the clientele best understand the environment for which innovations are designed. Their participation also empowers them toward self determination in which they can control and manage their future. Measures that promote popular participation include a comprehensive communication strategy, discussion, internal linkages with local leaders and the application of a program in solving local problems.
The author designed a survey to measure local participation in CVRP activities in the Province of Bohol. The instrument used was a spoken interview in which respondents first gave general information regarding their participation in the CVRP. They then rated local performance and importance of twenty-three activities relating to project planning, evaluation and implementation using a zero to four scale. A two stage process was used to record the respondents' performance and importance scores so avoid inflated scores. Three hundred and thirty-one respondents throughout the province were chosen through a systematic random sample. 83
Eight interviewers were hired and attended a two day training session designed to Instruct them on proper survey procedure. The
Interviews were conducted over a period of two weeks. He then compiled statistics for the 331 interviews, Including t-tests to identify those participation activities that had a significantly higher importance score relative to perceived performance.
Summary of Findings - The twenty-three activities relating to project participation were measured for perceived performance and
importance. Those with the highest perceived participation; Holding
Meetings, Keeping Records and Helping with New Technology; also had the highest perceived importance. A Spearman Correlation Coefficient of .860 showed a very strong relationship between the rank order of the perfor mance scores and that of the importance scores. Looking for Outside
Resources, Registering Associations and Organizing Trips had low scores for both performance and importance.
T-tests determined which of those activities had a significantly higher score for perceived importance relative to performance. All of the activities were so identified, and five had a substantive difference of at least half a point. These are listed below with the difference in means between perceived importance and perceived performance:
Organizing Trips (1.22) Enforcing Laws (.62)
Looking for Outside Resources Registering Associations (.56) (.99) Experimentation (.51)
A connection was sought between the perceived performance of these five activities and several program variables. Length of participation had a small significant relationship with Looking for Outside Resources. 84
Multiple t Ratios showed a significant difference between participants and non-participants of major organization or program activities in twelve cases. There was one significant difference for those with no organiza tional affiliation. In the cases where participation in upland activities and organizations showed significant differences the perceived performance scores were generally higher. Respondents in nearshore activities and organizations gave lower performance scores. Those participation activities that, when associated with Upland and Nearshore organizations or program activities, showed a significant difference are shown below.
UPLAND ORGANIZATIONS OR PROGRAM ACTIVITIES
1) Looking for Outside Resources - Significant differences were
found with Alayons/Sitio Organizations, Contour Farming/Soil
Conservation and Livestock Dispersal.
2) Experimentation - Significant differences were found with Contour
Farming/Soil Conservation, Livestock Dispersal and Reforestation.
3) Enforcing Laws - A significant difference was found with
Coops/Samahang Nayons/Free Farmer Federation Chapters.
NEARSHORE ORGANIZATIONS OR PROGRAM ACTIVITIES
1) Looking for Outside Resources - Significant differences were found
with Fishermen Associations, Mangrove Planting and A rtificial Reef
Installation.
2) Experimentation - Significant differences were found with Fishermen
Associations and Artificial Reef Installation.
Leaders showed significant differences in perceived performance relative to non leaders in three participation activities, Experimenta tion, Enforcing Laws and Organizing Trips. Conclusions
There 1s a high correlation between the rank order of perceived
performance and that of perceived importance (r - .860; p < .001). This
could imply that the CVRP's beneficiaries are most active in the par
ticipation activities for which they see the greatest need. The CVRP can
be justifiably proud in encouraging such participation.
However, every participation activity had a statistically higher
score for perceived importance relative to perceived performance. This
can have several reasons. One is the rural respondents' natural tendency
to overstate their need for anything offered. Another is the fact that
the rural beneficiaries are s till dependent on the CVRP for the initiation
and execution of program activities as mentioned by Rosario-Braid (1988).
Lastly, the clientele's increased participation in CVRP programs have
awakened them to the importance in increasing their self determination.
This could be implied by their high importance scores.
A case could be made for the CVRP to increase local participation
in all twenty-three participation activities with significantly higher
importance scores. However, it should consider giving higher attention to those activities identified as having substantive differences between perceived importance and perceived performance. The firs t tie r of such activities would be Organizing Trips and Looking for Outside Resources followed by Enforcing Laws, Registering Associations and Experimentation.
Further examination of these five activities would be in order.
The CVRP believed that handling the logistics of a training session and obtaining outside resources were beyond the ability of marginal rural families. Therefore, the field staff had traditionally assumed the 86 participation activities Identified as Organizing Trips and Looking for
Outside Resources. However, since the CVRP aspires to transfer management responsibility to Its beneficiaries by its completion in 1991, i t should increase local participation in all aspects. This would include improving its clientele's logistical ability in projects and training activities.
Enforcing Laws and Registration were participation activities that
Implied the need for of formal, operative organizations. According to
Virgilio Zabala, the Site Manager for the Bohol Upland Unit, the CVRP typically places a higher priority on functional activities than on formal structure regarding its affiliated organizations. However the scores for these two activities could suggest that improving organizational effec tiveness could be a legitimate concern. Tangible actions by CVRP associated associations would facilitate the transfer of management responsibility to those groups.
One of the major principles of FSR&E is that innovations should be appropriate for the areas to which they are introduced. This is helped by local participation in the testing of those innovations. Experimenta tion was one of the participation activities that had a substantively higher importance score relative to importance. The CVRP could better achieve the aims of FSR&E by addressing this issue.
There are two reasons why the CVRP should not rely on its bene ficiaries' increased experience for a higher degree of participation.
One is that none of the participation activities had a large correlation with length of participation. The largest was Looking for Outside
Resources with a Pearson's r value of .139. Squaring this value gives the degree to which variation in that participation variable can be 87 explained by time and such a proportion 1s less than two percent. Another reason 1s that the CVRP only has until the end of 1991 to conclude its activities. This shows the need for the CVRP to make an active effort to increase its beneficiaries' share of program responsibility.
Organizations and program activities' influence on the performance of participation activities implies that nearshore beneficiaries are not very active participants compared to their upland counterparts. A possible reason is the nature of the primary nearshore activities.
Artificial reef installation and mangrove planting are constant, static activities which, as practiced by the CVRP, have small emphasis on local management and adaptation. Upland activities often must adapt to individual farms or communities and need a greater degree of local input.
Their results are also quicker and more visible to their beneficiaries then are nearshore activities. Nearshore programs should have a higher emphasis placed on local adaptation and management.
Three of the participation activities showed a significant dif ference when compared between leaders and non-leaders. They all showed the leaders with the larger scores. Both the CVRP and local leaders should take measures to promote the visible performance of these activities. This could be helped by an increased flow of communication, both within the local organizations and between those organizations and the CVRP.
Recommendations
Based on his experiences in designing and conducting the study and on that study's findings, the author divided his recommendations into two 88
categories. The firs t Is recommendations for practice and the second Is
for further study.
Recommendations fgc Practice - These suggestions for actively
Increasing local participation are primarily addressed to the CVRP.
However, they could apply to any other program using a systems approach
and wishing to increase its beneficiaries' active participation.
1) Promote visible local contribution in program activities. This
should help address such needs identified in the findings as
Looking for Resources, Registering Associations and Experimenta
tion. The author believes that program activity plans submitted
by the CVRP's technical components should have the following
provisions:
- Local Contribution in Obtaining Outside Resources -
Obtaining outside resources is often beyond the bene
ficiaries' current abilities. Many of the inputs needed
for CVRP programs are either expensive or not available
in the area. The Site Management Units are addressing
this need by increasing the local supply of such inputs
as planting materials. This should be expanded as
should activities that increase the local economic base,
such as sea farming or upland fishing. This way, the
clientele's potential access to resources will continue
after the project's completion.
- Local Contribution to Adapting Program Activities to
Local Conditions - Emphasis should be placed on Involving all clientele, not just local leaders in this
adaptation.
- Local Approval of Program Activity - This can be in the
form of an association resolution. It would show that
such an association is an active functioning organiza
tion and that the program activity is a priority with
that organization. It will also maintain communication
within the association. This measure can be instrumen
tal in the establishment of municipal and barangay
resource management committees.
2) Increase emphasis on local participation in nearshore program
activities - The CVRP should try to decrease the gap in perceived
performance between nearshore and upland beneficiaries, par
ticularly in the fields of seeking resources and adapting to
local conditions. This would entail increased attention to such
programs as sanctuary management and sea farming. Another
possibility would be to promote advanced programs in A rtificial
Reef and Mangrove Management which place a high emphasis on local
management.
3) Promote visible local contribution 1n training programs. This
should help address the needs identified in the survey findings
pertaining to Organizing Trips (which is typically for training)
and Training Neighbors. The author believes that training
designs submitted to the CVRP's Training and Manpower Development
component should have the following provisions: Local Contribution to Organizing Training Sessions or
Trips - Actually, there is little that can be done In this regard. The Site Management Units prefer to conduct training 1n centers outside the barangays where the clientele are not distracted by household concerns and where facilities are available. Therefore, they typically assume the logistical concerns. However, having a beneficiary in each barangay act as a visible liaison between the Site Management Units and the clientele would improve local participation in this regard. It will also increase the beneficiaries' familiarity with the logistics of such activities, increasing their ability to continue them after the
CVRP's conclusion. A useful vehicle for such continua tion would be the local training task forces.
Local Contribution to Training and Program Design - The review of literature showed various instances where training is enhanced by local contributions. The CVRP has a pool of trainers for each working d istric t but they should consider expanding this to the barangay level.
Local Approval of Training Design - The last can be in the form of an association resolution. It would show that the design was presented to its intended bene ficiaries and that they appreciated its goals and 91
methods. This measure can be Instrumental in the
establishment of local training task forces.
These recommendations entail deliberate measures to increase the beneficiaries' share of program responsibility.
Recommendations for Study - These recommendations are appropriate for future evaluations for the CVRP and any other study measuring popular participation in FSR&E. One recommendation involves survey management and the other concerns data analysis.
1) Ensure that all Interviewers use the same survey procedure. The
author tried to do this with a training session and staggered
scheduling. Increased supervision during data collection would
have been desireable but it was limited by transportation
constraints in a developing rural area over seven municipalities.
However supervision could have been increased in times when it
was easiest, such as the field experiences in training. Future
researchers should use counselling sessions with interviewers
after field experiences to identify and correct mistakes. If the
interviewers' proficiency is s till uncertain, they should be kept
in nearby areas where supervision is easiest.
2) Use more intensive analysis in examining participation
activities. Almost all the activities relating to program
participation in the activity were found to have to be sig
nificantly higher in perceived importance than in perceived
performance. It became necessary to identify those activities
with the largest differences or t scores. It would have been
appropriate to use statistical methods that were specifically 92
designed to do this. One example would be Analysis of Variance
followed by a multiple analysis tool such as Least Significant
Difference. These tools can help future researchers infer which
activities should receive higher priority or attention.
These recommendations will enable future evaluations to better provide direction in promoting in increasing local participation.
*******
The Central Visayas Regional Project, 1 promotes a partner rela tionship with its beneficiaries. This study was conducted to recommend ways in which this partnership can be strengthened through increasing the clientele's share of program management. This is a major goal of the CVRP since it wants its beneficiaries to continue as the de-facto resource managers of their communities after the Project's completion.
This study's examination of the link between Farming Systems
Research and Popular Participation has significance for other programs.
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CONTRACT, RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Submitted to: By:
Jesus C. AUx, Acting Director Jonathan Hubchen Central Visayas Regional Project, 1 Research Associate, CVRP
February 6, 1990
This document is prepared for the following reason:
1) In his Memorandum of Agreement, the Associate is required to prepare a program proposal and work program for his study. This is particularly important since this proposal is significantly different form his original intention.
2) Such a document promotes clear understanding between the associate and the CVRP regarding the goals and conduct of the study. It also signifies this understanding to other parties, such as the associate's doctoral committee and external funding sources.
I PURPOSE OF JHE STUDY
The primary goal of this study is to measure the degree of popular participation in the CVRP covered areas in Bohol Province. Specific objectives are:
1) To obtain information that is relevant to the study. This shall come from a review of literature and an examination of the study's setting.
2) To measure the participants' perceived performance and importance for a set of activities relating to the planning, execution, and evaluation of CVRP sponsored projects.
3) To determine which of the activities merit special attention in future CVRP activities by virtue of a higher score for perceived importance than for performance.
4) To determine the relationship between specific CVRP program variables or participant positions in their community and the participants' responses regarding the activities.
5) To propose future program thrusts for the CVRP based on the study's results.
6) If resources and time are available, to measure the respondents' perceptions at least six months later and to compare the scores for the two time periods.
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I I MEIHQQQLQ6Y
1) The Instrument to measure client participation 1s adapted from one used by Blanda Sumayao that measured lay leader participation 1n extension 1n Camarines del Sur. A copy of the modified instrument is enclosed with this document and will be made available in the Provincializatlon Office of the CVRP.
2) The target population Is the client beneficiaries of the CVRP Upland Agriculture and Nearshore Fishery Site Management Units of Bohol Province. The sampling procedure will be presented to the CVRP by March 26, 1990.
3) The associate will provide salary and travel provisions for the data collection staff out of his own finances. The CVRP shall provide some office supplies.
4) The study's schedule of activities is as follows:
- The Instrument was designed, tested, and tentatively approved in January and February 1990. Final refinements will be submitted for approval by March 26, 1990.
- Selection and orientation of data collection staff and other preparatory activities will take place during March 1990.
- Primary data collection will take place during April 1990.
- Data analysis and proposed recommendations will be done in May and June 1990. At this time, any other activities deemed appropriate will be submitted for approval.
5) The respective roles of all parties concerned are as follows:
- The associate will coordinate, manage or perform the activities mentioned above with his own finances.
- The data collection staff will attend all meetings called by the associate. They each will conduct and record at least six interviews in the Nearshore sites and four in the Upland sites per working day over the course of the data collection period.
- The CVRP will provide office access and some supplies for the study and dwelling for the associate while in Bohol. It also will help the associate in gaining access to transportation and qualified data collection staff. 99 in siATEiM q e a g r e e m e n t
With his signature below, the associate signifies his acceptance of the responsibilities described 1n the document.
JONATHAN HUBCHEN Research Associate
With his signature, the acting director of the Central Visayas Regional Projects, 1 signifies his consent to the provisions described in the document.
JESUS C. ALIX Executive Director, CVRP
Date: February 6, 1990 APPENDIX B
ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT FOR CLIENT PARTICIPATION
1 ENGLISH VERSION
Good______and thank you for your time. My name i s ______and I am interviewing you for the CVRP. The CVRP would like to help increase the local participation in CVRP projects. Before it can do this, it has to know how much local people participate in the CVRP's projects now. This way the CVRP can understand your true needs and design appropriate programs. This is the reason for this survey.
I am interviewing you because your name was chosen at random from a list of all adoptors of the CVRP. Please understand that your answers will only be used to help the CVRP to measure local participation and are entirely confidential.
First, I will ask you some general information. Then I will ask you about various ways that local people participate in development projects. These activities are divided into three categories: planning, evaluation, and execution of development projects. For each activity I want you to answer two questions:
1) Was this done by people or organizations 1n the barangay (including yourself)? Answer yes or no. Then for each part, tell me which activity was done the most and which was done the least in the barangay.
2) Is it Important for your barangay that local people to do this? Answer not important or important. Then for each part, tell me which activity was most important and which was least important.
Please understand that these are different questions. Sometimes your community might not do something as much as you think is necessary. If you tell me this, the CVRP can try to increase local participation in this activity.
Again thank you very much. This information will help the CVRP to increase your participation in its activities and help your community continue in these activities after CVRP is finished.
GENERAL INFORMATION
1) How long have you participated in CVRP activities?
2) In what CVRP associated organizations have you participated and what offices did you hold?
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3) In what CVRP activities have you participated in your community? - Projects - Other programs (i.e. training or dramas; what and how long)
MAYS OF PARTICIPATION
1) Oo people in the barangay participate in planning CVRP projects? If so, please tell me about the following activities1:
ACTIVITY PERFORMANCE IMPORTANCE
a) Furnishing local information to be a i) aii) used in planning.
b) Analyzing local needs and problems. bi) . . bii)
c) Forming project objectives. c i ) cii)
d) Setting priorities among objectives. di) dii)
e) Holding community dialogues to form ei) eii) barangay development plans and to reach a consensus.
f) Assessing/seeking local resources fi) fii) required for each objective.
g) Assessing/seeking outside resources gi) .. gii) required for each objective.
Do people in the barangay participate in evaluating CVRP proje so, please tell me about the following activities:
a) Monitoring and measuring project a i)_ . aii) activities.
b) Deciding on evaluation criteria meth - bi) bii) ods.
c) Keeping records of project. ci). ci i)
d) Judging on worth or outcome of project/activity. di) . . dii)
Interviewers are to record performance and importance scores using a 0-4 scale. Complete information regarding scoring is found in the firs t training handout in Appendix C. 102
3) Please tell me about the activities Involved with execution of projects in which barangay people participate:
ACTIVITY PERFORMANCE IMPORTANCE
a) Encouraging neighbors to work on the ai) a ii) _____ project.
b) Encouraging neighbors to join bi) b ii) _____ organizations.
c) Orienting organization officers and ci) cii)______members to their duties and respon sibilities.
d) Securing legal registration of di) dii) _____ associations.
e) Giving technical assistance to ei) eii) _____ neighbors.
f) Experimentation/testing new tech- fi) fii)______nology.
g) Training and development of neigh- gi) g ii)_____ bors in technology.
h) Establishing working relationships hi) hii) _____ with other agencies.
i) Communicating notices, directives i i ) ______i i i ) _____ to neighbors.
j) Organizing cross visits or exhibits. j i ) j i i ) _____
k) Disciplining delinquent members (or ki) kii) ______non members) of an associa- tion/barangay
1) Serving as representative for CVRP li) lii)______field staff. 103
I I VISAYAN VERSION
Maayong ______ug daghang selamat sa imong panahon. Akong gulngalan s1 ______ug maklgsultl ko kanlmo alang sa CVRP. Ang CVRP gusto modugang sa pagsalmot sa mga katawhan sa barangay sa 11ang proyekto sa CVRP. Una sa tanan, unta nga ang CVRP magpaklsayud unsay guidak-on sa pagsalmot sa mga taga barangay karon. Ang tuyo niini, ang CVRP makasabot sa inyong tinuod nga gulkinahanglan aron sa paghimo ug mga mapuslanong programa. Kini maoy katarungan sa akong pag-anhl.
Makigsulti ko nimo tungod kay ang imong ngalan napilian sa wala tuyoa gikan sa lista sa tanang mga tawo nga magtrabaho uban sa CVRP. Palihug tuhoi ko nga ang Imong tubag dawaton ug hiposon sa nagpasiugda.
Una, mangayo ko nimo sa mga impormasyon bahin sa imong trabaho uban sa CVRP. Unya ako mangutana kanimo bahin sa mga pa-agi sa pagsalmot sa mga proyekto sa CVRP. Guibahin nako kining mga pa-agi sa tulu sama sa: pagplano, pagsuta sa kaayohan ug paghimo o pagpatuman sa mga proyekto sa kauswagan. Kun mohimo, sa kada pa-agi, gusto ko nga ikaw motubag sa duha sa pangutana:
1) Guihimo ba kining kalihukan sa mga tawo (ikaw o laing tawo} o organisasyon sa barangay? Tubag nga wala o o-o. Unya sa kada bahin, ingna ko unsay mga kalihukan nga guihimong sa kinadak-on, sa dako kaayo ug sa kinagamayan.
2} Klnahanglan ba para sa imong barangay nga ang mga tawo sa barangay mohimo niining kalihukan? Tubag nga dili kinahanlan o kinahanglan. Unya sa kada bahin, ingna ko unsay mga kalihukan nga guiicinahanglan para sa imong barangay nga sa kinadak-on, sa dako kaayo sa kinagamayan.
Palihug pagkasabot nga laing pangutana kining duha. Tingale sa imong dapit, ang guidak-on sa paghimo sa kalihukan kulang kun itandi sa guikinahanglan sa barangay. Kun imong historiahon kini kanako, ang CVRP mosulay modugang sa pagsalmot sa mga taga barangay niining kalihukan.
Nausab, daghang selamat. Kining impormasyon mopulos sa CVRP aron sa pagdugang sa inyong pagsalmot sa inyoung mga proyekto. Kining impormasyon matabang usab kaninyo aron sa pagpadayon sa inyong kauga- 1 ingong kalihukan inigkahuman sa CVRP.
IMPORMASYON SA PROGRAM
1) Unsa nay kadugayan nga nagapil ikaw sa mga kalihukan sa CVRP? _____
2} Unsay mga organisasyon guiapil nimo nga nilsalmot sa kalihukan sa CVRP? Kun ika usa ka opisyal unsay imong katungdanan? 104
3) Unsay mga kalihukan sa CVRP guiapil nimo sa Imong barangay? - Proyekto sa kauswagan - Laing kalihukan (pananglltan training o drama)
PA-AGI SA PAGSALMOT
1) Niapil ba ang mga tawo sa barangay sa pagplano sa mga proyekto sa CVRP? Kun tinuod kini, Ingna ko bahin niining kalihukan.
KALIHUKAN GUIHIMO? KINAHANGLAN?
a) Ang pa-agi sa paghatag ug impor- ai) a ii)_____ masyon bahin sa barangay ngadto sa CVRP para sa Inyong pagplano
b) Ang pa-ag1 sa pag-ila sa mga lokal bi) b ii) ______nga guikinahanglan ug problema o suliran
c) Ang pa-agi sa paghimo ug mga katu- ci) c ii) ______yoan sa proyekto
d) Ang pa-agi sa pagpili o paghanay sa di) d ii)______prioridad sa mga katuyoan
e) Ang pa-agi sa paghimo ug mga dis- ei) e ii)______kusyon o tigum sa barangay aron sa paghimo ug piano para sa kauswagan o pagpangayo sa lokal nga pagtugot
f) Ang pagpangita sa mga lokal nga fi) f i i )______kahinguhaan para sa kada katuyoan
g) Ang pagpangita sa mga kahinguhaan gi) g ii) ______gawas sa barangay para sa kada katuyoan
2) Niapil ba ang mga tawo sa barangay sa pagsuta sa kaayohan sa mga proyekto? Kun tinuod, ingna ko bahin niining mga kalihukan.
a) Ang pa-agi sa pagbantay ug pagsukod ai) a ii) ______ug mga kalihukan sa proyekto
b) Ang pagpili sa pa-agi sa pagsuta bi) b ii) ______105
KALIHUKAN GUIHIMO? KINAHANGLAN?
c) Ang paghupot o pagbaton ug mga ci) ______c ii)_____ rekord sa proyekto
d) Ang paghukom sa kabililhon o sa d1) ______dii sangputanan sa proyekto
3) Ingna ko bahin sa mga pa-agi sa paghimo o pagpatuman sa mga proyekto nga guiapil sa mga lokal nga tawo
a) Ang pagkampanya, pagpangayo o pag- ai). aii padasig sa pagbulig o pagtabang para sa proyekto
b) Ang pagdani sa mga silingan nga moapil bi). bii sa mga asosasyon
c) Ang pagpahibalo sa mga opisyal ug ci). Cll sakop sa asosasyon bahin sa ilang katungdanan ug tulubagon
d) Ang pagparehistro sa asosasyon di). dii
e) Ang pagtabang ngadto sa mga silingan ei)_ e n sa mga bagong teknolohiya
f) Ang pagiksamin o pagdoki-doki sa mga fi)_ fii bagong teknolohiya
g) Ang pagtudlo, pagtraining o pagban- gi)_ g n say-bansay aron sa pagpauswag sa mga silingan
h) Ang paghimo ug maayong relasyon hi), hii sulod sa trabaho uban sa mga ahen- siya o kapunongan
i) Ang pagpadala o pagpahatud ug mga ii)„ m pahibalo ug mga balita sa mga kasil- inganan
j) Ang pagorganisar ug mga cross visit ji)_ j i i o biyahe
k) Ang pagpatuman sa mga balaod ngadto ki)_ kii sa mga badlongong sakop o di1i sakop sa kapunongan
1) Ang pagrepresentar o pagpadala sa li)_ lii mga opisyal sa CVRP/SMU ngadto sa tigum o sa laing tawo ANG PAGPLANO
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