Urban Floods and Climate Change Adaptation: the Potential of Public Space Design When Accommodating Natural Processes

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Article Urban Floods and Climate Change Adaptation: The Potential of Public Space Design When Accommodating Natural Processes

Maria Matos Silva * ID and João Pedro Costa CIAUD, Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário do Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisboa, Portugal; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +351-21-361-5884

Received: 28 December 2017; Accepted: 7 February 2018; Published: 9 February 2018

Abstract: Urban public space is extraordinarily adaptable under a pattern of relatively stable changes. However, when facing unprecedented and potentially extreme climatic changes, public spaces may not have the same adaptation capacity. In this context, planned adaptation gains strength against “business as usual”. While public spaces are among the most vulnerable areas to climatic hazards, they entail relevant characteristics for adaptation efforts. As such, public space design can lead to effective adaptation undertakings, explicitly influencing urban design practices as we know them. Amongst its different intrinsic roles and benefits, such as being a civic common gathering place of social and economic exchanges, public space may have found an enhanced protagonism under the climate change adaptation perspective. In light of the conducted empirical analysis, which gathered existing examples of public spaces with flood adaptation purposes, specific public space potentialities for the application of flood adaptation measures are here identified and characterized. Overall, this research questions the specific social potentiality of public space adaptation in the processes of vulnerability tackling, namely considering the need of alternatives in current flood management practices. Through literature review and case study analysis, it is here argued that: people and communities can be perceived as more than susceptible targets and rather be professed as active agents in the process of managing urban vulnerability; that climate change literacy, through the design of a public space, may endorse an increased common need for action and the pursuit of suitable solutions; and that local know-how and locally-driven design can be considered as a service with added value for adaptation endeavors.

Keywords: urban ﬂoods; climate change; adaptation; interdisciplinarity; public space

1. Introduction The idea of public space may be apprehended by a set of two meanings: (1) a conceptual meaning commonly used in political and social science, in which public space, “brings together all the processes that configure the opinion and collective will” as characterized by Innerarity, ([1] p. 10) (author’s translation) and (2) a physical meaning, commonly used in urban planning and design, regarding where and how previous actions are developed [2,3]. More specifically, a space that enables and promotes community life, such as streets, sidewalks, plazas, coffee shops, parks or museums, and that potentially offers services with wide-ranging benefits with tangible and intangible values. Other authors have additionally highlighted pubic space as multidimensional space, with a central social, political and cultural significance [4]. In regards to its physical characteristics, it has been particularly argued on the long-lasting permanence of public space as a structuring urban space [5,6] of interdisciplinary nature [7,8]. Overall, public space may be defined by Hanna Arendt’s communal table: it “gathers us together and yet prevents our falling over each other, so to speak.” ([9], p. 52).

Water 2018, 10, 180; doi:10.3390/w10020180 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 2018, 10, 180 2 of 24

In the present article, all these previously mentioned facets of public space are embraced and its specific role in urban adaptation processes is furthermore discussed, namely by arguing that through the application of effective measures in public spaces, communities are facilitated to comprehend, learn, engage and mobilize for climate action. As highlighted in previous publications [10,11], the distinctiveness of urban territories as major centers of communication, commerce, culture and innovation may empower successful processes and outcomes in the climate change adaptation agenda, due to “interchange processes of products, services and ideas that are processed and expressed in their public spaces” ([2], p. 120, author’s translation). As Jane Jacobs pointed out, in a pioneering critical criticism on modern urbanism orthodoxy that quickly became mainstream faith, “lively, diverse, intense cities contain the seeds of their own regeneration, with energy enough to carry over for problems and needs, outside themselves” ([12], p. 448). What is regularly overlooked in large scale planning and policy—often guided by questionable interests—is a community’s inherent resilience. Not only do people want to be the main actors in the urban space, but also want to be at the center of space design concerns. The currently ongoing project “PSSS—Public Space Service System” [13] acknowledges this recognition of public space potential roles, and is working on new critical concepts for public space assessment, with new criteria within a systemic logic focusing on service and value creation, which is useful for actions calling for urban adaptability. Concerning the recurrent phenomenon of urban flooding, climate change research has been warning to the fact that traditional flood management practices must be reassessed, namely if projected impacts are to be managed, such as the likely increased frequency and greater intensity of storms (precipitation and storm surges) together with a rise in sea level. This is an increasing threat that affects all the people in a community, particularly the most vulnerable (elderly, children, poor, among others). Indeed, it is possible to verify an emerging change from the conventional focus on reducing the probability to experience floods to the aim to reduce society’s vulnerabilities. This former notion inevitably promoted the emergence of new flood management approaches that started to integrate risk and uncertainty in its practice, notably by fully acknowledging and welcoming the processes of the natural water cycle. Among others, Best Management Practices (BMPs), Green Infrastructure (GI), Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM), Low Impact Development (LID) or Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) [14] are well representative of these new approaches. All of which implies changes in the relationship between the city and (its) water. Considering public space as a communal space system that develops spatial services [15], as a collective entity of shared concerns, a new claim for climate change adaptation is presented: the claim that public space may additionally serve as a social beacon for change. In light with Pelling’s findings, people and communities are not only targets but also active agents in the management of vulnerability [16]. Ulrich Beck also highlighted that “what was made by people can also be changed by people” ([17], p. 157). Correspondingly, not only it is in the public space where hazards become tangible to a community, but it may also be where adaptation initiatives may strive. It therefore comes as no surprise that a new variety of insurgent citizenship is arising within public spaces as the urgent matter of climate change adaptation is recognized among our societies. Regardless, bearing in mind the potential severity of the projected impacts that are expected to become increasingly more unavoidable, many authors agree that our society is still not responding accordingly [18]. Some societies have shown to be reluctant of the need to face impending threats of climate change due to an absence of common understanding of what is the “common good”. Hesitant communities may be driven by the fact that climate change is still a much-politicized issue or by the fact that adaptation is still a fairly recent strategy of response. Regardless of the causes in climate change suspicions, some cases provide evidence of an inclination to prioritize other values. Even within developed countries that have suffered direct consequences of severe climate impacts, some communities, such as the case of New Orleans local society [19], have rejected initiatives towards a more adapted urban environment. Other communities, in other situations, also did not initially Water 2018, 10, 180 3 of 24 welcome adaptation actions. This is namely the case of the first attempt to implement the currently internationally recognized concept of the Water Plaza, which can be briefly characterized by being a low-lying square that is submerged only during storm events. Despite a promising start—with an idea that had won the first prize of the 2005 Rotterdam Biennale competition—the first pilot project failed. Risks, such as of children drowning, triggered strong emotional reactions from local citizens who started naming the idea as the “drowning plaza” ([20], pp. 121–122). Having wisely learned from the encountered barriers that prevented the implementation of the first project, the second pilot project had not only a new location, but, more importantly, a new approach towards technical criteria and social participation and is currently considered an exemplary case of concrete climate change adaptation in a highly urbanized area. Cases like these evidence that social, cultural and emotional factors can be more valued and respected than the need of physical safety or ecological services of public spaces. This fact is one that strengthens the importance of continual community evolvement alongside additional and distinct methods for the dissemination of scientific knowledge with within the agenda of climatic adaptation. According to Van Der Linden, persuasive communication about climate change is only successful when based on an integrated acknowledgement of the psychological processes that control pro-environmental behavior [21]. However, public spaces seem to offer what Van Der Linden considered as fundamental for climate change adaptation engagement: through public spaces and public space design, local aspects of climate change can be made visible and thus meaningful for citizens and their livelihoods. Furthermore, public spaces provide a source of knowledge and information (besides the mainstreamed sources of science and media) that may be apprehended as an autonomous and independent process. A process with direct learning experiences, based on deep-rooted traditional experience and know-how, in a public domain that is naturally subject to social control. In other words, public spaces may provide extended opportunities for experiential learning that are influenced by specific contexts and social pressures. Through a medium that is closer to people, “climate change literacy” may more likely endorse a common need to search for solutions. As highlighted by CABE (Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment) adaptation of cities to climate-driven threats is strongly dependent on “well-designed, flexible public spaces”([22], p. 2). When integrating local expertise as well as scientific and technical knowledge in a flexible and clear-cut design, public spaces are not only able to promote adaptation action and reduce risk of disaster, but also improve awareness on climate change. The physical and the social components combined make public spaces favored interfaces for adaptation action. In public spaces, people may “be” as well as “become” both producers and managers of adaptation action. People may “be” producers and managers of adaptation through autonomous, individual or collective involvements—from art manifestations to community-based projects. In addition, people may also “become” both producers and managers of adaptation when awareness is raised through direct consequence of the formerly mentioned processes or through institutional endeavors, by the message of public art and other participative or deliberative actions evolved in public space design. In this line of reasoning, the design of public space sees itself enhanced in the face of impending weather events, being here considered as a determinant for the adaptation of urban territories when facing climate change. Underlying this assessment lies the argument that public spaces support the new emerging tendency on urban flood management [23], where the precedent goal to effectively and rapidly avoid or convey stormflows is being gradually replaced by the goal to incorporate storm water within the city and through the enhancement of the whole natural water cycle. In other words, that public space helps promote a change of paradigm for more flood-adapted cities that aim to reduce vulnerabilities while integrating environmental, social and economic concerns. Water 2018, 10, 180 4 of 24

2. Methodology Climate change adaptation initiatives are still faced with numerous challenges. Most common barriers to adaptation can be associated with “short term thinking of politicians and long term impacts of climate change”, “little finance reserved/available for implementation”, “conflicting interests between involved actors”, “more urgent policy issues need short term attention” or “unclear social costs and benefits of adaptation measures” ([20], p. 139). However, every day successful adaptation examples grow in number, and, as argued by Howe and Mitchell, it is increasingly important to see more empirical studies of adaptation examples rather than just dwell on the barriers to change [24]. New and innovative adaptation projects can be exploited as a creative laboratory, which can serve to propose, assess and monitor solutions through an ongoing learning process that may serve to inform future decisions and reduce generalized hindering constraints. This research advances from an empirical analysis, which gathered existing examples of public spaces with flood adaptation purposes, and is targeted at identifying and characterizing specific public space potentialities for the application of flood adaptation measures. The presented analysis is based on comprehensive case studies highlighted in research projects, bibliographical reviews, interviews with specialists, networking or in site visits. Besides including main or secondary functions related to flood vulnerability reduction, the chosen range of examples also aimed to select “good quality” cases among a comprehensive group of public space typologies. This research approach is named here “Portfolio Screening”. For Jan Jacob Trip, public space may be the element of urban development that is most difficult to plan and design as it relates to so many intangible qualities inherent to the quality of place itself [25]. Difficulties in this purpose arise for there is no consensual formula that would define the quality of public space design. Although it is commonly accepted that good design must develop from a sensible understanding of its situation and all its encompassing contexts (environmental, cultural, social, economic and political) [26], and therefore is likely to result in a place that is valued “in general”, a rational may be required in the assessment of adaptation practices. Based on an exhaustive evaluation of thousands of public spaces worldwide, the non-profit organization Project for Public Spaces (PPS) provides evidence that “great places” generally share four principal attributes, namely: sociability, uses and activities, access and linkages and comfort and image. One may anyhow presume that public spaces that entail flood adaptation measures are likely to include at least one of PPS’s intangible qualities of being “vital”, “useful”, “sustainable” or “safe”. The Portfolio Screening, i.e., the range of empirically collected examples, is therefore based on the abovementioned references and emphasized attributes. It further encompasses a comprehensive range of public space typologies. For this purpose, the typology of public spaces identified by Brandão was used, namely the differentiation regarding “Layout spaces” (plazas, streets, avenues), “Landscape spaces” (gardens, parks, belvederes, viewpoints), “Itinerating spaces” (stations, interfaces, train-lines, highways, parking lots, silos), “Memory spaces” (cemeteries, memory and monumental spaces), “Commercial spaces” (markets, shopping malls, arcades, temporary markers, kiosks, canopies) and “Generated spaces” (churchyard, passage, gallery, patio, cultural, sports, religious, children’s, lighting, furniture, communication, art) ([27], p. 35). The range of presented examples in the Portfolio Screening therefore covers all the aforementioned types of public spaces. The gathered range of cases aimed to further provide a geographically representative scope, yet, inevitably, projects with greater dissemination and improved access to information were privileged. The examples presented in the Portfolio Screening specifically involve 19 countries and 72 cities. Together, they are not meant to offer an exhaustive collection but rather a significant sample of designed solutions that endorse further reliable research and decision-making. Water 2018, 10, 180 5 of 24

3. Public Space Potentialities for the Application of Flood Adaptation Measures Table1 advances the conducted empirical analysis, which gathered existing examples of public spaces with flood adaptation purposes, together with the identification of public space potentialities for the application of flood adaptation measures for each presented example. In several of the examples that enabled this analysis, adaptation measures were unrecognized as such. The existing functional qualities of some cases were rather associated to other, more prevailing, conceptual approaches such as sustainability or flood protection. However, in light of the previous findings, namely in regard to the concept of adaptation [28], all presented examples are considered as adaptation measures. Not only do all examples entail the transposition of uncertainty, and its apparent impediments, into public spaces of multifunctional qualities, but also all examples serve as solid grounds for the assessment of adaptation action. In light of the examples presented in the Portfolio Screening, it was possible to identify six public space potentialities specifically directed towards the application of flood adaptation measures, namely: (1) the favoring of interdisciplinary design; (2) the possibility to embrace multiple purposes; (3) the promotion of community awareness and engagement and interaction; (4) the comprehension within an extensive physical structure; (5) the possibility to expose and share value and (6) the opportunity to diversify and monitor flood risk. Each of these features will be analyzed in the following pages and further reinforced by the association particular cases from the Portfolio Screening. Water 2018, 10, 180 6 of 24

Table 1. Portfolio Screening: Public space potentialities for the application of ﬂood adaptation measures.

Community Extensive Public Space Interdisciplinary Multiple Expose and Diversify and Project Name Location Construction Engagement Physical Typologies 1 Design Purposes Share Value Monitor Risk and Interaction Structure 1 Caixa Forum plaza Madrid 2006 L, I, M, G X X 2 Westblaak’ car park silo Rotterdam 2010 I XX 3 Woolworths Shopping playgr. Walkerville 2013–2014 C, G XXX 4 North Road Preston 2009 C, G XX 5 Expo Boulevard Shanghai 2010 L,GXX 6 Jawaharlal Planetarium Park Karnataka 2013 Ld,GXX 7 ‘Water Table/Water Glass’ Washington 2001 L,GXXXX 8 Whole Flow’ California 2009 L, I XXXX 9 Dakpark Rotterdam 2009–2014 I, C, G X X 10 Promenade Plantée Paris 1993 Ld, I, M, G X X X 11 European Patent Ofﬁce Rijswijk 2001 Ld XXXXX 12 Womans University campus Seoul 2008 L, Ld, G XXX 13 High Line Park New York 2006–2009 L, Ld, I, M X X X 14 Waltebos Complex Apeldoorn 2000–2007 Ld, C XXXX 15 Stephen Epler Hall Portland 2001–2003 Ld, I,GXXXXX 16 Parc de Diagonal Mar Barcelona 2002 L, Ld, I, M, G X X X X X 17 Parc del Poblenou Barcelona 1992 L, G XXXX 18 Benthemplein square Rotterdam 2012–2013 L, Ld, G X X X X X 19 Tanner Springs Park Portland 2005 L, Ld, G X X X X X 20 Parc de Joan Miró Barcelona 2003 L, Ld, I, C X X 21 Escola Industrial Barcelona 1999 Ld, G XX 22 Potsdamer Platz Berlin 1994–1998 L, I, C, G X X 23 Museumpark car park Rotterdam 2011 Ld, I,GXX 24 Place Flagey Brussels 2005–2009 L,IXXX 25 Stata Center Massachusetts 2004 L, Ld, I, C X X X 26 The Circle Illinois 2010 L, Ld, I,GXX 27 Georgia Street Indianapolis 2010–2012 L, I, C,GXXX 28 Parque Oeste Lisbon 2005–2007 Ld XXXXX 29 Qunli park Haerbin 2009–2010 Ld XXXX 30 Emerald Necklace Boston 1860s Ld, M, C, G X X X X 31 Quinta da Granja Lisbon 2011 L, Ld,CXXXX 32 Parque da Cidade Porto 1993 L, Ld, C, G X X X X 33 Trabrennbahn Farmsen Hamburg 1995–2000 L, Ld, I, M, C, G X X X X X X 34 Elmhurst parking lot New York 2010 L, I XXX 35 Ecocity Augustenborg Malmö 1997–2002 L, Ld, G X X X X X X 36 Museum of Science Portland 1990–1992 L, G XXX 37 High Point 30th Ave Seattle 2001–2010 I XXXXXX 38 Moor Park Blackpool 2008 Ld, I, G X X X X X X 39 Ribblesdale Road Nottingham 2013 L, Ld, I, C, G X X X X X X 40 South Australian Museum Adelaide 2005 L, Ld, I, G X X X X X 41 Columbus Square Philadelphia 2010 L, Ld, I X X X X X Water 2018, 10, 180 7 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Community Extensive Public Space Interdisciplinary Multiple Expose and Diversify and Project Name Location Construction Engagement Physical Typologies 1 Design Purposes Share Value Monitor Risk and Interaction Structure 42 Derbyshire Street London 2014 L, Ld, I, C, G XXX 43 Onondaga County New York 2010 L, Ld, I X X X X X 44 Edinburgh Gardens Melbourne 2011–2012 Ld, I, G X X X X 45 Taasinge Square Copenhagen 2014 L, Ld, G X X X X 46 Australia Road London 2013–2015 L, Ld, G X X X 47 East Liberty Town Square Pittsburgh 2013–2014 L, M, G XXX 48 Can Caralleu Barcelona 2006 L, Ld, I, C, G X 49 Zollhallen Plaza Freiburg 2011 L, I, C X X X X X 50 Green park of Mondego Coimbra 2000–2004 Ld,GXXX 51 Bakery Square 2.0 Pittsburgh 2015 L, Ld, I X X X X X 52 Praça do Comércio Lisbon 2010 L, Ld, I, M, C, G X X 53 Percy Street Philadelphia 2011 L XX 54 Greenﬁeld Elementary Philadelphia 2009–2010 G XXX 55 Etna Butler Street Pittsburgh 2014 L, Ld, I, C, G X X X X 56 Community College Philadelphia 2005 Ld,GXXXXX 57 Elmer Avenue Neighbourhood Los Angeles 2010 L, Ld X X X X X X 58 Green gutter Philadelphia 2016 L, Ld, I X X X X 59 Ribeira das Jardas Sintra 2001–2008 L, Ld XXXXXX 60 Ahna Kassel 2003–2004 L, Ld XXX 61 River Volme Hagen 2006 L XXX 62 Promenada Velenje 2014 L XXXXX 63 Catharina Amalia Park Apeldoorn 2013 L, Ld,CXXXXX 64 Kallang River Bishan Park 2009–2012 Ld,IXXXXXX 65 Alb Karlsruhe 1989–2004 Ld, I X X X X X 66 Westersingel Rotterdam 2012 L, Ld, I X X X 67 Thornton Creek Seattle 2003–2009 Ld,GXXXXXX 68 Cheonggyecheon River Seoul 2003–2005 L, Ld, I, M, G X X X X X X 69 Soestbach Soest 1992–2004 L, Ld X X X 70 Banyoles Girona 1998–2008 L, I, M X X X X 71 Freiburg Bächle Freiburg 13th century L, I, M, C, G X X X X 72 Roombeek Enschede 2003–2005 L, Ld X X 73 Solar City streets Linz 2004–2006 L XXXXXX 74 Pier Head Liverpool 2009 I, M XX 75 Olympic park London 2012 L, Ld,IXX 76 Kronsberg Hannover 1998–2000 L, Ld,IXXXXX 77 Renaissance Park Tennessee 2006 Ld,MXX 78 21st Street Paso Robles 2010–2011 L XXXXXX 79 West India Quay London 1996 L, Ld, I, G X 80 Ravelijn Bridge Bergen op Zom 2013–2014 L, G XXX 81 Yongning River Park Taizhou 2002–2004 Ld XXXX 82 Landungsbrücken pier Hamburg 1980? L, I,CXXX 83 Spree Bathing Ship Berlin 2004 G XXX Water 2018, 10, 180 8 of 24

Table 1. Cont.

Community Extensive Public Space Interdisciplinary Multiple Expose and Diversify and Project Name Location Construction Engagement Physical Typologies 1 Design Purposes Share Value Monitor Risk and Interaction Structure 84 Leine Suite Hannover 2009 G XXX 85 Rhone River Banks Lyon 2004–2007 Ld X 86 Parque ﬂuvial del Gallego Zuera 2000–2001 Ld XXXXXX 87 Rio Besòs River Park Barcelona 1996–1999 Ld,IXXXXXX 88 Buffalo Bayou Park Houston 2006 Ld XXXXXX 89 Parc de la Seille Metz 1999 L, Ld,GXXXXX 90 Park Van Luna Heerhugowaard 1997–2003 Ld XX 91 Passeio Atlântico Porto 2001–2002 L, Ld,GXXXX 92 Quai des Gondoles Choisy-le-Roi 2009 I,GXXXX 93 Elster Millraces Leipzig 1996 L, Ld, I, M XXXX 94 Terreiro do Rato Covilhã 2003–2004 L, Ld, G X X X 95 Waterfront promenade Bilbao ? L XX 96 Tagus Linear Park Póv. de Sta. Iria 2013 Ld XXXX 97 Elbe promenade Hamburg 2006–2012 L, Ld, I,MXXXXX 98 Dike of ‘Boompjes’ Rotterdam 2000–2001 L, Ld X X X 99 Zona de Banys del Fòrum Barcelona 2004 L, Ld, I, M, G X X X X X 100 Molhe da Barra do Douro Porto 2004–2007 Ld,MXXXXX 101 Jack Evans Harbour Tweed Heads 2011 Ld XXX 102 Schevenigen The Hauge 2006–2009 L, Ld, I, M, C X X X 103 Sea organ Zadar 2005 L, Ld, M X X X X 104 Main riverside Miltenberg 2009 L, Ld, I, C X X X X 105 Blackpool Seafront Blackpool 2002–2008 L, Ld,MXXX 106 Westhoven Cologne 2006 Ld XXXXX 107 Waalkade promenade Zaltbommel 1998 L, Ld X X 108 Kampen waterfront Kampen 2001–2003 L,GXXX 109 Landungsbrücken building Hamburg 2009? M, G XX 110 Corktown Common Toronto 2006–2014 Ld,IXXX 111 Westzeedijk Rotterdam 12th century L, Ld, I,MX 112 Anﬁteatro Colina de Camões Coimbra 2008 Ld, M, G X X X X 1 Public Space Typologies according to [29]: L—Layout spaces; Ld—Landscape spaces; I—Itinerating spaces; M—Memory spaces; C—Commercial spaces; G—Generated spaces; Highlighted in bold is the most evident applicable public space typology. Water 2018, 10, 180 9 of 24

3.1. Interdisciplinary Design of Public Spaces Acknowledging that public space ethics concept may be interpreted as “it is of everyone”, its design therefore is “not a matter of one sole profession, entity or interest group” ([26], p. 19, author’s translation). Likewise, Madanipour argues that public spaces should be created by different professionals from different disciplines of the built, natural and social environments or by any professional with multi-disciplinary concerns and awareness [7]. As Lefébvre acutely states, “ultimate illusion: to consider the architects, urbanists or urban planners as experts in space, the greatest judges of spatiality...” ([30], p. 30, author’s translation). Recalling Horacio Capel’s argument, since the nineteenth century, the subject of urbanism has been excessively controlled by a fierce competition between engineers on the one side and architects on the other. While the first would define and design major infrastructures, the latter would define and design interventions in streets, buildings or green areas. However, as the author highlights, “all this should be at the service of social needs” ([31], p. 92, author’s translation). Back in the 1870s, Frederick Law Olmsted designed Boston’s Emerald Necklace (#30) (Henceforth, the mentioned examples will be additionally identified with their corresponding number presented in Table1 to facilitate the access to further information. Emerald Necklace, for example, is number 30 and so it is identified within the text by #30.) with the goal to resolve engineering problems of drainage and flood control together with the fulfilment of the increasing social needs for leisure and recreation opportunities in a growing population. Simply put, Olmsted demonstrated that it was possible to integrate complex connections between natural and technical processes together with and improvement on the quality of life of the surrounding populations. For Cynthia Zaitzevsky, “Olmsted foresaw that such a comprehensive approach embraced planning, engineering and architecture and that, to bring the disciplines together to create the best solution, needed the unifying instincts of the new profession of landscape architecture” ([32], p. 43). Today, Emerald Necklace parks include land and water features, engineering structures, public buildings and ecological designs that are merged together in a rational and balanced design. Further examples of interdisciplinary public space designs can be namely seen in the city of Barcelona. It was likely due to Barcelona’s urban regeneration grounding ideals from the 1980s that, in the beginning of the twenty first century, the city decided to integrate the infrastructural construction of underground reservoirs underneath different types of public spaces (#20, #21). An interdisciplinary approach that required for multiple professional areas to share their expertise throughout all procedural planning stages. By contrast, other municipalities have chosen to solely focus on one technical discipline. As a result, similar infrastructures were designed as isolated monofunctional facilities fenced from its surroundings [33]. Through Barcelona’s integrated approach, it was further possible to enclose parallel advantages from a grand urban intervention, namely the creation of more public spaces. Putting it simply, Barcelona turned the constraint of a required great drainage improvement into the opportunity to build more public spaces for its citizens and all its potential succeeding side-benefits. Other successful public spaces, particularly known for its interdisciplinary design that further entailed multiple purposes, is Postdamer Platz in Berlin (#22). Situated in an important area of the city, near the Berliner Philharmonie and the Berlin State Library, Postdamer Platz has an approximate area of 1.2 hectares. Its design, composed of a series of urban pools, reveals an integrated approach between ecological, aesthetical and civil engineering functions. The large water features are fed uniquely by rainwater. In summer, water surfaces lower the ambient temperature and improve microclimates. Roofs from the surrounding buildings capture rainwater and store it in underground cisterns. The collected water is then used for topping up the pools, flushing toilets and for irrigating green areas [34]. One can further provide evidence of a growing tendency for interdisciplinary design, specifically when interventions consider the need for climate change adaptation. One of the most recent examples of urban realm to have been created in light of the disseminated climate change projections is the Olympic Park (#75), or more precisely “Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park” in London (Figure1). In brief, Water 2018, 10, 180 9 of 23

uniquely by rainwater. In summer, water surfaces lower the ambient temperature and improve microclimates. Roofs from the surrounding buildings capture rainwater and store it in underground cisterns. The collected water is then used for topping up the pools, flushing toilets and for irrigating green areas [34]. One can further provide evidence of a growing tendency for interdisciplinary design, specifically when interventions consider the need for climate change adaptation. One of the most Waterrecent2018 examples, 10, 180 of urban realm to have been created in light of the disseminated climate change10 of 24 projections is the Olympic Park (#75), or more precisely “Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park” in London (Figure 1). In brief, the Park’s landscape design priorities included “Great amenity; Improved micro- theclimate; Park’s Biodiversity; landscape design Integrat prioritiesed water included management; “Great amenity; Energy Improved generation; micro-climate; Resource management; Biodiversity; IntegratedWaste management water management; and minimization; Energy Local generation; food production; Resource management; …” ([35], p.1), Waste among management others. Priorities and minimization;that involved the Local inclusion food production; of additional... and” ([ 35uncommon], p. 1), among disciplines others. to Prioritiesbe actively that involved involved in thethe inclusiondesign process. of additional and uncommon disciplines to be actively involved in the design process.

Figure 1. Olympic Park, London. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 2 March 2017. Figure 1. Olympic Park, London. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 2 March 2017.

Among other challenges, the adaptation to new environments created by climate change requiresAmong a other new challenges, integrated the and adaptation interdisciplinary to new environments approach created [36]. bySolutions climate change arising requires from ainterdisciplinary new integrated anddesigns interdisciplinary are very diverse approach and combine [36]. Solutions the use arising of a wide from range interdisciplinary of approaches designs such areas technical, very diverse social, and economic, combine the ecological, use of a wide among range others. of approaches With regards such to as technical,adaptation social,, there economic, is much ecological,we can learn among from others.our civilizationa With regardsl past, toadaptation, which has surpassed there is much other we great can learn turbulences. from our We civilizational must also past,humbly which accept has that surpassed the impending other great future turbulences. will require We mustnew outsets also humbly and new accept paradigms. that the impendingNew ideas futurethat will will most require likely new arise outsets from a and common newparadigms. effort of multiple, New ideas shared that and will applied most likelyexpertise. arise Publ fromic aspaces, common as spaces effort of that multiple, particularly shared favor and appliedinterdisciplinary expertise. convergence, Public spaces, may as spaces serve thatto promote particularly and favorexplore interdisciplinary technological reinventionsconvergence, or may innovations. serve to promote A continuing and explore learning technological process that,reinventions in face orof innovations.climate change, A continuingsearches for learning new design process solutions that, inthat face increase of climate adaptability change, and searches reduce for vulnerability. new design solutions that increase adaptability and reduce vulnerability. 3.2. Multiple Purpose Public Space 3.2. Multiple Purpose Public Space All the examples highlighted in the presented table entail multiple purposes for the basic fact All the examples highlighted in the presented table entail multiple purposes for the basic fact that that all were gathered following the basic premise of being a public space with flood adaptation all were gathered following the basic premise of being a public space with flood adaptation capacities, and as such already encompass both the purpose of being a common space for community encounters as well as an infrastructural space for the management of flood waters. Indeed, the resulting combination of an interdisciplinary design that integrates flood adaptation functions with public space design offers side purposes among other sectorial needs such as recreation, microclimatic melioration or energy use and efficiency. The more interdisciplinary design is, the more adjacent functions the resulting public space will comprise. Traditional drainage infrastructure, for instance, such as large-scale underground retention chambers disconnected from public space, is only useful occasionally during the year, namely during Water 2018, 10, 180 10 of 23 capacities, and as such already encompass both the purpose of being a common space for community encounters as well as an infrastructural space for the management of flood waters. Indeed, the resulting combination of an interdisciplinary design that integrates flood adaptation functions with public space design offers side purposes among other sectorial needs such as recreation, microclimatic melioration or energy use and efficiency. The more interdisciplinary design is, Waterthe more2018, 10adjacent, 180 functions the resulting public space will comprise. 11 of 24 Traditional drainage infrastructure, for instance, such as large-scale underground retention chambers disconnected from public space, is only useful occasionally during the year, namely during heavyheavy rai rainfall.nfall. In Incontrast, contrast, other other source source control control measures, measures, such such as asgreen green walls, walls, bioretention bioretention basins basins or or rainrain gardens, gardens, when when applied applied within within public public spaces, spaces, may may not not only only serve serve its prime its prime infrastructural infrastructural function, function,but may but also may serve also to serve improve to improve local environment local environment and quality and quali of lifety as of well life as vulnerabilitywell as vulnerability reduction reductionand local and awareness local awareness [37]. The [37] side. benefits The side that benefits result that from result reconfiguring from reconfiguring drainage infrastructure drainage infrastructurewithin public within space public design space thus design generally thus gathers generally recurring gathers advantages recurring alladvantages year long. all year long. “The“The Circle”, Circle”, in ina Rounda a Roundaboutbout at atUptown Uptown Normal, Normal, Illinois Illinois (#26) (#26) serves serves to toprovide provide evidence evidence of of thisthis argument. argument. It is It a is green a green water water square square in a in roundabout a roundabout that that collects, collects, stores stores and and purifies purifies storm storm water water runoffrunoff from from the the nearby nearby streets. streets. Besides Besides the the aesthetical aesthetical and and leisure leisure characteristics characteristics,, the the water water feature feature masksmasks surrounding surrounding traffic traffic noise noise while while purified purified water water is used is used to tospray spray nearby nearby streets streets and and thus thus lessen lessen heatheat stress stress [34] [34].. The The square square is further is further used used as a meeting as a meeting place situated place near situated a multimodal near a multimodal transportation transportationcentre and a centre children’s and museum.a children’s museum. TheThe previously previously mentioned mentioned ‘Queen ‘Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth Olympic Olympic Park’ Park’ in inLondon London (#75) (#75) is one is one other other example example of anof aninterdisciplinary interdisciplinary design design that that consequently consequently embraced embraced multiple multiple purposes. purposes. That That is namely is namely the the case case of ofthe the included included treatment treatment process process that that turn turn Londoner Londoner’s’s was wastewatertewater from from an anoutfall outfall sewer sewer into into water water suitablesuitable for for irrigation, irrigation, flushing flushing toilets toilets and and as asa coolant a coolant in inthe the Park Park’s’s energy energy centre centre [38] [38. ]. In Inaddition, addition, some some breakwaters breakwaters or orwave wave-breakers,-breakers, such such as asthe the one one existing existing at the at the Zona Zona de deBanys Banys deldel Fòrum Fòrum in inBarcelona Barcelona (#99) (#99),, are are here here understood understood as asa multi a multi-purpose-purpose public public spaces, spaces, as asthey they not not only only entailentail the the infrastructural infrastructural function function to to ease ease the the power of waveswaves butbut also also include include the the possibility possibility to to be be used usedas a as sightseeing a sightseeing route—two route— encompassingtwo encompassing functions functions that are that additionally are additionally combined comb inined a sculptural in a sculpturaldesign that design is aesthetically that is aesthetically appealing appealing (Figure2 ).(Figure 2).

Figure 2. Wave-breakers designed by Beth Gali, Architect, at the Zona de Banys del Fòrum in Figure 2. Wave-breakers designed by Beth Gali, Architect, at the Zona de Banys del Fòrum in Barcelona. Barcelona.Image credits: Image Mariacredits: Matos Maria Silva, Matos 26 Silva, April 26 2014. April 2014.

3.3. Public Space for Actor’s Awareness and Engagement Social and political engagements are a particularly important factor in the success of adaptation endeavors, namely when acknowledging that adaptation is a learning process of continued assessment. Indeed, benefits may be gained from a multifaceted approach that includes social enquiry and stakeholder engagement [39]. Moreover, community engagement may be reached throughWater 2018 community, 10, 180 involvement, emotional connection and a design that makes visible the invisible.12 of 24 When adaptation actions are applied within a public space, where design can make visible certain intangibles, endeavors are no longer an abstract phenomenon for people and communities. Communityare no longer engagement an abstract practices phenomenon in public for people space anddesign communities. and management Community gain, engagement therefore, a practices new dimension.in public space design and management gain, therefore, a new dimension. ConsideringConsidering flood ﬂood events, events, which which are expected are expected to increase to increase in light in of light future of future climatic climatic extremes, extremes, the roughlythe roughly intangible intangible water cycle water can cycle be made can be visible made through visible throughdesign. Particularly design. Particularly through the through design the of design public of spaces public that, spaces due that, to duetheir to inherent their inherent values, values, provide provide the opportun the opportunityity to approximate to approximate and and connectconnect people people with with water water and and thus thus potentially potentially raise raise awareness awareness and and overall overall engagement. engagement. Indeed, Indeed, as as it it isis for for Ashley Ashley et et al., al., the the challenge challenge of of appropriate appropriate drainage drainage systems systems for for a changing a changing climate climate is as is asmuch much sociologicalsociological as asit is it technolo is technologicalgical [40] [40. ]. TheThe Benthemplein Benthemplein square square (#18) (#18) (Figure (Figure 3) 3and) and Tanner Tanner Springs Springs Park Park (#19) (#19) may may serve serve as asexamples examples thatthat corroborate corroborate the theargument argument that public that public spaces spaces are rarely are “mute” rarely “mute” and may and serve may to connect serve to people connect withpeople water. with Both water. cases Both encompass cases encompass the concept the of concept a “water of aplaza” “water previously plaza” previously mentioned, mentioned, which intentionallywhich intentionally unveils part unveils of the parturban of water the urban cycle dynamics water cycle for dynamicsthe citizens for that the use citizens that public that space. use that Aspublic mentioned space. in As the mentioned Rotterdam in Climate the Rotterdam Proof report Climate “Water Proof disarms report and “Water binds disarms people. and In adaptation binds people. projectsIn adaptation in the city, projects citizens in theand city, different citizens cultures and different come together. cultures comeThis can together. reinforce This social can reinforce ties and the social senseties of and safety” the sense ([41] of, p.7 safety”). ([41], p. 7).

Figure 3. Benthemplein square, Rotterdam. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 14 June 2014. Figure 3. Benthemplein square, Rotterdam. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 14 June 2014.

In regard to the case of Tanner Springs Park in Portland, its design comprised the restoration of a wetlandIn regardinto the to setting the case of of an Tanner urban Springscontext. ParkInspired in Portland, by the area’s its design original comprised natural thestate, restoration the park of is composeda wetland intoof a thepond setting at itsof lowest an urban point, context. to which Inspired rainwater by the from area’s the original surroundings natural is state, conveyed. the park Theis design composed therefore of a pond combined at its lowestseveral point,objectives to which among rainwater the fields from of ecology, the surroundings water management, is conveyed. artThe and design participation. therefore Some combined of its several main characteristics objectives among include the fields reintroduced of ecology, groundwater, water management, water art and participation. Some of its main characteristics include reintroduced groundwater, water features, appropriate vegetation and site-specific artwork that provides evidence of the biological beings from the former wetland. To promote community engagement, it is further important to highlight the need to create places that people can value and connect emotionally too. Likewise, the success of community engagement processes is strongly related with the development and value of local identity. In this sense, the presence Water 2018, 10, 180 13 of 24 of water in urban design, and more specifically in the design of public spaces, has particular symbolic dimensions (emotional, aesthetic, and cultural) that should not be overlooked. One of the oldest representations of water is Genesis’ description of the Garden of Eden and its four structuring rivers that give life to this mythical space ([42], Gn 2:10–14). However, as we are all aware of, water is not only the source of life, but it is also a permanent threat. In addition, the fear of water is also tattooed onto our civilizations worldwide. Genesis’s flood narrative in the Bible is one of many flood myths found in our cultures. Water’s symbolic dimensions should therefore be enhanced in a public space design that aims to connect people with water. This exercise is particularly evident in the works of Atelier Dreiseitl, here represented by the examples #19, #22, #49, #61, #64, #73 and #76. Atelier Dreiseitl is an office that recurrently uses water beyond its decorative features. Through their designs, water is rather integrated with other systems and other functions, always bearing in mind the final purpose of aesthetic appreciation and public perception of the value of water as a resource. Another way to promote community engagement on the urging need to adapt our urban spaces in the face of climate change is through direct community involvement and interaction—specifically because adaptation is not one in a lifetime project. On the contrary, adaptation processes require ongoing collaborations and organization between and among government, institutions and its citizens. Greenfield Elementary in Philadelphia (#54) is a good example of the fruitful results that may arise from collaborative design among stakeholders. More specifically, parents, teachers, students, school administrators, designers from Community Design Collaborative and the Philadelphia School District. More importantly, the all planning stages of the project until its end result worked as a living laboratory that teaches anyone who passes by about overall features of environmental processes. The plan aimed to convert the school yard, used previously as a parking lot, into a green space with sustainable concerns. The improvements included the installation of a flood management system with indigenous vegetation, the removal of impervious pavement, a permeable recycled play surface, an agriculture zone as well as solar shading. A storm water bioretention area with a rain garden was also installed. Communal management also occurred in New Orleans after the destruction and desolation of Hurricane Katrina. More precisely, an “extraordinary new level of civic and community engagement” ([43], p. 61) helped the city towards recovery and rebuilding, through a process that retained a strong connection to the cities’ history while also looking forward in addressing future challenges such as climate change. In accordance with the report developed by the Institute for Sustainable Communities (ISC) in partnership with the Center for Clean Air Policy, the community embraced the idea that the best approach to endure future climatic extremes is to become a greener city that, consequently, promotes safety and enriches attractiveness for business and residents [43]. One of the implemented projects aimed to transform the constraint of having more than 60,000 vacant lost lots in the city, transforming some of them into a network of urban farms and public gardens. Furthermore, it is important to provide evidence that, in New Orleans’ recovery, governments’ investments alone would have had a reduced impact. The city was able to recover, and it is able to take forward its strategic plans, because of a creative and energized community, because of public and private partnerships and because of a comprehensive cooperation among national and international experts [44].

3.4. Public Space as an Extensive Physical Structure and System Reflecting upon the perception of public space as a structuring element of the urban form [5,6], additional reasons promptly lead to further conclude that these are particularly favorable places for the implementation of flood adaptation measures. Public spaces have a fundamental role in city life as they enable formal and environmental continuity, accessibility and legibility, contributing to the reinforcement of social and economic Water 2018, 10, 180 14 of 24 centralities [45]. In the series of lectures “O Urbano e a Urbanística ou os tempos das formas” [46], Nuno Portas highlighted that, in the history of cities, public spaces are more durable than buildings; that buildings are stable elements, but not durable elements; and that, after public spaces, the most durable elements are the buildings that are transformed into monuments, i.e., transformed into public spaces. Indeed, public spaces are determinant elements in the form and identity of a city. Public space, as a structuring layer of urban form, is organized in a systemic way, and can be seen as performing two complementary roles: as hardware, it provides a physical setting, making connections and furthering an infrastructural base for urban functions; as software, it incorporates relations and interactions that make urban life—a social-cultural dimension representing its society or community—as a space for expression and sharing. According to Borja, “The fact that public space is the determining element of the urban form is enough to attribute it the role of structurer of urbanism and, firstly, its urban fabric” ([2], p. 137, author’s translation). One can thus claim that public spaces are not only the means of social, economic and cultural dynamics, but are also a physical structuring element of the urban fabric. A structuring network that is able to construct a “recognizable and lasting image of an individual unity, which arises from a system of complementary parts, as various and as unorganized as they may be” ([6], p. 17, author’s translation). By conforming a structural network based on the local scale, public space offers a decentralized and expansive means to tackle flood management. An approach that strongly contrasts with the traditional method that tends to be linear and centralized. This distinction, together with an assessment of exploratory nature regarding the adaptation measure’s infrastructural efficiency, was particularly emphasized in the article “Urban Flood Adaptation through Public Space Retrofits: The Case of Lisbon (Portugal)” [37]. Moreover, public spaces offer a network that not only supports the urban fabric, but also connects its different urban spaces, from buildings and infrastructures to natural structures such as the ecological network. For Portas, this communicating network of public spaces “cannot be reduced to a simplistic addition of segments, unconnected streets, detached to the territories they cross, more or less urbanized” ([6], p. 17, author’s translation). In other words, public spaces must not be understood by its individual elements, but rather as a “coherent structure that encompasses different territorial scales (from the neighborhood to the metropolitan city)” ([47], p. 1). The same can be said about hydrographic basins and other structures that support dispersed urban settlements. Indeed, one of the main causes of urban floods is related to the manipulation of natural watersheds through forced interruptions or divisions into smaller parts. These approaches do not consider the fact that their effective functioning is highly dependable on a system that is comprehensive by nature. It is therefore equitable to conceive water systems equally converged within the network of public spaces. One can easily identify episodes were water systems’ networks have met with public spaces. However, most of the time, it is an event that is neither planned nor wanted. Considering, for instance, drainage overflows resulting from heavy rainfall, in this situation, storm water generally flows along the next available spaces, generally “open” spaces and mostly public spaces. If this “encounter” could be looked upon through a different perspective, one that would capitalize from the inherent values of public space, the excess of water could be integrated within designs as an opportunity to potentiate a comprehensive adaptation in an extensive and decentralized network (Figure4). Water 2018, 10, 180 15 of 24 Water 2018, 10, 180 14 of 23

Figure 4. This example aims to highlight how significant benefits could have been gained, with little Figure 4. This example aims to highlight how significant benefits could have been gained, with added investment, if municipal undertakings, such as the Lisbon’s Municipality public space little added investment, if municipal undertakings, such as the Lisbon’s Municipality public space rehabilitation programmes of “Pavimentar Lisboa 2015–2020” or “Uma Praça em cada Bairro, would rehabilitation programmes of “Pavimentar Lisboa 2015–2020” or “Uma Praça em cada Bairro, would have considered including flood adaptation measures in their design, such as “check dams” (on the have considered including flood adaptation measures in their design, such as “check dams” (on the left) or “bioswales” (on the right). For more information regarding the implementation of each of left) or “bioswales” (on the right). For more information regarding the implementation of each of these measures, please consult the preliminary design studies developed in [37]. Although they do these measures, please consult the preliminary design studies developed in [37]. Although they do not correspond to the same areas of intervention, their design encompasses many similarities, such not correspond to the same areas of intervention, their design encompasses many similarities, such as as the potential depth and materiality of the soil and storage layers, the necessary inclusion of an the potential depth and materiality of the soil and storage layers, the necessary inclusion of an outlet outlet drainage tube or specifications regarding appropriate native vegetation. Image credits: Maria drainage tube or specifications regarding appropriate native vegetation. Image credits: Maria Matos Matos Silva, 26 November 2017. Silva, 26 November 2017.

AA representative representative undergoing undergoing example example that that takes takes advantage advantage of of the the benefits beneﬁts offered offered by by the the extensiveextensive physical physical structure structure of of public public spaces spaces is is probably probably New New York’s York’s Green Green Infrastructure Infrastructure plan plan launchedlaunched in in 2010. 2010. In In brief, brief, this this plan plan aimed aimed to to offer offer a a more more sustainable sustainable alternative alternative to to the the conventional conventional “grey”“grey” infrastructure infrastructure by by proposing proposing integrated integrated structure structure that that combined combined solutions solutions such such as: as: rooftop rooftop detention, green roofs, subsurface detention and infiltration, swales; street trees, permeable pavement, rain gardens, engineered wetlands, among others. While New York’s program is illustrated by the example of Elmhurst parking lot (#34), many other examples fit within its overall approach. More specifically, examples such as the bioretention

Water 2018, 10, 180 16 of 24 detention, green roofs, subsurface detention and infiltration, swales; street trees, permeable pavement, rain gardens, engineered wetlands, among others. While New York’s program is illustrated by the example of Elmhurst parking lot (#34), many other examples fit within its overall approach. More specifically, examples such as the bioretention planters on Ribblesdale Road in Nottingham, United Kingdom (#39), the open drainage system in Trabrennbahn Farmsen residential area in Hamburg (#33), Germany or the drainage systems of the Ecocity Augustenborg in Malmö, Sweden (#35). The bioretention planters of Ribblesdale Road in Nottingham were a pilot retrofit project of sustainable urban drainage. They were therefore created for its design and construction to be documented and evaluated in order to assess its comprehensive application. A total of 148 m2 of bioretention planters were implemented within an existing urban road setting. Among the main objectives of this intervention, it is worth mentioning the following: (1) maximize surface water interception, attenuation and infiltration; (2) encourage participation from local residents in the design and future management of the rain gardens; and (3) evaluate the effectiveness of the scheme as an engagement tool around the sources of urban diffuse pollution and flood risk [48]. Trabrennbahn Farmsen is an example of a newly built residential area that comprised the application of a particularly interesting open drainage system. Because its implementation area has little infiltration capacity, designers chose to implement an open water system that would retain and convey rainwater. In accordance, storm water is collected from surrounding streets as well as from the building’s roofs. Overall, the system is composed of grassed swales, storm water channels and two retention ponds [49]. The greatest highlight of this example is the autonomy of this natural system to manage all storm water from the Trabrennbahn Farmsen residential area on-site, providing evidence of a reduced importance of underground sewers for rainwater.

3.5. Expose and Share Value through Public Space By integrating infrastructure in the design of a public space, instead of camouflaging it underground or in an isolated impenetrable area, a public investment is exposed and shared with a community. A shared value that may instigate further opportunities such as amenity or environmental quality. For example, while in the common mainstream urban drainage approach investments are camouflaged underground, frequently encompassing a sole function and use for storm water alone; investments on urban drainage could be applied in infrastructure that is integrated within the public space itself. In the second option, value is not only exposed to all, but also shared among everyone using that space. Sustainable Urban Drainage systems (SUDs) clearly illustrate and make the case. Through dispersed, yet extensive, small-scale investments within public space design, urban amenities may be further created while taking advantage of ecological and economic opportunities along the way. While buried culverts may be a missed opportunity for the enhancement of the quality of public space, obsolete and no longer necessary flood walls may likewise hide valuable water assets [50]. Indeed, there are many opportunities for infrastructure renovation and necessary landscape improvements throughout urban areas: from the need to provide alternatives to reduce the load of obsolete drainage infrastructure to vacant lots that can be used to store water. Bearing in mind the ever exceeding costs of traditional infrastructure repair alongside expected climate change extreme projections, a wide range of literature argues that established methods are no longer affordable nor sustainable, such as [51–53]. As such, new alternatives, supportive of an integrated water management, should be considered not only as a necessary immediate investment, but, more importantly, as an investment in our future. Uncovering small scale storm water drainage systems, such as in Banyoles, Girona (#70) or in the 13th century Freiburg Bächle (#71), is one way of exposing and sharing the expressed value of water in an urban environment. In brief, the regeneration of the old city center of Banyoles, designed by Miàs Arquitectes, envisaged two main purposes: (1) to repave the town center and define a new pedestrian area and (2) to reclaim the irrigation canals that used to feed medieval private gardens. These waterways used to Water 2018, 10, 180 17 of 24

run in open channels from the lake and throughout the town. With the loss of these gardens, the canals were progressively covered and water quality worsened. The resulting public space offers a new main square and adjoining streets composed by linear travertine paving stones that are “cut-off” by open Water 2018, 10, 180 16 of 23 channels, which undercover the presence of the water. ProjectsProjects that that “bring “bring into into light” light” buried buried pre pre-existing-existing water water lines lines are are another another example example of ofadaptation adaptation measuresmeasures that that aim aim to toexpose expose and and share share value. value. Th Thisis is the is the case case of ofWestersingel Westersingel channel channel (#66) (#66) and and the the SoestbachSoestbach River River neat neat Soest Soest (#69), (#69), besides besides the representativerepresentative exampleexample of of the the Cheonggyecheon Cheonggyecheon river river (#68) (#68)previously previously analyzed. analyzed. Rotterdam’sRotterdam’s Westersingel Westersingel channel, channel, which which had had been been formerly sunken,sunken, waswas redesigned redesigned by by Dirk Dirk van vanPeijpe Peijpe from from the the De De Urbanisten Urbanisten ofﬁce. office. The The resulting resulting promenade promenade almost almost disguises disguises its capacity its capacity to sustain to sustainand retain and retain excesses excesses of water of water when when needed needed (Figure (Figure5). Its 5). banks Its banks are mostly are mostly made made of brick of asbrick well as as wellgrass as grass and trees. and Alltrees. materials, All materials, including including urban equipmenturban equipment such as benchessuch as andbenches lamps, and are lamps, designed are to designedendure to occasional endure occasional overloads overloads of the canal. of Currently,the canal. Currently this public, this space public is enriched space is with enriched sculptures with by sculptureswell-known by well artists-known such artists as Rodin, such Carel as Rodin, Visser, Carel Joel ShapiroVisser, Joel and Shapiro Umberto and Mastroianni. Umberto Mastroianni.

Figure 5. Rotterdam’s Westersingel channel. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 13 June 2014. Figure 5. Rotterdam’s Westersingel channel. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 13 June 2014.

3.6. Public Spaces as a Means to Diversify and Monitor Flood Risk 3.6. Public Spaces as a Means to Diversify and Monitor Flood Risk According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “The main challenge for According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “The main challenge for local adaptation to climate extremes is to apply a balanced portfolio of approaches, as a one-size-fits- local adaptation to climate extremes is to apply a balanced portfolio of approaches, as a one-size-fits-all all strategy may prove limiting for some places and stakeholders” ([54], p.291). In other words, in strategy may prove limiting for some places and stakeholders” ([54], p. 291). In other words, in light light of climate change, the sole investment in one isolated infrastructure is not recommended, built of climate change, the sole investment in one isolated infrastructure is not recommended, built to to fulfill only its particular purpose. If plan A fails, the risk will be great and generalized. However, fulfill only its particular purpose. If plan A fails, the risk will be great and generalized. However, if investments are diversified, risk is dissipated through the reliance on parallel plans. if investments are diversified, risk is dissipated through the reliance on parallel plans. In addition, when massive infrastructures are kept out of site, people do not remember their In addition, when massive infrastructures are kept out of site, people do not remember their existence and thus will not expect their failure. This unpreparedness, led by a false sense of safety existence and thus will not expect their failure. This unpreparedness, led by a false sense of safety that is usually termed “levee-effect”, may further exacerbate vulnerability and increment potential that is usually termed “levee-effect”, may further exacerbate vulnerability and increment potential impacts. Contrastingly, if approaches are implemented within public spaces, some risks are more impacts. Contrastingly, if approaches are implemented within public spaces, some risks are more closely acknowledged and thus less unexpected. closely acknowledged and thus less unexpected. Regardless, research aimed at analyzing the social construction of risk or social risk perception is rather complex. As made evident by Sergi Valera [55], social theories of risk namely suggest that the causes and consequences of risk are mediated by the subjective criteria of individual processes (or psychological), social (psychosocial) behaviors and culture. The same way the design of a public space may reduce or exacerbate a risk through “rational and scientific” processes, it may also reduce or exacerbate the perception of that risk through “subjective-social” processes. It is further important

Water 2018, 10, 180 18 of 24

Regardless, research aimed at analyzing the social construction of risk or social risk perception is rather complex. As made evident by Sergi Valera [55], social theories of risk namely suggest that the causes and consequences of risk are mediated by the subjective criteria of individual processes (or psychological), social (psychosocial) behaviors and culture. The same way the design of a public space may reduce or exacerbate a risk through “rational and scientific” processes, it may also reduce Water 2018, 10, 180 17 of 23 or exacerbate the perception of that risk through “subjective-social” processes. It is further important to note that the social construction of a risk may influence the degree of the risk itself, minimizing or to note that the social construction of a risk may influence the degree of the risk itself, minimizing or maximizing it. Risk perception is thus a very important factor that must be taken into consideration, maximizing it. Risk perception is thus a very important factor that must be taken into consideration, namely in the design process of a public space with flood adaptation purposes, so that the resulting namely in the design process of a public space with flood adaptation purposes, so that the resulting outcome does not contradict the initial purpose. As argued by Evers, Höllermann et al., one must focus on a pluralistic approach in order to As argued by Evers, Höllermann et al., one must focus on a pluralistic approach in order to incorporate Human Human–Water–Water relations [56] [56].. Through the diversificationdiversification of risk, by investing in more than one great mono-functional strategy, the communal management among government, institutions, than one great mono-functional strategy, the communal management among government, institutions,communities communities and private companies and private is alsocompanies promoted; is also unlike promoted; traditional unlike management traditional that management is essentially thatbased is onessentially government’s based actions on government’s on behalf of actions communities. on behalf As of a resultcommunities. of communal As a result management, of communal risk is management,further shared risk and is communities further shared are and more communities likely involved are more in the likely management involved in and the monitoring management of andimplemented monitoring infrastructures. of implemented In addition,infrastructures. local knowhow In addition, is explored,local knowhow citizens is areexplored, empowered citizens to are act empoweredbefore the need to act for before safety the and need the identityfor safety of and vulnerable the identity places of isvulnerable reinforced. places is reinforced. One illustrative exampleexample is is the the Passeio Passeio Atl Atlânticoântico at at Porto Porto designed designed by Manuelby Manuel de Soldeà Solà-Morales-Morales and andothers. others. This submergible This submergible pathway, pathway, which develops which developsbetween Montevideu between Montevideu Avenue and Avenuethe Atlantic and coast, the Atlanticencompassing coast, both encompassing submergible both boardwalks submergible as well boardwalksas submergible as concrete well as pathways, submergible demonstrates concrete pathways,how a storm demonstrates surge defense how slope, a storm may surge be integrated defense slope, within may the be design integrated of a multifunctional within the design public of a multifunctionalspace (Figure6). public space (Figure 6).

(a) (b)

Figure 6.6. Submergible pathway at the Passeio AtlAtlânticoântico in Porto, Portugal: ( a) submergiblesubmergible concrete pathway; (b) submergiblesubmergible boardwalks. Image credits: Maria Matos Silva, 1 July 2007.

Through this project, people are more connected to the intense coastal water dynamics and thus Through this project, people are more connected to the intense coastal water dynamics and more aware of its nature. By sharing the value of the infrastructure through its common use as a thus more aware of its nature. By sharing the value of the infrastructure through its common use public space, not only is the awareness of the power of nature promoted, but also a certain sense of as a public space, not only is the awareness of the power of nature promoted, but also a certain responsibility and appropriation is reinforced. While the first aspect may lead to the respect and sense of responsibility and appropriation is reinforced. While the ﬁrst aspect may lead to the respect willingness to adapt, the second aspect may lead to active management and monitoring of the infrastructure itself. Comprised of three levels of parallel and undulating waterfront boulevard, this space offers more than its functional requirement to protect The Hauge from coastal floods. More specifically, it articulates other programs such as coastal life and recreation (bars and restaurants), public and private circulation (bicycles and cars) and connections with the urban fabric [57].

Water 2018, 10, 180 19 of 24 and willingness to adapt, the second aspect may lead to active management and monitoring of the infrastructure itself. Comprised of three levels of parallel and undulating waterfront boulevard, this space offers more than its functional requirement to protect The Hauge from coastal ﬂoods. More speciﬁcally, it articulates other programs such as coastal life and recreation (bars and restaurants), public and private circulation (bicycles and cars) and connections with the urban fabric [57].

4. Discussion While the most attractive adaptation strategies are usually those that offer development benefits in the short term and reductions of vulnerabilities in the long term, extensive literature has been highlighting that not all adaptation responses are benign. Among others, the IPCC in its report “Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation” states that “there are trade-offs, potentials for negative outcomes, competing interests, different types of knowledge, and winners and losers inherent in adaptation responses” ([58], p. 443). Selecting the optimal adaptation strategy or measure for a particular situation is therefore neither easy nor straightforward. This determining process is particularly complicated given the specific ramifications and secondary impacts related to adaptation processes. In some cases, results can be critical, namely when adaptation does not fulfil its designated objective and ultimately leads to increased vulnerability. This phenomenon is generally called Maladaptation, which can be described as “action taken ostensibly to avoid or reduce vulnerability to climate change that impacts adversely on, or increases the vulnerability of other systems, sectors or social groups” ([59], p. 211). For example, a bioswale with the right combination of phytopurification plants that are placed in the wrong location, may not only be an unnecessary expenditure, a lesser effect is that they may give rise to stagnant water that can be very dangerous to public health (namely through exposed untreated contaminants and mosquito breeding). However, maladaptation cannot be considered as a hindering factor supporting “business as usual” as uncertainties can be minimized through the ongoing adjustments of continuous assessment. Facing an unprecedented area of action, concepts, paradigms or structures are expected to change overtime, as are the functions, appearance and complexities of public spaces with flood adaptation measures. The design of these spaces must therefore encompass an ongoing process that is fundamentally grounded on the need to learn, reflecting upon mistakes and generating experience while dealing with change [60]. In the words of Jordi Borja, today we must “Accept the challenges with the intent to provide answers and with the modesty of providing them with uncertainty, with the audacity to experiment and with the humility to admit mistakes” ([2], p. 140, author’s translation). It is furthermore essential to highlight that, while the analyzed initiatives have counterbalanced the inevitable uncertainties of global models and the generalized “top-down” policies, local action must be connected to the global scientific findings and its encompassing strategies. Otherwise, applied adaptation measures may get lost in scale, lose its value, and thus fail its purpose. While local scale action is presently acknowledged as a fundamental element for effective urban climate change adaptation, its greater challenge therefore relies on finding the balance and exploring the benefits from the arising synergies between local collective actions and national and international strategies. The same way local adaptation strategies must not be dissociated from global adaptation strategies, so too do the processes of public space design, which must follow objectives and strategies of regional and national levels, otherwise “ ... actions will not contribute, in an effective way, to the achievement of community expectations in the safeguard public interests and collective resources” ([26], p. 19, author’s translation). Through the inclusion of flood adaptation measures within public space design, new challenges arise before contemporary urbanism and urban design practices. Likewise, although this research is specifically focused upon adaptation measures applied in public spaces, there are several other areas of opportunity that may additionally provide significant contributions in the development of flood adapted cities. More specifically, disciplines such as building design, governance or landscape architecture have been extending their literature regarding this specific subject matter, Water 2018, 10, 180 20 of 24 suggesting further developments namely on floating buildings, transdisciplinary and transboundary consortiums or in blue and green corridors. Sustained by an empirical analysis based on specific examples, this article emphasizes the particular advantages offered by public space itself as a means where flood adaptation measures can be implemented. However, it is important to note that the presented findings are unintended to serve as restrictive boundaries. It is not here advocated that flood adaptation endeavors can only be considered as such if comprising all the mentioned potential advantages offered by public space, nor that they are only successful if comprising all these mentioned advantages. What is argued is that the above-mentioned characteristics are only potential and are considered as an additional asset either alone or combined. Ultimately, it is reasoned that public space is an ideal interface for adaptation action. Consequently, it is further questioned whether the evaluation of adaptation initiatives should consider: (1) if the design of a public space comprises adaptation measures and, on a reverse perspective, (2) if the application of adaptation measures comprises the design of a public space. Nuno Portas in [61] reflected about different phases of urban projects that have led to different ways on how public spaces were produced. In the described first phase, most interventions were held in heritage areas, entailing projects such as the pedestrianisation of historic centers or creation of public spaces as a replacement of old industrial uses. The second phase entailed urban projects that were induced by events such as the Olympic Games, Capital of Culture or International Exhibitions. These projects had in common the aim to generate new facilities suited for leisure, culture or sports as flag/brand attracting projects. Proposing a further prospective discussion, a final question arises: are we at the fringe of a third phase, in which, in a changing climate, urban projects of diverse territorial nature will also aim to produce public spaces that are prepared to adapt to future impending weather events?

5. Conclusions Within the multi-scaled scope of adaptation action, local scale, from the bottom-up, adaptation is particularly relevant, not only because it very likely influences global climate, but also because it entails immediate repercussions on the reduction of society’s vulnerability. Not only are hazards more acutely felt at the local level, but it is also within local communities that have the most know-how and experience to promptly deal with existing vulnerabilities. Competent and politically autonomous municipalities that are close with its citizens are therefore more likely to conduct effective adaptation action with wide ranging positive repercussions. In this line of reasoning, and bearing in mind the particular advantages of local scale adaptation, it is argued that the quality of our future cities will be influenced by the quality of future adaptation measures in public spaces. Public space enables and promotes community life. It further potentially offers wide-ranging benefits such as place-making, sense of place or local identity. As a civic space, with communal and shared, a new variety of insurgent citizenship is arising within public spaces as the urgent matter of climate change adaptation is now broadly recognized. Furthermore, as emphasized, social, cultural and emotional factors can be more valued and respected within a community than the need of physical safety or ecological services. Through public spaces and public space design, local climate change can be made visible and consequently meaningful for citizens and their livelihoods. Public spaces additionally provide a different source of knowledge and information, besides the mainstreamed sources of science and media, which may be apprehended an autonomous and independent process. Accordingly, public spaces provide extended opportunities for experiential learning inherent to adaptation processes. In this line of reasoning, the design of public space sees itself enhanced in the face of impending weather events, being considered as a key factor in the adaptation of urban territories when facing climate change, and flood events in particular. The examples here evidenced enabled the reasoning that, besides providing the means to include flood adaptation features, public spaces per se entail further specific connotations that are advantageous Water 2018, 10, 180 21 of 24 in adaptation endeavors. As evidenced by the analyzed examples, potential benefits may specifically arise from the characteristics of public space to:

– Favor interdisciplinary design—in places founded through interdisciplinary means, innovative thinking more easily emerges; – Embrace multiple purposes—by combining flood adaptation measures with public space design, adjacent purposes arise among other sectorial needs such as water depuration, recreation or microclimatic melioration; – Promote community awareness and engagement—by engaging the community in the design and use of a public space, not only awareness about climate change may be promoted but also the self-determining willingness for adaptation action is enhanced. – Be supported by an extensive physical structure and system—by conforming a communicating structural network, public space offers the advantage of a decentralized and expansive means to tackle flood management; – Expose and share value—by integrating flood management infrastructure in a public space design, instead of camouflaging it underground or in an isolated impenetrable area, a public investment is exposed and shared. A shared value that may instigate further opportunities such as amenity or environmental improvements. – Promote risk diversification and communal monitoring—by investing in flood adaption measures applied in public space in addition to the conventional approaches, risk is dissipated and diversified and thus reduced. Moreover, through the diversification of risk, communal management among varied stakeholders is promoted. This way, communities are more involved, and the sense of responsibility and appropriation is stimulated, thus potentially leading to autonomous management and monitoring of shared implemented infrastructures.

People and communities can thus be perceived as more than susceptible targets and rather be professed as active agents in the process of managing urban vulnerability; climate change literacy, through the design of a public space, may endorse an increased common need for action and the pursuit of suitable solutions; and local know-how and locally-driven design can be considered as an added value for adaptation endeavors.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology funded by ‘Quadro de Referência Estratégico Nacional—Programa Operacional Potencial Humano (QREN–POPH), Tipologia 4.1–Formação Avançada, comparticipado pelo Fundo Social Europeu e por fundos nacionais do Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior (MCTES)’, under the research project (CIAUD_UID/EAT/04008/2013) from the Research Centre for Architecture, Urbanism and Design (CIAUD), University of Lisbon, Portugal. Author Contributions: Maria Matos Silva conceived and designed the research concept, research questions, data collection, data analysis, writing the manuscript and selecting the references. João Pedro Costa contributed to results analysis. The disclosed article introduces content that is developed in the doctoral thesis of Maria Matos Silva, with the title “Public space design and flooding: facing the challenges presented by climate change”. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

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