FASCIOLIASIS: a FLUKE INFECTION IS FOOD-BORNE PARASITIC ZOONOSES and CONTROLS THEIR VECTORS Pradeep Kumara*, Kumari Sunitab, R.N Singhc, D.K

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Review article FASCIOLIASIS: A FLUKE INFECTION IS FOOD-BORNE PARASITIC ZOONOSES AND CONTROLS THEIR VECTORS Pradeep Kumara*, Kumari Sunitab, R.N Singhc, D.K. Singhd aDepartment of Zoology, S.G.N. Govt. P.G. College, Muhammadabad Gohana, Mau, 276403, U.P. India bHuman Genetices Lab, Department of Biosciences Jamia Millia Islamia (A Central University) New Delhi-110025, India cDepartment of Zoology, Maharana Pratap P.G. College Jungle Dhusan, Gorakhpur U.P. India dMalacology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur, 273009, U.P. India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fascioliasis disease was first recorded as early as 2000 BC. These are zoonotic trematode Fasciolosis infects in animals which causes significant disease among cattle and sheep. Human fascioliasis Zoonoses Food-borne diseases is food-borne trematode infection, commonly acquired by eating encysted metacercaria on Vector snail control aquatic leaves which eaten as vegetables. Human fascioliasis cause significant illness and morbidity, mainly among low income communities. The infection of fascioliasis (fluke) are most common zoonoses in different cattle and in human beings, which affecting a large number of worldwide population in different regions. These fluke infections affect millions of livestock resulting in considerable economic loss in domestic animals. Controls of zoonosis in different part of world are use synthetic drugs which are very effective in curing fluke infection, but it's also causes a number of side effects. This review attempts the major challenges in control of animals and human fascioliasis with valuable approaches from multidisciplinary integration. Snail is an important intermediate vector host for fascioliasis. The control of snail population by using biological control, plant derived molluscicides, chemotherapy of snail, bait formulation technique, may be effective in zoonoses control. The present reviews summarized the use of different molluscicides/techniques which control the host vector snail population in fascioliasis reservoirs area at certain threshold level of their population; it may be new strategic approaches. The review of literature leads to further evaluation of new researches in trematodes (fluke) control programs.

1. Introduction flukes manly infect major vital organ such as liver, lungs and The trematodes are causes zoonoses infectious in liver, lungs intestine which cause zoonoses disease. The food-borne and intestine of human and cattle populations. Herbivorous helminthiasis is an important disease which included in the list of mammals, especially cattle are the principal definitive host of important trematodiasis with a great impact of human trematode in East Asian, African countries [1-4]. These diseases development [9, 10]. Freshwater vector snails are considered as are reservoirs in the wide range of domestic and wild animals [5- intermediate hosts of food borne fluke infection which affecting 7]. The distribution of fluke infections is determined by local the liver, lung and intestines of the animals [11], because these eating metacercaria encysted on aquatic edible plants leaves food vector snails harbour the asexual stage of the parasite while habits as by the presence of obligatory freshwater crustacean, humans harbour the sexual stage of the parasite [12]. Food-borne snail, fish or intermediate hosts [8]. These flukes can produce trematodes are an emerging serious public health problem, but serious disease, especially when infections are heavy. The adult remain largely neglected [13-17]. The several species of trematodes have medical importance which belongs to the liver * Corresponding Author : Dr. Pradeep Kumar flukes (Fasciola sps. Opisthorchis sps.) the intestinal fluke Department of Zoology, S. G. N. Govt. P.G. College, Muhammadabad (Haplochis sps. Fasciolopsis sps. Echinostoma sps.), the lung Gohana, Mau UP. 276403 flukes (Paragonimus sps.), the blood flukes (Schistosoma E-mail: [email protected] Mobile: 09336446322 haematobium, S. Mansoni, S. Japanicum, S. Mekongi and S. c Copyright 2011. CurrentSciDirect Publications. IJBMR - All rights reserved. Intercalatum) [13, 18, 19]. Pradeep Kumar et al./Int J Biol Med Res.11(1):6982-6989 6983

The life cycle of the different species of fluke have common 2.1. Human Fasciolosis features. Adult flukes of trematodes in the mammalian host produce Human fasciolosis is a worldwide zoonotic disease that results eggs that, when passed in feces and ciliated miracidium larva from an infection by the trematodes F. gigantica and F. hepatica. The develop and penetrate in first intermediate host snail body, within infection of fasciolosis in human beings was very sporadic until the asexual multiplication stage [5, 6]. The free swimming cercaria last three decades when clinical cases and outbreaks were reported leaves the host snail body and attached [19-22] to the aquatic [27]. According to recent reviews [31], fascioliasis is probably the vegetation to encyst as metacercaria stage. The present reviews of most widespread parasitic infection worldwide. Total estimated literature were evaluating the control of trematode (fluke) infections number of infected people are 71 million more than 60 countries the disease with strategic control of intermediate host snail by uses of number at risk is more than 180 million throughout the world [13]. several groups of molluscicides/technique which are safer for non The infection was limited in the past to specific and typical target and aquatic organisms. geographical areas, but is now widespread throughout the world, with human cases being increasingly reported from Europe, 2. FASCIOLIASIS America, Africa and Asia [9]. Human cases of fasciolosis have been reported from Mexico, Cuba, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Fascioliasis is an important disease which caused by digenetic Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Venezuela [32]. Human fascioliasis in trematode species of the genus Fasciola Linnaeus, 1758 (Trematoda: India has been reported in state of Assam, Bihar, Maharastra, Uttar Fasciolidae): Fasciola hepatica (Linnaeus, 1758) and F. gigantica Pradesh, Arunchal Pradesh and West Bangal [33-37]. Humans are (Cobbold, 1855). These parasitic flatworms of the class Trematoda, accidental hosts of fasciolosis as they consume infected water or causes serious tropical fasciolosis. F. gigantica is one of the most food [38, 39]. This can be easily controlled and prevented by avoiding important single platyhelminth infections of ruminants in Asia and contaminated water and food [40]. Africa [23]. These fasciolosis caused by trematodes which belonging The parasite induces a hepato-bilary disease, i.e. jaundice, to the genus Fasciola (F. hepatica and F. gigantica) and causing hepatomegaly and bile duct ulcer [22, 31, 41-43]. With respect to considerable [5-7, 9, 24] economic losses due to mortality, liver public health, human fasciolosis was considered a secondary disease condemnation, reduced production of milk, meat and wool [25]. Its until the end of 1990s, with only around 2,000 cases being reported infection is known to cause bile duct inflammation and biliary in the previous 1970-1990 period [44]. The studies on Corsica, obstruction [26, 27]. Infection with Fasciola spp. occurs when Northern Bolivian Altiplano, were the first steps of against human metacercariae larvae are accidentally ingested through raw fasciolosis [45]. Humans are infected by ingestion of aquatic vegetation of food. The metacercariae exist in the small intestine, and vegetations that contain the infected metacercariae [46]. The move through the intestinal wall and peritoneal cavity to the liver infection is also possible through drinking of contaminated water or where adults mature in the biliary ducts of the liver [23]. The acute consumption of food items washed in such water. Fasciolosis were phase is characterized by the migration of immature worms through responsible for 54% of total liver condemnation [47]. the liver. The clinical symptoms are related to hemorrhage, inflammation, and are usually severe, including fever, abdominal 2.2. Animal Fasciolosis pain, respiratory disturbances, and skin rashes. The chronic phase The animal fasciolosis occurs in worldwide [6, 48]. About 250 starts when the worms reach in the bile ducts. Symptoms are non- million sheep and 300 million cattle are potentially affected by the specific and usually mild to moderate [28]. The different shape and fasciolosis disease in worldwide. The common liver fluke Fasciola size of F. hepatica and F. gigantica from bovines has been achieved for hepatica is a parasitic flat worm that can be collected in large number the first time in natural allopatric populations [9, 28]. Hammond and from the bile duct of infected cattle, sheep, buffalo, goats, horses, Sewell, [29] has been reported that F. gigantica is more pathogenic ovine, swines and other mammals [4]. In tropical regions the and causes more production losses than F. hepatica. Fasciolosis infection of fasciolosis is considered to the single most important disease cause pathological and necrotic lesions, which result from helminth infection of cattle with prevalence rates of 30-90% in the parasites migration through the liver parenchyma and the bile Africa, 25-100% in India and 25-90% in Indonesia [49]. Froyd, [50] ducts causing hemorrhage [30]. has been reported in Great Britain, about 21% cattle and 7% sheep Pradeep Kumar et al./Int J Biol Med Res.11(1):6982-6989 6984

were infected with liver flukes. In Gorakhpur U.P. India, 94% 3.2. Lung flukes buffaloes are infected which observed in local slaughter house The lung flukes are members of the genus Paragonium and where carried heavy infection of F. gigantica [51-53]. Other while more than 40 species have been described, only eight are significant losses in sheep due to fasciolosis are reduced production presently considered of human importance. Most of the 40 species and quality of wool, reduced lambing percentages and poor growth are parasites of animals and some may be synonymous. Twenty eight rate of lambs. While in cattle, losses include reduced production and are considered distinct species, with 21 from Asia, 2 from Africa and quality of milk and lower growth rates and lower feed conversion 5 from the America, most are in tropical regions [64]. One species, Paragonimus kellicotti is native to North America [65]. The best rates in fattening cattle inside their host, the liver flukes cause severe known species of Paragonimus westermani is found in animals and damage which may lead to the death of the animals [54]. Fasciolosis human throughout the East, from India to Japan and Philippines. P. has been implicated as the cause of morbidity and mortality in the heterotremus is reported from China and Southeast Asia, P. skrjabini production of ruminants [55]. and P. hueitungensis from China, P. miyazakii from Japan, P. uterobilateralis and P. africanis from central and western Africa, P. 2.3. Diagnosis mexicanus from central and South America and P. kellicotti from A tentative diagnosis of fasciolosis infections is based on the North America [66-68]. observations of clinical signs, information on grazing history and Paragonimus species are lung parasitizing parasites of human seasonal occurrence. Confirmatory diagnosis however, is based on and carnivores' animals. Garcia, [21] has been reported that more demonstration of Fasciola eggs through standard examination of than 10 species of lung flukes P. westermani, P. heterotremus, P. faeces in the laboratory, post-mortem examination of infected maxicanus, P. africanus, P. kellicotti, P. miyazakii, P. philippinensis, P. animals and demonstration of immature and mature flukes in the skrjabini, P. Hueitunginensis and P. uterobilateralis are known which infected in human and mammals. The adult worms of Paragonimus liver, the lung, the intestine and the blood. Detection of eggs in spp. are plump, ovoid, reddish brown and encapsulate in the lung of patients stool samples is still considered the most conclusive humanoid and carnivores animals. diagnosis at the clinical level [2, 22]. The latter is helpful in deciding the intensity of fluke infection. Espinoza et al. [56] has been studied 3.3. Intestinal flukes that Fas 2-ELISA is a highly sensitive immuno diagnostic test for the Intestinal flukes are a group of various trematodes that the detection of F. hepatica infection in human fascioliasis endemic areas adult stage inhabits in the intestinal tract [5]. The main species of and molecular techniques [57] have been developed and are the this group are Fasciolosis buski, and species of the family is current hallmark of sound and scientific studies in the field. Echinostomatidae and Heterophyidae [69-71]. These intestinal flukes are thought to produce no symptoms except, when present in Serological assays are often used to detect infections due to very large number, which is a rare occurrence. Few species of immature forms where feacal egg output is often nil. Such tests allow intestinal flukes cause serious disease, but community based and the detection of substance like cathepsin L- proteases, excretory case-control studies have yet to be done. These are usually localized secretory products, detection of egg in milk, and ELISA [58-60] in area where there are freshwater vectors snail and animal detection of antibodies against the fluke plasma concentration of reservoirs hosts and occur in people with particular dietary habits Gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), which are increased within the [72]. bile duct damage. 3.4. Blood flukes

3. TREMATODE (FLUKE) Trematodes flukes of the genus Schistosoma (Schistosoma 3.1. Liver flukes haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni, Schistosoma japonicum, Schistosoma mekongi and Schistosoma intercalatum) are the blood The main species of trematode in group of the liver flukes are flukes parasitizing in human and mammalian animals [18, 73, 74]. Fasciola gigantica, Fasciola hepatica, Opisthorchis felinouse, Three species of these are considered as having an important public Opisthorchis viverrini and Clonorchis sinensis, [13, 15, 61]. The liver health impact, such as S. haematobium, S. mansoni and S. japonicum flukes in human are members of two families, the Opisthorchiidae [75-77]. The infection of S. mansoni and S. haematobium occur and Fasciolidae, which distinguished by differences in life cycle and mainly in the African continent and the Middle East. S. japonicum is endemic in China, Philippines, Indonesia and India [74, 76, 78]. pathogenesis [62]. In human Opisthorchiidae are major species such Schistosomiasis is endemic in 74 tropical developing countries [79]. as Clonorchis sinensis (East Asia), Opisthorchis viverrini (Southeast Steinmann et al. [74] have been reported that the 779 million people Asia), O. guayaquilensis (North and South America), O. felinouse are at risk of schistosomiasis and 207 million people are infected (Soviet Union) and Metorchis conjunctus (North America). In the worldwide. The epidemiology of schistosomiasis in Egypt is over a Fasciolidae species, Fasciola hepatica is worldwide distribution 5000 year period. Evidence from mummies demonstrates the presence of this disease in ancient Egypt [80]. whereas F. gigantica is in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Africa [63]. Pradeep Kumar et al./Int J Biol Med Res.11(1):6982-6989 6985

Human Schistosomiasis cases have been reported in Indian alternate method to the use of molluscicides [100]. Biological subcontinent [81]. Schistosomes are differ from other human control is an appealing alternative snail management strategy trematodes such as distinct sexes, live in the blood vessels, have non- because of its low cast, technology simplicity and potential for self- operculated eggs, and have no encysted metacercaria stage in the life renewal [101, 102]. Biological control can be done by the snail cycle [21, 77]. The cercariae in the water penetrate the human skin, Marisa comunnarietis which attacks Biomphalaria aleyandrina and and then they develop into schistosomula and migrate to the final Lymnaea caillaudi. Marsh flies, is also known as snail killing flies locations where they mature and produce eggs, mesenteric venules (Sciomyzidae: Diptera) [103]. There are few examples of predators of intestine for S. mansoni, S. intercalatum, S. japonicum and S. of snail such as ducks, frog, song thrushes, mistle thrushes, redwing, mekongi and vesical plexuses for S. haematobium. Eggs circulated ground beetles, hedgehogs, parasitic nematodes, slow worms, into the different host organs by blood stream and is trapped the centipedes and millipedes. Frog eat snail with their shell [82]. tissues causing inflammation and chronic disease. A part of the eggs Potential of the nymph of Hemianax ephippiger is a predator of the are discharged to environment via excretive system such as faeces snail Lymnaea natalensis an intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica and urine, then the eggs hatch on reaching water and liberating [104, 105]. Predators of the snails, Gonaxis quadrilateralis [106] and miracidia, which must penetrate a suitable intermediate host snail Incillaria [107] are used for the snail control. Biological methods are and produce the infective cercarial stage [21, 77, 78]. especially involving the use of indigenous predator, traditionally perceived as environmentally friendly and have been the focus of 4. CONTROL AND PREVENTION research and management of intermediate host [108].

Several methods of fasciolosis (fluke) control are available and 4.3. Plant origin molluscicides can either be used independently and as a combination of two or more of them. These methods involve reduction in the number of Molluscicides of plant origin have gained more importance intermediate hosts snail by chemical or biological means, strategic because they are less expensive and less hazardous and culturally application of antihelminthics, reduction in the number of snails by more acceptable than synthetic ones [93]. Several groups of drainage, fencing and other management practices and reduction in compounds are present in various plants and their different parts the risk of infection by planned grazing management. Control of have been found to be toxic to snails. These saponins, tannins, parasitic diseases is crucial to improve the productivity of the miscellaneous alkaloids, alkenyl phenols, glycoalkaloides, animals. The control of the intermediate host snail population offers flavonoids, sesquiterpenes lactones, terpenoid and phorbol esters a good opportunity for the reduction and transmission of fasciolosis, have been found to be poisonous to snails at acceptable doses when combined with one or more other methods such as use of ranging from <1-100 ppm [109-111]. The screening of plants for molluscicides or in vivo chemotherapy of vector snails or molluscicidal activities have been greatly expanded with more than environmental sanitation. Although eradication of the snail hosts 1400 species studied for [109, 112-122] control of different species population is the most effective method of total trematodes fluke of snails. controls. However, is often very difficult in low-lying, wet areas with a mild climate conditions. Snails multiply extremely rapidly and 4.4. Chemotherapy of host snail hence eradication is almost very difficult in irrigation areas. Effective control of most trematode infections is based on 4.1. Snail control strategically applied chemotherapy [123]. Combination of chemotherapy, intermediate host control, sanitation and One way to tackle the problem of fasciolosis infections is to environmental manipulation are believed to be more efficient but destroy the carrier snails and remove an essential link in the life very expensive. The drugs to be used against flukes should ideally cycle of the flukes. Many experts accept that snail control is the best destroy the migrating immature flukes as well as adults in the host. mean for the control of trematode infection [5, 52, 82-92]. The use of Several drugs are now available for the treatment of fascioliasis, molluscicides for the control of snail intermediate hosts is a which are against the adult flukes, and the parenchymal stages. potential tool for the control of fluke infections because, mollusc Phyto-chemotherapy of Fasciola infected snail by the use of plant represent the weakest link in life cycle of trematode. The action to derived active components is one of the most effective methods to reduce the risk of transmission by controlling the snails is often control of fascioliasis without killing the host vector snails [124]. To necessary. Snail control by using molluscicide is an important develop effective and sustainable control programmes against preventive strategy against fascioliasis, associated with helminth parasites, it is important to have a good knowledge of their chemotherapy, ecological and biological control methods. In certain life cycle both within and outside the host animal [125, 126]. In vivo areas satisfactory results have been obtained at much less expense and in vitro phyo-chemotherapy of Fasciola larva by the use of than with other means of control. Harmful gastropods may be Zingiber officinale (citral), Ferula asafoetida (ferulic acid, control by different types of methods viz. biological control, plant umbelliferone), Azadirachta indica (azadirachtin), and Allium derived molluscicides, chemotherapy of infected snail and bait sativum (allicin) have effective larvicidal activity against different formulation [2, 3, 52, 53, 82, 84, 93-99]. larva of Fasciola gigantica [3, 124, 127-129]. It is a new therapy to reduce incidence of the fascioliasis without killing the intermediate 4.2. Biological control of snail host snail, which is one of the important components of the aquatic The biological control of snails through use of micropathogens, ecosystem. These control techniques will be achieve the goal that is predators, parasites and competitors has been considered as an without killing host snail we can reduce the incidence of fascioliasis. Pradeep Kumar et al./Int J Biol Med Res.11(1):6982-6989 6986

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