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On the Instability of Meaning: English in Time and Place

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On the Instability of Meaning: English in Time and Place On the Instability of Meaning: English in Time and Place Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor Of Philosophy at the University of Leicester By Ghsoon Reda School of Education University of Leicester May 2000 UMI Number: U130638 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U130638 Published by ProQuest LLC 2013. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 On the Instability of Meaning: English in Time and Place Ghsoon Reda Abstract This study is concerned with semantic change in English along two dimensions: time and place. The second dimension considers controversies that have arisen after the global spread of English and the subsequent emergence of ‘deviant’ semantic norms as perceived by native speakers. This is linked to the puristic role that English pedagogy has been playing since the heyday of ‘etymology’. The thesis argues as follows. Although the prevalence of the Saussurean (1915) principle of ‘arbitrariness’ has contributed to the sanctioning of semantic change, it has not freed modem linguistics from the shackles of linguistic purism. This purism, however, has acquired a nationalistic face now that English derives its high status from belonging to English-speaking nations. The ‘true’ meanings of English words are now commonly seen as those that have developed with the rise and development of the Anglo-Saxons’ language. These are evolutionary processes and must be accounted for validly in historical semantics. The thesis contributes to the field by offering a corpus-based study of semantic change using the case of the lexical category to show in a diachronic version of Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) work on metaphor. The aim is to stress the role of metaphor in semantic change on both levels of semasiology and onomasiology. A second contribution highlights the extent to which the study of meaning in time in western linguistics is thought to be worthwhile as compared to that of meaning in place. Meaning in place is a synchronic, controversial issue commonly examined along sociolinguistic parameters in which the role of conceptual metaphor in generating local innovations is neglected. A third contribution shows how the focus on spreading the ‘core’ and ‘fixed’ norms of the English vocabulary through ELT has shifted attention from the centrality of metaphor to language use. An empirical study is also offered to demonstrate the influence of nationalism on the design of the EFL/EIL lexical syllabus. To my very dear husband and son, the backstage warriors, whose sufferings tortured my soul throughout the battle of performing this work ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I owe an especial dept of gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Martin Cortazzi who has freely given his time and broad knowledge to help make this work happen. There is no adequate expression of my real gratitude. I also owe more than I can say to Dr. Daniel Robertson for providing me with access to his unpublished concordancer. But he is too humble to allow me refer to it in my work. I want to particularly thank Dr. Matti Rissanen and Dr. Merja Kyto for granting me a permission to use the Helsinki Corpus. I would also like to thank the Oxford Text Archive for transferring the corpora I used in my research into my account and free of charge. Finally, I want to thank all the administration and library staff at Leicester University for their cooperation and help and the international students for supplying me with examples I used in my study. A public acknowledgment of my debt to all of them, especially to Aleppo University, can by no means express my thanks. TABLE OF CONTENTS -I- INTRODUCTION 1.1. Preliminaries 1 1.2. Semantic Change 5 1.2.1. Factors Facilitating Semantic Change 5 1.2.1.1. The Structure of Vocabulary 5 1.2.1.2. The Flexibility of Lexical Items 5 1.2.1.3. Semantic Vagueness 7 1.2.2. The Rate of Semantic Change 10 1.3. Attitudes to Semantic Change 11 1.4. The study 23 PART ONE: MEANING IN TIME II- SEMANTIC CHANGE 2.1. Introduction: 31 2.2. Approaches to semantic change 33 2.2.1. The Search for Laws 36 2.2.2. The Shift Toward Typology 47 2.2.3. The Structural Explanation 55 2.2.3.1. Avoidance of Homonymy 59 2.2.3.2. Avoidance of Polysemy 59 2.2.4 The Renewed Search for Regularity 63 2.2.4.1. Semantic change as a Tendency Towards Prototypicality 65 2.2.4.2. Scenes and Frames as Strategies for Meaning-Making 75 2.2.5. The Functional Explanation 79 2.2.5.1. The Invisible Hand Explanation 80 2.2.5.2. Prestige as a Mechanism 83 I 2.2.5.3. Word Properties as a Mechanism 86 2.3. Summary and Conclusion 89 -III- METAPHOR, SEMASIOLOGY, ,4M> ONOMASIOLOGY: A CORPUS-BASED STUDY OF SEMANTIC CHANGE 3.1. Introduction 91 3.1.1. Theoretical Background 93 3.1.2. Hypotheses and Goal 98 3.1.3. The Study 99 3.1.4. Corpora and Concordancer 101 3.2. The Story of “to show” 102 3.3. Conceptual Metaphors Behind the Semasiological/ Onomasiological Development of “to Show” 112 3.4. The Influence of the Polysemous Structure of “to Show” on the Semantic Development of the Onomasiological Alternatives 126 3.5. Summary and Conclusion 130 3.6. Further Remarks 130 PART TWO: MEANING IN PLACE -IV- SEMANTIC CHANGE AND ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE: ATTITUDES AND ISSUES 4.1. Introduction: 134 4.2. The Story of English 136 4.3. Semantic Change in the Non-Native Varieties of English 145 4.4. Prescriptive Linguistics versus Descriptive Linguistics 152 4.4.1. Prescriptivism and Functionalism 165 4.4.2. Interference versus Creativity 172 4.4.3 .The Question of Intelligibility 177 4.4.4. English: The language or a Family of Languages 180 4.5. Summary and Conclusion 186 II PART THREE: MEANING IN PLACE AND THE ROLE OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS -V- ALONG THE TRACKS OF ETYMOLOGY 5.1. Introduction 188 5.2. Etymology 190 5.3. Spreading the English Tongue 196 5.4. Modern Vocabulary Teaching Methods 199 5.4.1: Core English 199 5.4.2. Structural Semantics 205 5.4.3. Assigning a Role to the Student: Cognitive Orientation 209 5.4.3.1. Mnemonic Techniques 209 5.4.3.2. Guessing the Meaning of Words from Context 210 5.4.3.3. Using Prefixes, Roots, and Suffixes 214 5.4.3.4. Vocabulary in Discourse: Fixed Expressions and Lexis inUse 216 5.5. Summary and Conclusion 223 -VI- SPREADING ENGLISH THROUGH COURSEBOOKS: PROTOTYPE TEXTS AND CORE VOCABULARY NORM 6.1. Introduction 226 6.1.1. Courses Used in the Study 229 6.1.2. Words Selected for the Study 231 6.2. The Literature of Coursebook Evaluation 232 6.2.1. The Inappropriacy of the EFL/EIL Text: a Question of ‘Stereotyping and ‘Anglocentrism’ 233 6.2.2. The EFL/EIL Lexical Syllabus: a Question of ‘Prototyping’ 238 6.3. ‘Prototyping’ and the Problem of Polysemy 254 6.4. The Presentation of Vocabulary in EFL/EIL Programmes 266 6.5. Viewpoints Concerning Incorporating Vocabulary into the The EFL/EIL Lexical Syllabus 271 6.6. Suggestions forTeaching Vocabulary in Coursebooks 274 6.7. Summary and Conclusion 279 III -VII-THE FINAL WORD 7.1. Summary and Achievement of the Study 281 7.2. Aims of the Study 282 7.3. Limitations of the Study 283 7.4. Discussion of Major Issues in the study 284 7.5. Suggestions for further research 291 BIBLIOGRAPHY 294 IV -I- INTROD UC TION Words strain, Crack and sometimes break, under the burden Under the tension, slip, slide, perish, Decay with imprecision, will not stay in place Will not stay still T. S. Eliot 1,1 Preliminaries It has long been a convenient figure of speech to speak of language as a living organism1 that grows and changes like everything else in this universe. Jean Aitchison (1981:16), for example, wrote that: Language, ... like everything else, gradually transforms itself over the centuries. There is nothing surprising in this. In a world where humans grow old, tadpoles change into frogs, and milk turns into cheese, it would be strange if language alone remained unaltered. A glance at the language of Beowulf, for example, shows clearly that the English language has undergone such change in the course of time that it is now impossible to read Old English (450-1100) without special study (From Hock 1986:331): beowulfe weard giidhred gefe{?e ‘to beowulf glory was given’ 1 The conception o f language as an organism involves attributing creativity in language (eg. Muller 1881:33) to the power of language itself and not to its speakers (From Milroy 1992:22). Aitchison’s lines, however, are free from this connotation. This shows that although “organism” as a theory for language change has died, yet the metaphor has not been buried with it. 1 Texts written during the Middle English period (1100-1500) also require some preliminary study on the part of the modem reader: the understanding of Chaucer is possible only with the help of a glossary.
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