The Engagement of Iceland and Malta with European Integration: Economic Incentives and Political Constraints

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The Engagement of Iceland and Malta with European Integration: Economic Incentives and Political Constraints The Engagement of Iceland and Malta with European Integration: Economic Incentives and Political Constraints Magnús Árni Magnússon Ph.D. Dissertation April 2011 Supervisor: Dr. Baldur Thorhallsson Doctoral Committee: Dr. Guðmundur Hálfdanarson Dr. Gunnar Helgi Kristinsson Dr. Valur Ingimundarson Faculty of Political Science The Engagement of Iceland and Malta with European Integration: Economic Incentives and Political Constraints Supervisor: Dr. Baldur Thorhallsson Doctoral Committee: Dr. Guðmundur Hálfdanarson Dr. Gunnar Helgi Kristinsson Dr. Valur Ingimundarson The University of Iceland: Faculty of Political Science Reykjavík 2011 ISBN 978-9979-9941-2-1 © Magnús Árni Magnússon Háskólaprent ehf. In the memory of my brother Kristinn Óskar Magnússon (1948-2005) Abstract This thesis is on the different routes Iceland and Malta have taken towards European integration in the period 1989-2009, despite significant opposition towards European integration in both countries. It is the general purpose of this thesis to apply and test one of the academic frameworks explaining the dynamic of integration in countries where widespread scepticism is towards the European project, the framework of Sieglinde Gstöhl, in which is combined an analysis of economic interests in market integration with ideational interests in protecting national identity, and use it to explain the routes Malta and Iceland have taken towards EU membership. Gstöhl‘s framework is insufficient to explain the economic incentives of countries inside the European Economic Area (EEA) and is thus modified in the thesis so it can be used in such manner. The analysis of the political impediments is extended to meet the scholarly discussion on the role of nationalism and national identity in opposition to EU membership. In that part the different categories of nationalism of Anthony D. Smith are used. The general research question of the thesis is: Given the extensive opposition towards EC/EU membership in Iceland and Malta, why did Malta take steps to full membership of the European Union by applying for it in 1990 and joining in 2004, while Iceland aimed for limited integration until 2009? To answer this general question five sub-questions, each connected to certain theoretical statements on the issue, are asked and answered in respective chapters. Part I gives an account of the economic performance of Iceland and Malta in the previous two decades, the main sectors of the respective economies, the views of their economic pressure groups, and the economic incentives for joining the EU according to Gstöhl’s model for integration. Part II is on the history of the two countries where “history” means the narrative used to construct the nationality in question – Icelandic and Maltese respectively. This in turn helps to formulate the political impediments – or constraints – to integration. Part III is on the role of the political parties in Iceland and Malta in shaping the approach to European integration in the two countries. Part IV is on the different notions of national identity and nationalism in Iceland and Malta, and the political impediments to European integration these entail, together with a short discussion on religion in the respective countries. In Part V a simple form of content analysis on Icelandic and Maltese newspapers is used to look v further on the economic incentives and political constraints by finding strands of arguments related to the indicators in the variables in the debates on EU membership in Malta and Iceland. Finally an assessment on the level of the political constraints for Iceland and Malta, based on the discussion in Parts II – V, is made. The conclusion is that Malta’s economic incentives to join the European Union remained high since the early 1990s, while Iceland’s economic incentives decreased from high to low with the creation of the European Economic Area (EEA). They became high again with the economic crash in Iceland in 2008. Also, different options for integration were available to Iceland and Malta, making Malta aim for full membership of the EU, while Iceland could aim for limited integration to relieve the economic pressure to integrate. Finally Iceland’s political impediments generated by its ethnic nationalism and leading economic sectors were higher than those created by Malta’s political cleavage and territorial nationalism. After having gone through the exercise of analysing the European integration of Iceland and Malta within Gstöhl’s framework, it is the general conclusion of the thesis that with the modifications in this thesis the model works well to cast a light on the main factors influencing it both ways. It shows the layout of the process and helps to map the broad lines of what is at work in the economy and society which either works in favour of the integration process or against it. vi Ágrip Ritgerð þessi fjallar um mismunandi leiðir sem Ísland og Malta hafa farið í þátttöku sinni í Evrópusamrunanum á tímabilinu 1989-2009. Þrátt fyrir mikla andstöðu í báðum löndum tók Ísland þátt í samrunanum innan Evrópska Efnahagssvæðisins (EES) og Schengen sáttmálans þar til landið sótti um aðild að Evrópusambandinu 2009. Malta sótti hinsvegar um aðild 1990 og gekk í sambandið 2004. Megintilgangur ritgerðarinnar er að skýra þátttöku í Evrópusamrunanum í löndum þar sem virk andstaða er við hann og prófa um leið kenningarramma Sieglinde Gstöhl en hún fléttar saman greiningu á efnahagslegum hvötum til samþættingar markaða og pólitískum hindrunum sem einkennast af varðstöðu um sjálfsmynd þjóða. Ramminn er notaður til að útskýra vegferð Möltu og Íslands til Evrópusambandsaðildar. Rammi Gstöhl nýtist þó ekki óbreyttur til að meta efnahagshvata landa sem eru innan EES og því er honum hnikað til í ritgerðinni til að svo megi verða. Einnig er hlutinn þar sem pólitísku hindranirnar eru skoðaðar dýpkaður til að mæta fræðilegri umræðu um áhrif þjóðernishyggju og þjóðarsjálfs- myndar í andstöðu við Evrópusambandsaðild og er þar notast við skil- greiningar Anthony D. Smiths um mismunandi tegundir þjóðernishyggju. Í rannsókninni er þeirrar spurningar spurt hvers vegna, í ljósi mikillar andstöðu við inngöngu í Evrópusambandið á Íslandi og á Möltu, Malta tók skref til fullrar aðildar að Evrópusambandinu með aðildarumsókn 1990 og inngöngu 2004, á meðan Ísland lét sér takmarkaðan samruna nægja allt til ársins 2009. Til að svara þessari meginspurningu eru fimm undirspurningar settar fram, en hver og ein þeirra tengist ákveðnum kenningarlegum fullyrðingum um málið. Í fyrsta hluta ritgerðarinnar (Part I) er farið yfir efnahagslega frammistöðu Íslands og Möltu á síðustu tveimur áratugum, hverjar helstu atvinnugreinarnar eru, hvaða afstöðu hagsmunasamtök þeirra hafa til Evrópusamrunans og hverjir kunni að vera helstu efnahagslegu hvatarnir til að ganga í Evrópusambandið, eins og þeir eru settir fram í líkani Gstöhl. Í öðrum hluta (Part II) er farið í gegnum sögu þessara tveggja ríkja, eins og hún er fram sett til að styðja við hugmyndir um íslenskt og maltneskt þjóðerni og hún notuð til að varpa ljósi á pólitísku hindranirnar við nánari Evrópusamruna. Þriðji hlutinn (Part III) er um hlutverk stjórnmálaflokka við mótun stefnunnar í Evrópumálum í löndunum tveimur. Í fjórða hluta (Part IV) er fjallað um mismunandi hugmyndir um þjóðerni og vii þjóðernishyggju á Íslandi og á Möltu og þær pólitísku hindranir sem það kann að skapa, auk stuttrar umfjöllunar um trúarbrögð í löndunum tveimur. Í fimmta hluta (Part V) er einföld innihaldsgreining á íslenskum og maltneskum dagblöðum notuð til að finna umræðuþræði sem tengjast áðurnefndum efnahagshvötum og pólitískum hindrunum í Evrópusambandsumræðunni á Íslandi og á Möltu. Að lokum er styrkur hinna pólitísku hindrana á Íslandi og á Möltu metinn í ljósi umfjöllunarinnar í öðrum til fimmta hluta. Niðurstaða rannsóknarinnar er sú að efnahagshvatar Möltu til að ganga í Evrópusambandið hafi verið sterkir frá því snemma á tíunda áratug síðustu aldar. Efnahagshvatar Íslands voru sterkir í upphafi en urðu hins vegar veikir með aðildinni að EES. Þeir urðu svo sterkir aftur með hruni efnahagslífsins á Íslandi árið 2008. Mismunandi valkostir stóðu ríkjunum til boða vegna stöðu þeirra í alþjóðamálum. Þannig stefndi Malta strax að fullri aðild að Evrópusambandinu, en Ísland gat látið takmarkaðan samruna nægja. Á þeim tíma nægði sá samruni til að létta á efnahagsþrýstingi sem landið varð fyrir með tilkomu nánara sambands helstu útflutningslanda innan Evrópusambandsins og yfirvofandi aðild flestra EFTA ríkja að Evrópusambandinu. Þá voru hinar pólitísku hindranir á Íslandi, svo sem etnísk þjóðernishyggja (e. ethnic nationalism) og afstaða lykilatvinnugreina til Evrópusamrunans mun hærri en þær hindranir sem pólitískt sundurlyndi og svæðisbundin þjóðernishyggja (e. territorial nationalism) ollu á Möltu. Lokaniðurstaða ritgerðarinnar er að líkan Gstöhl með breytingum höfundar gagnist vel til að varpa ljósi á þá meginþætti sem hafa áhrif á Evrópusamrunaþróunina á Íslandi og á Möltu. Hið breytta líkan sýnir ferlið og nýtist til að kortleggja þær breiðu línur sem sýna hvað er að verki í samfélagi og efnahagslífi þjóðanna til að ýta á eftir Evrópusamruna eða standa í vegi hans. viii Acknowledgements Acknowledgements First of all I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Baldur Thorhallsson for his unwavering support throughout the decade it has taken me to write this thesis. If it was not for his encouragement and high standards I would never have managed to finish this with all the unrelated workload I have had during this time. A
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