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Negotiating an Anglophone Identity: a Study of the Politics of Recognition and Representation in Cameroon Konings, P.J.J.; Nyamnjoh, F.B

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Negotiating an Anglophone Identity: a Study of the Politics of Recognition and Representation in Cameroon Konings, P.J.J.; Nyamnjoh, F.B Negotiating an Anglophone identity: a study of the politics of recognition and representation in Cameroon Konings, P.J.J.; Nyamnjoh, F.B. Citation Konings, P. J. J., & Nyamnjoh, F. B. (2003). Negotiating an Anglophone identity: a study of the politics of recognition and representation in Cameroon. Leiden: Brill. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12878 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) License: Leiden University Non-exclusive license Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/12878 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). ASC-1-konings.qxd 11/06/2003 15:22 Page i Negotiating an Anglophone Identity ASC-1-konings.qxd 11/06/2003 15:22 Page ii Afrika-Studiecentrum Series Editorial Board Prof. Nicolas van de Walle (Michigan State University, USA) Prof. Deborah Posel (Director WISER, South Africa) Dr Ruth Watson (University of London, UK) Dr Paul Mathieu (FAO, Rome) Dr Piet Konings (African Studies Centre) VOLUME 1 ASC-1-konings.qxd 11/06/2003 15:22 Page iii Negotiating an Anglophone Identity A Study of the Politics of Recognition and Representation in Cameroon by Piet Konings and Francis B. Nyamnjoh BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON 2003 ASC-1-konings.qxd 11/06/2003 15:22 Page iv This book is printed on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Konings, Piet. Negotiating an Anglophone identity : a study of the politics of recognition and representation in Cameroon / by Piet Konings and Francis B. Nyamnjoh. p. cm. — (Afrika-Studiecentrum series, ISSN 1570-9310 ; v. 1) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 90-04-13295-3 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Cameroon—Languages—Political aspects. 2. English language—Political aspects— Cameroon. 3. Cameroon—Politics and government—1960—I. Nyamnjoh Francis B., 1961—II. Title. III. Series. P119.32.C17K66 2003 306.44’96711—dc21 2003049588 ISSN 1570–9310 ISBN 90 04 13295 3 © Copyright 2003 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Cover design by Thorsten’s Celine Ostendorf All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands Contents Acknowledgements vii Abbreviations viii 1. POLITICAL LIBERALISATION AND THE MOBILISATION OF AN ANGLOPHONE IDENTITY IN CAMEROON 1 The post-colonial nation-state project in Cameroon 2 The construction of an Anglophone identity and competing identities 9 Anglophones and the reconfiguration of state power 17 Organisation of the book and research methodology 20 2. SOUTHERN CAMEROONS ON THE ROAD TO REUNIFICATION AND FEDERATION 22 The emergence of nationalism and reunification ideas in the Southern Cameroons 23 The 1961 United Nations plebiscite 31 The 1961 Foumban constitutional conference 41 Conclusion 48 3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN ANGLOPHONE CONSCIOUSNESS DURING THE FEDERAL AND ONE-PARTY UNITARY STATE, 1961-1990 51 Anglophones and the dismantling of the federated state of West Cameroon, 1961-1972 52 Anglophones and the one-party unitary state, 1972-1990 66 Conclusion 74 4. ANGLOPHONE STRUGGLES FOR A RETURN TO THE FEDERAL STATE OR FOR SECESSION DURING POLITICAL LIBERALISATION, 1990-2002 76 The growth of Anglophone organisations 77 Anglophone struggles for constitutional reform 82 The Anglophone diplomatic offensive 94 The Anglophone leadership’s ‘sensitisation campaign’ 101 Conclusion 106 5. STRATEGIES OF THE BIYA GOVERNMENT TO DECONSTRUCT THE ANGLOPHONE IDENTITY 108 Trivialisation and demonisation of the Anglophone problem 109 Divide and rule 111 The establishment of direct and indirect control over the mass media 121 Repression 133 Conclusion 136 vi 6. ANGLOPHONE AND FRANCOPHONE RESPONSES TO THE VIEWS OF THE ANGLOPHONE MOVEMENTS 139 Anglophone views 140 Francophone views 153 Conclusion 161 7. THE ANGLOPHONE STRUGGLE FOR THE PRESERVATION OF ITS EDUCATIONAL AND ECONOMIC LEGACY 162 The Anglophone struggle for the preservation of its educational legacy 163 The Anglophone struggle for the preservation of its economic legacy 173 Conclusion 191 8. THE ANGLOPHONE PROBLEM: IMPASSE AND SUGGESTIONS FOR A SOLUTION 193 Impasse in relations between Anglophone movements and the regime 193 Suggestions for a solution to the Anglophone problem 202 References 209 Index 223 Acknowledgements During our fieldwork in Cameroon we became indebted to a great number of people and unfortunately there is room to mention only a few of them here. We are particularly grateful to the leaders of the various Anglophone movements who spent much of their precious time giving us an insight into the aims and strategies of their organisations. We highly appreciated the assistance offered by Prince Henry Mbayn of the Buea National Archives who provided us with access to relevant archives, papers and documents. We also benefited from the regular advice and support of some Cameroonian colleagues, especially Benedict Nantang Jua, Nicodemus Fru Awasom and Lucien Mufor Atanga. They have been a constant source of friendship and intellectual stimulation. We would like to express our gratitude to the African Studies Centre in Leiden, which not only funded the entire project but also offered an eight-month visiting fellowship to Francis Nyamnjoh to allow this joint project to come to fruition. Finally, we wish to thank Ann Reeves for copy-editing the text and Mieke Zwart for the lay-out work. Abbreviations AAC All Anglophone Conference AM Ambazonian Movement AMENORD Amicale des Elites du Nord BLCC Bakweri Land Claim Committee BNA Buea National Archives BPI Buea Peace Initiative CAM Cameroon Anglophone Movement CAMASEJ Cameroon Association of English-Speaking Journalists CANSA Cameroon Anglophone Students’ Association CAPSU Cameroon Anglophone Public Servants’ Union CAPTAC Confederation of Anglophone Parent Teacher Associations of Cameroon CBC Cameroon Baptist Convention CCC Cameroons Commoners’ Congress CCCE Central Fund for Economic Cooperation/Caisse Centrale de Coopération Economique CDC Cameroon Development Corporation CDU Cameroon Democratic Union CFA Communauté Financière Africaine CIP Cameroon Indigenes Party CNF Cameroon National Federation CNU Cameroon National Union COMDEV Commonwealth Development Corporation CPC Congrès Panafricain du Cameroun CPDM Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement CPNC Cameroon People’s National Congress CRP Conservative Republican Party CRTV Cameroon Radio and Television CUC Cameroon United Congress CYL Cameroon’s Youth League DCK Dynamique Culturelle Kirdi ix ECOSOG United Nations Economic and Social Council FAC Front of Allies for Change FCWU French Cameroon’s Welfare Union FEDO Fako Elite Development Organisation FRSC Federal Republic of Southern Cameroons FWCM Free West Cameroon Movement GCE General Certificate of Education IDA International Development Association IMF International Monetary Fund KNC Kamerun National Convention KNDP Kamerun National Democratic Party KPP Kamerun People’s Party KUNC Kamerun United National Congress KUP Kamerun United Party LDA Liberal Democratic Alliance LDP Liberal Democratic Party MDP Mouvement pour la Démocratie Populaire MINAT Ministry of Territorial Administration MOREPAH Mouvement de Renaissance Pahwin MP Mouvement Progressive NDP National Democratic Party NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NOCUDA North West Cultural and Development Association NOWEDA North West Development Association NOWEFA North West Fons’ Association NOWEFCO North West Fons’ Conference NUDP National Union of Democracy and Progress OAU Organisation of African Unity PAL Parti de l’Alliance Libérale PCC Presbyterian Church in Cameroon PSP Parti de Solidarité du Peuple PTA Parent-Teacher Association RCC Roman Catholic Church SAP Structural Adjustment Programme SCAC Southern Cameroons Advisory Council SCARM Southern Cameroons Restoration Movement SCNC Southern Cameroons National Council x SCPC Southern Cameroons People’s Conference SCYL Southern Cameroons Youth League SDF Social Democratic Front SDP Social Democratic Party SONARA Société Nationale de Raffinage SONEL Société Nationale d’Electricité SWECC South West Chiefs’ Conference SWELA South West Elite Association TAC Teachers’ Association of Cameroon UC Union Camerounaise UDC Union Démocratique du Cameroun UFDC Union des Forces Démocratiques du Cameroun UN United Nations UNGA United Nations General Assembly UNPO Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation UPC Union des Populations du Cameroun 1 Political liberalisation and the mobilisation of an Anglophone identity in Cameroon As in other parts of the world, political liberalisation in Cameroon has been marked by the construction and mobilisation of ethno-regional identities that pose a major challenge to the post-colonial nation-state project (cf. McGarry & O’Leary 1993; Rothchild 1997; Zognong & Mouiche 1997). The unitary approach to the nation-state project was the predominant choice of African leaders in the decades following independence (Wunsch & Olowu 1990). Usually this amounted to a continuation of the colonial state’s nation-building programme, the primary concern of which had been to integrate the diverse ethno-regional groups into the state and place them under one centralised authority.
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