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Symbolism and Design in Ancient Egyptian Author(s): Alix Wilkinson Source: Garden History, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1994), pp. 1-17 Published by: The Garden History Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1586999 . Accessed: 05/07/2011 21:46

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http://www.jstor.org ALIX WILKINSON

SYMBOLISM AND DESIGN IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS

AncientEgyptian gardens were constructed with manyof thefeatures known now from later gardens.But thedesigners were motivated by religious considerations which dictated the form of thegardens and whatplants were used in them.

MEANING, FUNCTION AND FORM In the creationof gardens, as in the creationof language, three elements are involved: meaning, function, and form. Form is universal:the designer of a garden has to take account of the extent and gradientsof the space chosen, and devise a layout. Function, which is the use made of a garden, varies with the status and needs of the owner. The garden may be a place for growing particular , or it may be designed to accommodategreat crowds, or it may be a space for a few people, or even just one, to sit and enjoy its sights and sounds. Meaning is the philosophy behind the creation of the garden. It can be expressed in statuary, layout, inscriptions, and in the plants, which have significancefor the people of the time. Form and function are constant in garden making; meaning was importantin earliercenturies. The Countess of Bedford laid out her garden at Twickenham Park in the form of the pre-Copernicanuniverse. Vicino Orsiniin the sixteenthcentury represented his autobiographyin statuaryin his gardenat Bomarzo.2The seventeenth-centurylabyrinth at Versaillesheld its own secretmessage.3 Loudon, in the nineteenthcentury, believedthat landscapegardeners could improvethe moralfeelings of the visitor.4Gardens were createdwhich told a story, such as Bunyan's Pilgrim'sProgress,s or the journey from birth to death.6 Plants,7 symbolic of various humanqualities were used in the Medievaland Renaissanceperiods.8 In the latterpart of the twentieth century in the West, symbolism9has largely been absent,10except in the work of such designers as Sir GeoffreyJellicoe,11 or as a way of creating atmosphere, although recently a series of essays has been devoted to the meaning of gardens.12

INTRODUCTION TO MEANING, FUNCTION, AND FORM IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS Ancient Egyptiangardens were designedwith all threeelements, meaning, function, and form in mind. Function, entwined with meaning, dictated form. The difference between the ancient Egyptian and modern landscapistsis that the Egyptians began from the mystical properties of a particularplace. Every spot they

7 TennielClose, London W2 3LE 2 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS selected for a sacred building was where a deity was believed to reside. They also re-createdthe characteristicsof the place where some mythologicalevent had happened, by addingarchitectural and featureswhich would be remindersof the myth. These myths were aboutthe creationof the world, the after-life,and about the lives of the gods. The Egyptians were not searching to impose meaning, in the manner of those who createda park in Mexico City as a culturalreminder of the lost city of Tenochititlan.13 Nor were they like the English garden designers of the eighteenth century who used classical mythology and their Gothic heritage as the language of their buildings and statuary,as, for example, at Rousham. 4 Meaningwas alreadythere, and understood. They were more in the spirit of Henry Hoare, who, at Stourhead,whether playfully or not, acknowledgedthe water deities of the site and compared the foundation of his dynastic home with Aeneas'sfoundation of Rome, as interpretedby Virgil.15 In Egypt, the territory in which a garden was planted already had its own significanceand resident deities. Thus the goddess Hathor was believed to dwell in the mountainchain which ran from Deir el Baharito Deir el Medineh. Shrinesdedicated to her were built over the yearsat eachend of the range,north and south. At ,across the river, the gods, Mont, a falcon-headedwar god, and , calledthe 'Hidden One', alreadyinhabited the site on which the temples and gardenswere built. A gardenmirrored the featuresof a mythologicallandscape, and of the world of the after-life. This landscapehad to be as permanentas possible, and sustainableby future generations.It was a marvelwhich would impress the priests and courtierswho would understandthe symbolism,and amazethe generalpopulace and foreignerswho would be awed by the size and splendourof the buildingsand their grounds. The palacesin which the kings lived were also sacred precincts, because the king was himself a god. Palace gardenswere the setting for the ceremonialreception of foreign ambassadorsas well as for the entertainmentof the king and the court. Tomb gardenswere intendedto be placeswhere the soul of the dead could find rest and refreshment. The form which resulted from these requirementswas a courtyard filled with trees, under which stood a basin of water for the soul, as bird or human, to drink. MEANING Thesymbolism of templegardens Meaning was fundamentalto Egyptian architectureand . The design of temple gardensdepended on whetherthey were the cult temple, where the images of the living gods resided, or were funerary,and were intended for occasionaluse. Gardens were an integral part of the cult shrine, which was itself a cosmos, representingboth Egypt and the universe. 6 Temple gardensincorporated water, which representedthe originalwater which covered the earth at the beginningof time, and was the god called Nun, and the vegetationwhich grew aroundand in it. The plants grown in these gardens all had their own symbolism. The waterlilies (Nymphaealotus, Nymphaea caerulea) floating on the lakes were remindersthat the sun god had originallysprung from the waterlily,17and papyrus() was the home of Hathor,18the sky, and mother goddess, and was also the place where Isis had hidden her son, Horus, after the murderof , her husband, by his brother, Seth. Palms were sacred to the gods of the sun, moon, and fertility.19Date palms (Phoenix dactylifera)were particularlyconnected with the sun god, doum palms (Hyphaene ALIX WILKINSON 3 thebaica)with the scribe of the gods, Thoth, and with , the fertilitygod. Another of Min's plants was the humble lettuce (Latucasativa).20 The symbolismof tombgardens Tombs were based on the design of the tomb of the god, Osiris, who had been restored from death to life. By imitativemagic, the human dead could enter eternallife by being buried in a tomb like that of Osiris. This tomb consisted of a mound of earth with trees aroundit, enclosing a tomb chamber(Figure I). An actualrealization of this concept was made at Abydos by King Seti I. It is a temple-like structureon an island, with a tomb beside it, buried under a great mound of earth and sand. Around j Figure I. Illustrationof the tomb of the mound were planted conifers J the god Osiriswithin a mound.On the coffin of Petosirisin MMarseilles and tamarisks in six, huge brick- c rV ie ie Source:Jacques Vandier. Manuel lined pits. A tamarisk was believed d'archeologieegyptienne (Picard, to be the place where the soul of the Paris, I952-69), fig 319 god, Osiris, in the form of a bird, i rested (Figure 2). It was also believed to be where the king as the sun was reborn.21According to the solarmyths, the dead king becamethe sun, which the sky goddess swallowedeach night and gave birth to each dawn. King Mentuhotep (c. 20o-1960 B.C.) planted tamarisks(Tamarix articu- lata) and sycomore-figtrees (Ficussycomorus) in front of his tomb and funerarytemple at Deir el Bahari(Figure 3). Sycomore-figtrees were the home of the sky-goddess, called alternatively,Hathor, Nut, and Isis. On the easternhorizon of heaven, the sun emerged between sycomore-figsof turquoise.22The sycomoretree had anotherrole, as nourisher of the deceased (see Figure 8). In paintingsin courtiers'tombs, the sky-goddessappears from the sycomore-fig tree at the corer of a pool, holding out bread and fruit and pouringwater. Mentuhotepthus made surethat the two trees significantfor his rebirthas the sun were beside his tomb. Date palms representedthe sun, and had the practical advantageof being able to withstand drought. Single palm trees and flowerbedswere plantedin the open courtyardsof priests'and courtiers'tombs at Memphisand Thebes. The meaning and message of the gardenswas frequentlyin the sculpture, both in the round and in relief, which represented the owner in various guises and performing various activities. The sculptures intimated things historical and mythological. The things historical were the relation of the owner to his ancestors, and the things mythologicalwere about the relationshipof the owner to the gods. The owner appeared in variousguises, and performedvarious activities, both in sculpturein the roundand in scenes of relief. In tomb gardens,a statuerepresented the ownerhimself. It was the living presence of the deceased, and had to receive the attentionand respect due to him. Over life-size figuresof Mentuhotepstood in front of the avenueat his funerarytemple at Deir el Bahari.They were fixed into the rock by meansof deep pedestalswhich were buriedin the rock. Lion-bodiedsphinxes, with the face of Queen ,lined the way across the lowest terraceof her funerarytemple beside that of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari. The status of the owner is demonstratedby the size of the garden and its enclosure, and by the size and splendour of the buildings and their decoration. Royal gardens were much larger than those of anyone else: Mentuhotep's grove at Deir el Bahari was about 50 m square: a garden at el-Amaranacovered an area of about a length of 96 m. 4 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS Figure 2. The soul of Osiris in the form of a bird perched in a &t~ tamarisk.In the temple of Hathor at Dendera Ny~ f? Source:Jacques Vandier, Manuel d'arch6ologie6gyptienne (Picard, ~ 8js,r/ ~Paris, 1952-69), fig. 319

1?1Ir treesin frontof Mentuhotep's

~fitS > M V Kr Figure 3. Reconstruction of the trees in front of *-4't y._.n .!? " d 1 /~ X Mentuhotep's

o 5 10 IS 20 2S*

The royal dominance over nature is demonstrated by bringing plants into the desert, rather than by draining areas of marsh, as for example, at Versailles, or carving out a clearing in a forest.

Summary Temples were not, as in eighteenth-century Europe, 'trifles best seen by chance'.3 but the main building, and raison d'etre of the garden. Statuary and sculpture were not just decorative features. They were bearers of religious as well as political messages. FUNCTION The function of temple gardens was to produce the floral, vegetable, and fruit offerings needed for the rituals of the gods, as well as for the perfumes used for anointing the statues, and to provision the staff of priests and workpeople in the temple.24 Hatshepsut and some of her successors tried to grow incense trees, Commifora myrrha, and possibly Boswelliasacra, in their gardens.25Hatshepsut said she brought 'greenan nt trees from Punt (Figure 4). 'Greenant enth has identified both with myrrh26and with frankin- cense. The space provided by gardens was used for processions within the temple ALIX WILKINSON 5

enclosure,and , ?iAhad.WILKINS..OS...ef, to accommodate r. large gatherFigure 4. Incense trees broughtto '~?~~:~:~~nsu~ ~ .Egypt from Punt

open-air temple. It had a central lake, surrounded by temples and other buildings.Th is enclosure may have represented earth,Bahari Deir(London894oriented , east-west the8), route of

Amama there was a walled park-like area, called Maru-Aten, which may have been an temple ofKar ak,h Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were caied by priests, accompanied by an temple of Karnak, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were carried by priests, accompanied by an excited throng, to the temple. At the Festival of the Valley,2sand othe gods of KaThiak sailed across thver, so that the statues of the 'lving gods' could visit the 'dead gods' in the funerary temples on the west bank of the . In order to reach Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Baharibetween templesthewould procession formed go from her riverside Vafley Tempstivals,which asat probably also surrounded by trees,29 along a tree-lined canal to her funerary temple. Menageries were included in gardens. Live animals in the royal gardens reflected the king's ambition to collect the living world around him, and to have animals of particular significance as his attendants. Lions, the royal animal par excellence, decorated his throne and chariot. Lions were kept in cages at the entrance to royal gardens at Karnak (see Figure 12), and antelopes, oryx, and ibex were kept at Karnak and Amarna. Aviaries were probably part of the garden design at Amarna in the 'Northern Maru'. Birds illustrated at Amarna, and presumably living in the gardens, included rock pigeon, turtle dove, great spotted cuckoo, grey-lag goose, pied kingfishers, geese, and ducks. Ducks and geese were ornaments as well as being edible, as were the fish. Animals were bred at various temples. Some were the animals sacred to the deity of the temples, such as rams at Mendes and Elephantine, bulls at Memphis, Bubastis, and Akhmim, and pigs at Memphis. Others were needed for the offerings in the temple. During the Old Kingdom (2600-2I50 B. C. ) birds were reared at the sun temple of Niuserre. Kings arranged for the construction of fowl-yards in the temple of Amun at Karnak. Seti II said the temple was, 'filled with geese, cranes, ducks, doves and [other kinds of fowl] to provide the divine offerings for his father Amun'. In the later periods, they were reared so that pilgrims could offer them as sacrificesto the deity of the temple. Mummifiedibises, have been found in huge numbers at Saqqara, Hermopolis, Athribis, and Abydos, and cats, apes, 6 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS and crocodiles, at Tuna el Gebel, Mareotis,and in the Fayum. Shrinesof the crocodile god, Sobek, are illustratedfrom the Old Kingdom up to the Ptolemaicperiod. Temples of Sobek are known at several places including Kom Ombo, , and Hermonthis (Armant), where the water-penfor the crocodileshad a movable hatch through which they were fed. The function of temple gardens was to provide floral, vegetable, and animal offeringsand provisions,whereas the functionof tomb gardenswas to be availableto the spiritof the deceasedas a place of shadeand refreshment,and to that end they were often illustratedon the walls inside the tomb. The external garden was the place to which relativesand priests could bring water and offerings for the spirit of the deceased.

FORM Gardendesign in general Since they areat the beginningof the storyof garden-making,and set the agendain form for gardensthroughout the Near East and beyond, ancient Egyptiangardens have many of the features well known from later times. The glory of gardens depends on their design, on the way they are laid out and structured, and on the decorative features, skilfullyplaced to enhancea view or evoke ideas. After these foundationshave been laid, the planting brings colour, light, and shade, and variationsin height. Ancient Egyptian gardenswere no exception. Egyptiangardens were formal.30They were axiallyplanned, as for example, Hatshep- sut's funerary temple at Deir el Bahari which was approachedby a series of rising courtyards.A building, whether tomb or shrine, was the focus and point of departure. The unity of the buildingand the gardenswas usually evident. Straightlines predomin- ated in the design and in the plantings. Symmetryis found in the repetitionof like with like. For example, twin groves, twin trees, and twin pools. Geometryis exemplifiedin the arrangementof rectangleswithin a garden. In the illustrationwhich survives of a gardenat Karnak,the layoutconsists of a rectangularwalled area in the centreof which is a (Figure 5) surroundedby walled gardens, some of which are , and some of which have pools and a shrine. Identical trees were planted in avenues at the funerarytemple of Mentuhotepat Deir el Bahari,and on the approachto the temple of Karnak,where there was an avenue of sycomore-figtrees, underplantedwith vines and papyrus(Figure 6). Elementsof the designs Gardenswere laid out with a strong structure,making use of different levels linked by terraces, and often centred around pools of water. Steps and stairways emphasized changes in levels and viewpoint. Terraces, which 'can be the supreme expression of garden art',31had balustradessupporting the steps linking the different levels, as, for example, at Queen Hatshepsut's temple at Deir el Bahari. Trees were grown on the lowest terrace.32At the bottomof the ramp, aroundthe papyruspools were about66 pits cut in the rock, probablyfor flowerbeds,33rather than for the incense trees broughtfrom Punt.34It is not certainwhere these were planted. The gardenof the 'King's House' at Amarnawas terraced,35as is an estate at Karnak(see Figure 12). Areas with their own individualitywere separatedby walls or trees. Within these areas,arcades and colonnadesprovided a varietyof texturesand a backgroundfor plants. ALIX WILKINSON 7

Figure 5. The gardenillustrated in the tomb of SennuferTT 96. Paintingmade by Dr Ricci for Henry Salt. Courtesyof the Trusteesof theBritish Museum Photo:author

Figure 6. The approachto the temple of Karnak. Source:Norman de GarisDavies, The Tombof Nefer-Hotepat Thebes(New York,I948) 8 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS Sunken atriumgardens inside buildings have been found in excavationsin four cere- monial areasat Amarna:in the 'centralpalace', inside garden buildings in the open air temple, the Maru-Aten,in the 'NorthernMaru', and at the site to the south of the city, calledKom el Nana. Courtswith pools and flowersaround them beside dining roomsand bedroomsin the palace at Amarnaare illustratedin severalofficials' tombs (Figure 9). These floralrepresentations may be painted pavements, actual examplesof which were found at Amarna. Vistas were controlledby avenues, and concentratedthe eye on a particularview. From the funerarytemples on the west bankat Thebes, the vistas convergedon the Nile, and beyondit on the templeof Karnak.Equally, a processionleaving Karnak would have its sights set on the temples at Deir el Bahari.

Constituentswithin a garden Waterwas the centralfeature of many gardens.The temple lake was not only the water sourcefor the temple, but was the placewhere rituals were performed,such as takingthe statue of the deity out in a boat. On the pathwaybeside the lake, processionspassed on variousfestivals such as for the Burialof Osirisat Karnak.36Some temple lakeswere very large, the one at Karnakmeasured 132 by 80 m. The lake in the Maru-Aten,at Amarna was I20 m by 60 m. Othertemple-lakes were smaller:33 m by 28 m at Dendera, or i8 m by 20 m at the Eighteenth-Dynastytemple at . The king was rowed on a lake in a specialbarge as partof a religiousceremony,37 and afterhis death his statuewas rowed out on memorial days.38Private gardens sometimes contained lakes. Officials describedthe extensive lakes on their properties,39and a lake large enough for a boat to travelon is illustratedbeside Dhutnufer's house (ThebanTomb 80). People valuedpools as sourcesof refreshmentand coolness. In them they bred fish and birds for food. There were also cisterns,which storedwater for supplyingthe plantsin the gardens.Pools were stepped, so that the watercould be reachedwhen the pool was nearlydry (Figure 7). The edges of some pools provided terraces for marsh plants. The shapes of pools were rectangularand T-shaped. The T-shape was the form in which the channels in front of temples were arrangedas landing areas. The T-shape also reflects the form of a place where offeringswere made (Figure 8). It is this meaningwhich explainsthe shape of the pools beside the rampsin the courtyardof Hatshepsut'stemple at Deir el Bahari.These pools were filled with growingpapyrus, indicating the point where the goddess Hathor, as a cow, appearedout of the mountain. One of the featuresillustrated in the wall-paintingsis a ceremoniallanding platform surrounded by a low balustrade. An actual platform was found at the temple of RamessesIII, at Medinet Habu, juttingout into the pool in front of the temple gateway. These platformsforeshadow the lakeside jetties still remainingin Moghul gardens.40 Bridges have not survived, but a long, stone-built quay was found jutting out into the lake at Amarna, in the Maru-Aten.41Such a jetty remains in the Shalamargarden at Lahore.Water was broughtin canalsto feed the gardens,and was a featurearound which a gardenwas created. A pond markeda focus of interest, sometimesa gardenkiosk was set beside it (see Figure 5). Buildings in gardens were the dwelling of gods, whether they were magnificent stone temples covering several acres, like the temple of Amun at Karnak, or small, stucco-coveredbrick shrinesin the gardensof privatehouses. Buildingscould simply be bowersmade out of papyrus,or pleasurepavilions providing shade and somewhereto sit, __

ALIX WILKINSON 9 ~ /-~ ...... -...... Figure 7. Cisternwith stepped / ---_- . . ..sides in an .Relief in the <... A . , .... of Meryreat Amarna ?> f i:%tomb- i--, ;: ., X- : Source:Norman de Garis Davies, ;"q ^F" ^.r_5U The RockTombs of El Amarna ~- ^^^^^ '_ y -^^' b |L_^!L \d>...0 . .'n --h_ , (London, 1903-08)

_ , , - - -

_I, , .. _ _ _L

Figure 8. T-shaped pool paintedin the tomb of Tjanefer.Theban Tomb 158 Source: Keith Seele, The Tomb of Tjanefer (Chicago, 1959) pl. ii. Courtesyof the OrientalInstitute of the Universityof Chicago or make love,42 or give birth.43Such gardenpavilions survived in Cairenegardens until at least the time of Napoleon's expedition (Figure io). Shrinesalong the route between the Karnakand Luxor templeson the east bankof the Nile were surroundedby their own gardens. The route itself, by the time of the Thirtieth Dynasty, was 'a magnificent avenueenclosed within walls plantedwith trees made dazzlingwith flowers'44 and lined with recumbent stone sphinxes. The pits for the trees, the canal and the sphinxes have been found in excavation.45 Excavationsshow that gardens were usually walled. High, plastered walls, some- times with paintedor tile decoration,hid the participantstaking part in processionsfrom the staresof the vulgar. Paintedand tiled walls in gardenscontinued up to the eighteenth -

IO ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS

?I.!:i.Figure . t 9. The royal couch beside flowerbeds.Over the bed, the __~ y1-^% | ^: !i::i _ the canopy. Relief in the tomb of i 3 (It1* x y; Eli Aj E I w Parennefer ... . Source:Norman de GarisDavies, The p,w3

...... ::: -'n ..:--7_ '.i century in Portugal.46 Sometimes walls were serpentine (sinuous)47and may have providedprotective surfaces for growingfruit trees. Serpentinewalls have been found at Karnak,48and at Hermopolis, where they lined the avenue in front of the temple.49 Trellises and 'treillage'painted on the walls supportedtempting vines and mirroringthe real fruit growing in the garden and providing a kind of trompel'oeil. Pergolas were another way of dividing up the garden, and were also used to surroundpools. Pergolasfor vines were the centralfeature of severalgardens painted in tombs (Figures 11, 12). A pergola consisting of square brick pillars close together covered an area of about 70 m by I20 m south of the main ceremonialbuilding in the centre of Amarna.This buildingwas called the 'CoronationHall' by the excavators,but it is more likely to have been a vineyard.50The walls or floorswere decoratedwith inlaid tiles with floral motifs and aquatic scenes. Monumental gates stood at the entrance to some gardens, as can be seen in illustrationsin tombs, such as that of Sennufer (see Figure 5). Gatepostsof a garden, which surrounded a lake within the precinct of the temple of Amun, and called the 'Libation of Amun', have been found at Karnak.51Gatehouses were a feature of both illustrated,and actualgardens. One of the most elaborateand extensive which has been excavatedwas at Amarnaleading into the Maru-Aten. A sacred tree, or grove of trees, was grown in its own enclosure in some temples, such as at the temple of Hermopolisduring the Middle Kingdom, or in Ptolemaictimes, at Medamud.A special tree was given prominencein others, as in the funerarytemple of Mentuhotep at Deir el Bahari,where a particularsycomore-fig sheltered an altar and a statueof the king. There was a groveof sycomore-figtrees, sacredto the goddess Hathor, at Deir el Medineh. Eachtree was plantedin its own container,or in a pit, so that it could be individuallywatered. At temples up and down the river, trees were brought into the courtyards,enhancing the stone-imitativeplant elementswith naturalvegetation. Inside the court of the Romantemple of Khnum at Elephantine,real palm trees grew up in front of stone imitations of papyrus, lotus, and palms.52 The terrainin whichgardens were made In order to createthese magnificentgardens the Egyptiandesigners had to deal with two potentiallyoverwhelming elements: the desert and the river. In the desert there was too ALIX WILKINSON II

Figure o1. Pavilionin the gardenof Elfy Bey Source:Description de l'Egypte,I (ReeditionMichel Sidhom, Paris, 1990).

Figure I . Vineyard in the garden ;.S? 7\ S^^i^I^aF of the palace of the Queen of ~' .- "' Ay i2 1 At Source:Norman de GarisDavies, The I, i ^9' , Tombof Nefer at Thebes ~l ~ 8-a~ ~:^ ?'x~yE1 fc1 Hotep (New '5 ~ York, 1933)

, ' s g ,z,J,^^'^^^,S ..~,. ,: ' .

'u lions' a a "iii'-'^H ^^Y ifSSg//l | ?^J^ 1 cages, gatehouse, _rt\ a A_S i7' QtO( {^S' -f Xvineyard, trees and an animal yLVYz~~ V ,enclosure illustratedon a relief ^^^^J^^S -^y?|A^!~.~ 1 j^r3..x:75?DZ _S U riB^i ^ Source:P. Anus,Bulletin de l'Institut ii l e ^^^$w ^Francaisd'Archeologie Orientale 69 (1970)

little vegetation; and along the river bank there was too much. On the slopes of the westernmountain at Thebes, the architectswere trying to extend the river bank into the desert, and had to do it by artificially providing water. This mountain was the site of the royal funerary temples and courtiers' tombs. Here the dead rested 'Upon the Crag of the Lady who is the West of Thebes'.53 This was seen by the Egyptians as a hard, hilly desert, scatteredwith the round-toppedmarkers of many tombs, with somewherea lush I2 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS papyrusmarsh were poppies also grew, into which the sky goddess, as a cow, stepped to welcome the dead, who were inside their tombs in the tall, pink rock beside these markers.54

Landscapeof the west bankat Thebes The Egyptianscreated buildings and gardenswhich were integratedwith the surround- ing naturalscenery. The royalfunerary temples were rangedalong the hillside with their backsto the mountainand theirgardens stretching down into the plain. This layoutis the same as that at the Taj Mahalwhich also has the tomb-pavilionat one end of the central axis.55During the EighteenthDynasty, the gardensformed terracesof trees againstthe desert mountainbackdrop. Sycomore-figand Mimusopslaurifolia grew below Hatshep- sut's great funerarytemple in deep pits cut in the rock. Date and doum palms stood in individualcourtyards of the privatetombs on the lower slopes of the hillside during the Eighteenth and Twenty-Sixth Dynasties. The decorationon the walls of some of these courts shows that trees and flowers were planted in the place to which offerings were brought. Further south, in front of the same mountain range, this landscapingwas continued. The funerarytemple of Tuthmosis III may have been approachedby a canal ending in a rectangularpool in front of a monumentalgateway. A canalled from the river to Amenophis III's temple, in front of which was a great lake full of plants, and deep enough for boats to sail on, taking the statuesof the dead king and queen on ceremonial voyages. This lake would have spreadout in front of the colossi of , which were statuesrepresenting the king, which stood in front of the pylonic entranceto the temple. Behind the temple of his royal master, was the funerarytemple of the royal architect, Amenophisson of Hapu, one of the very few courtiersallowed a temple actuallyamong those of the kings. On the lower terracein front of the temple, trees surroundedthe pool.56Away acrossthe desert lay the huge lake of Birket Habu surroundedby profuse vegetation; and the palace of Amenophis III which had its and orchards around it.57 In the Nineteenth Dynasty the landscapebelow the mountainswas probablystill as lush, althoughlater kings pillaged AmenophisIII's funerarytemple of its statuaryand building material in order to create their own monuments.58 Ramesses II'S (I279-1213 B.C.) funerary temple, the Ramesseum, had an avenue in front of it and a garden flankinga canal, inside, between the pylons, accordingto a possible interpretationof a paintingin the tomb of the officialwho was Overseerof the Gardensof the Ramesseumin the Estate of Amun, Nezemger.59This gardenmay have been inside the temple on the southernside of the second court. No evidenceof the canalhas been found in excavation. In front of Ramesses III's (1187-1156 B.C.) funerary temple, Medinet Habu, at the southernend of the sweep of trees, lakes and funerarymonuments, were a canal, pool and trees. Insidethe templewere severalgardens around pools. In succeedingyears small funerary chapels were built behind Medinet Habu, with trees in the courts at the entrances,imitating the plantingsin the greattemple. Somewhereon the mountainside, and now lost, was the funerarytemple of Tuthmosis I where, during Ramessidetimes, his memorial rites were celebratedon a tree-lined lake, accordingto a painting in the tomb of Userhat.60The temples, with their gardens,lakes and canals, were in living and verdant contrast to the desert and rocky scarp of the mountain. They lasted- collectively, though not all at one time - from the reign of Hatshepsut, at least until the death of Ramesses III; a period of more than 300 years, during which time they were ALIX WILKINSON I3 tended and visited by their own priests, and by the priestsand courtiersfrom the temple of Amun at Karnak, as well as by the generalpopulace who took part in the festivals. On the east bank of the riverthe landscapewas just as verdant.The main temples of Karnakand Luxor had gardensinside and out. Landscapeof Amarna At Amarna, the site sacredto the sun god, the desert plain was made green by parks at either end; and temples, palaces and houses with their own gardensfilled the built-up area. At the southernend was the vast open-airtemple, and at the northernend, another more enclosed temple or palace, with a gardenin the centre. In between these parks, lay clustersof buildingswith avenuesleading up to them, and gardensaround them, some of them with pools. In the suburbs, the gardens surroundinga few of the great houses formedoases betweenthe whitewashedbuildings. The riverbank, where ships unloaded in front of the palace, was plantedwith trees and flowersin containers,and a flowerbed, beside the naturallygrowing papyrus and mandrake.61The effect from the landing stage must have been of the river bank creeping towardsthe easternmountain. Landscapearound Memphis At Heliopolis, Ramesses III decreed that date and groves be established, and orderedgardens and incense trees to be planted at Memphis.62 Whetherthe pyramidsat Gizahad any trees or gardensaround them is not known, althoughthere is the suggestionof a gardenbetween the Step Pyramidand the Causeway of Unas. At the riverend of the causewaysthere was plenty of vegetation,but that was not contrived by man. Landscapeof the Delta In the much more fertile Delta, a vast orchardand vineyardsurrounded the palacesand temple at Avaris (Tell Dabaa) and Pi-Ramesses. Ramesses iII ordered the planting of orchardshere, and at many religious centres.

ANCIENT DESIGNERS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF GARDENS GardenDesigners Ancient Egyptiangardens were made by architects,some of whom are known by name: Senenmut,who advisedQueen Hatshepsut,and Amenophis,son of Hapu, who designed AmenophisIII's (1390-I353 B. C.) monuments,are two of the most famous. The names of some individualworkers in the gardensare also known. The ancientEgyptians classified their gardens by theirform, by what they grew, and by the buildingsto which they were attached.Forms could be a piece of ground divided into squaresfor cultivation, an open terracedarea, a sunken or level peristyleor atrium within a building, or a park,which might containa pool. Gardenscould also be described by the plantswhich grewin them, such as vegetablegardens, olive groves, fruit orchards, vineyards,groves of incense trees, and trees for use in carpentry.There were words for describing the gardens of specific buildings: of tombs, palaces, and temples, and of estates, both of the living, and of the dead.63Gardens had individual names, just as buildingshad names. The gardencreated by Akhenaten(I353-1336 B. c.) at Amarnafor the globe of the sun, the Aten, was called'The Seeing-Placeof the Aten'. And the shrines

2 14 ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS with gardens on the route between the Karnak and Luxor temples had names like 'Hatshepsutis united with the perfectionof Amun'. Summary The sacredgardens of ancientEgypt at Thebes and Amarnawere decoratedwith many of the garden features which survived through Roman and Islamic times, and became fashionablein eighteenth-centuryEurope. The power and splendourof the ruler were demonstratedin extensive gardensin front of their funerarytemples at Deir el Bahari, and in and aroundthe temple of Amun at Karnak.At Amarna,in the Maru-Aten,there was a large artificiallake, an ornamented quay, temples, garden walks, avenues, a gatehouse, and maybe even a banquetinghouse. Its companiongarden, the 'Northern Maru', included a sunken atriumgarden and a menagerie, as well as a central pool and small shrines.

A // =~ ^TFigure 5 13. gardenerpouring waterfrom the bucket of the -l.\ '::fv / shadufinto a runnel which leads o^ i n ^ t into the brick containerholding / t a date palm /WV J --^ '?--Jf/ Source: Norman de Garis Davies, The Tombof Nefer Hotepat JvC_W^A-''' < ., 2 0 .1 5Thebes (New York,I933)

Ancient Egyptianlandscape created lavish plantations at temples and city sites. Greatsweeps of desert, coveringover a mile at a time, were kept full of trees. The Egyptians' main practical problem was connected with the control and provision of water, which they managedto overcomeby creatingcanals and pools inside, and in front of, their buildings, and by the constantuse of the shaduf and bucket (Figure 13). The gardeners'success was spectacular,and sustainedover many hundreds of years.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Research for this article was begun at Dumbarton libraries. I am particularlygrateful to John Dixon Oaks, in the Centerfor Studiesin LandscapeArchi- Hunt and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahnwho, as tecture. I should like to thank Dumbarton Oaks, Directors of Studies in , Trustees for Harvard University, for two Fellow- gave me greathelp and encouragement.I shouldalso ships (Summer and an academicyear), which gave like to thankAnnie Thacherand Linda Lott for their me time and space for study, and the use of their patienceand kindness to me.

REFERENCES x. Roy Strong, The Renaissance Garden in (DumbartonOaks ResearchLibrary and Collec- England (London, I979), p. I20. tion, Washington, D.C., I992) pp. II9-51. 2. Lynette M. F. Bosch, 'Bomarzo:A study in 4. James Stevens Curl, 'JohnClaudius Loudon personal imagery', Garden History IO:2 (I982), and the gardencemetery movement', GardenHis- p. 07. tory, II:2 (1983), p. I37; in the eighteenth century, 3. Michel Conan, 'The conundrumof Le Henry Home, Elements of Criticism (1762), had Notre's Labyrinthe', in Garden History, Issues, maintainedthat the 'art of 'was 'capable Approaches,Methods edited by J. Dixon Hunt of stimulatingmore widely divergingemotions ALIX WILKINSON I5 than architecture',quoted by Lucia H. Albers, in GardenHistory, Issues, Approaches, Methods, 'The perceptionof gardeningas art', GardenHis- edited by J. Dixon Hunt (DumbartonOaks tory19:2 (199I), p. 170; and William Chambers ResearchLibrary and Collection,Washington, believed with others in the latter part of the D.C., 1992), p. I6o. eighteenth century that 'beautifulor sublime gar- I5. Kenneth Woodbridge,The Stourhead Land- dens should have an effect on the emotions', David scape,pp. 18-I9. Jacques'On the supposed Chinesenessof the 16. Rainer Stadelmann,'Swt-R'w als Kultstatte English LandscapeGarden'. Garden History I8:2 des Sonnengottesim Neuen Reich', Metteilungen (I990), p. 185. desDeutschen Archaologischen Instituts, Abteilung 5. R. C. Turner, 'Mellor'sGardens', Garden Kairo25.2 (1969), p. 161: 'Der Tempel wird dabei HistoryI5:2 (1987), pp. 157-66, at Hough-Hole ein Abbild der Welt gedachtdie der Sonnengottin House, Rainers, Macclesfield,which was based on Gestaltdes Amun-Retaglich iiberquert';Wolfgang ideas of Swedenborg(1688-1772) being a 'garden Helck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder Agyptologie, i of correspondencerelating to things of this world (Wiesbaden),p. 397. Architectur:'So ist der Tem- and scripturalhistory'. It originallycontained pel ein Weltmodell, ein 'Fahrplandes Kosmos'. plants mentioned in the Bible. Collectionsof plants 17. WolfgangHelck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder mentionedin the Bible have been made in this Agyptologie,v (Wiesbaden),p. I58. country (and in Jerusalem)by Dr Nigel Hepper I8. PierreMontet, 'Hathoret les papyrus',Kemi and are to be found in severalgardens in the I4 (I957), p. Io8. United States. I9. IngridWallert, Die Palmenim AltenAgypten 6. John Colleran,and Eileen McCracken,'The (Berlin, 1962), pp. 97-I13. JapaneseGarden, Tully House, Kildare', Garden 20. Renate Germer,'Die Bedeutungdes Lat- History 5:1 (1977), pp. 35-38. tichs als Pflanzedes Min', Studienzur Agyptischen 7. ClaudiaLazzaro, TheItalian RenaissanceGar- Kultur8 (I980), p. 87. dens(I991), reviewedby VanessaStephen, Garden 21. RaymondO. Faulkner,Ancient Egyptian History20:I (199I), p. 9o: 'Plantswere woven into CoffinTexts, II, p. 247, Spell 682, 'His mother Nut the design', and formed 'part of the allegoricalcon- bore him in the Field of Tamariskwhich protected tent of the gardens'. the god in the nest'. 8. Roy Strong, TheRenaissance Garden in 22. R. O. Faulkner, TheBook of theDead (New England (London, 1979) p. 10: 'Each flower within York, I972), ch. I09: 'I know those two trees of a great gardenwas seen to mirrorone of her regal turquoisebetween which Re goes forth'. virtues, while its overallcomposition could pro- 23. TheShell GardensBooks, edited by Peter claim Elizabethin her varyingroles as Spenser's Hunt (London, 1962), p. I8o. "most royall queen or empresse" . . . the garden 24. Offerings,floral: James Henry Breasted, ... became Gloriana's glass'; p. 47, Elizabeth I was Ancient Records of Egypt (Chicago, I906-07), Iv, the eglantine . pp. 244, 30I; vegetable: ibid. IV, p. 244; fruit: ibid. 9. Being replacedby 'theme parks', such as the IV, pp. 234, 294-45; incense: ibid. IV, p. 294; per- Beatles gardenin the Liverpoolgarden festival, fume: ibid. iv, p. 286. Jane Brown, TheEnglish Garden in our Time 25. WolfgangHelck and EberhardOtto, Lexikon (Woodbridge, I986) p. 222. derAgyptologie, vI (Wiesbaden),Weihrauch, Io. The discussionsin English landscapegar- pp. I 67-89; F. Nigel Hepper, Pharoah'sFlowers, dening circles from the late nineteenthcentury TheBotanical Treasures of Tutankhamun(London, onwardsare about form: 'formal'versus 'natural' I990), p. 20. (LaurenceWeaver, Houses and Gardensby E. Lutyens 26. By Nigel Groom,Frankincense and Myrrh. A (Woodbridge, I98I reprint), p. xviii, or 'modern' studyof theArabian Incense Trade (London, New versus 'English garden'(as exemplifiedin Jason York, 1981), p. 25, who notes that antyw was used Hill's 'sCompanion, I936). Jane Brown, in making an ointment, which he states had to TheEnglish Garden in our Time(I986) p. I29. have been obtainedfrom myrrhwhich could be I . Geoffreyand Susan Jellicoe, TheLandscape mixed with balanosoil, whereasfrankincense can- of Man (London, 1987) p. 386, Sutton Place, not be used for making perfume. Guildford,which was an allegoryof creation,and 27. SiegfriedSchott, AltagyptischeFestdaten p. 389, the Moody Gardens,Galveston, Texas, (Wiesbaden, I950), p. 71; Norman de Garis which was designed to illustrate'the way in which Davies, Journalof EgyptianArchaeology I0 (1924), civilizationshave assembled, nurturedand inte- pp. 12-13. grated plants of all kinds into their variousforms 28. WolfgangHelck, EberhardOtto, Lexikonder of gardensand landscapes'. Agyptologie,vi (Wiesbaden),pp. 187-89. Talfest. 12. Mark Francis, RandolphT. Hester, The SiegfriedSchott, Das SchoneFest vom Wustental. Meaningof Gardens:Idea, Place and Action(Cam- (Wiesbaden, I952). bridge, Mass., 1990). 29. Theodore Davis, EdouardNaville, and 13. SutherlandLyall, Designingthe New Land- HowardCarter, Theodore M. Davis Excavations, scape (London, 1991), pp. 60-63. Biban el Moluk. The Tombof Hatshopsitu(London, I4. John Dixon Hunt, 'Verbalversus visual 1906), p. 59, state that there were gardensaround meaningin garden history:The case of Rousham', this temple. Referringto the relief of a gardenin ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GARDENS the centralshrine of the funerarytemple of 4I. About 37 m long, I2 m of which projected Hatshepsut,the authorssay: 'The garden ... must into the lake, Thomas E. Peet and C. Leonard have been in the wateredand cultivatedground Woolley, TheCity of Akhenaten(London, I923), I, perhapsat the extremityof the little valley which p. I15, pi. xxIx. was the site of the avenueleading to the temple, 42. UbaonerStory, Raymond0. Faulkner, where have been found remainsof a building'. EdwardWente, William Kelly Simpson, The 30. Criteriafor formalgardens: Mark Laird, Literatureof AncientEgypt (New Haven, London, FormalGardens: Traditions of Art and Nature 1972), p. 17. (London, I992), p. 6. 43. WolfgangHelck and EberhardOtto, Lexikon 31. Peter Hunt, TheBook of GardenOrnament derAgyptologie, vi, pp. I282-84. 'Wochenlaube', (London, 1974), p. 209. and referencesin Alan Schulman,Journal of the 32. EdouardNaville, The Templeof Deir el AmericanResearch Center in Egypt22 (1985), p. 99, Bahari (London, 1908), vi, p. I. In front of the note IO. colonnadeon the lower terrace,i.e. the one with a 44. Moh. Abdel QaderMohammed, 'Prelimin- relief of the transportof obelisks: 'We found that ary Report on the Excavationscarried out in the on both sides the open space was used as a kind of Temple of Luxor, Seasons1958-59 and I959-60', garden . There were many small round pits about Annalesdu Servicedes Antiquites de l'Egypte60 ten feet deep, filled with Nile mud in which trees (I968), p. 267. had been planted. The stumps of two palm trees 45. Moh. Abdel QaderMohammed, Annales du are still in situ, but there were other trees'. Servicedes Antiquites de l'Egypte60 (1968), 33. D. Arnold, in WolfgangHelck, Eberhard pp. 233-34, pl. lxxxvi, xcv. Otto, Lexikonder Agyptologie I (Wiesbaden,I975- 46. Tiles in the Bishop's Gardenat Castelo 86),.p. IoI9, says they are flowerbeds. Branco. Photo: Tony Aruzza,Portugal. Insight 34. As Jean-ClaudeHugonot, LeJardin dans Guides(London, 1988), p. 243; Quintada Penha l'Egypte ancienne (Frankfort-am-Main, 1989), p. 72. Verde Sintra (I640-50); Helder Carita and Homem 35. John D. S. Pendlebury,The City of Cardoso,Portuguese Gardens (Woodbridge, 1990), Akhenaten,iii (London, I95I), pp. 86-87, plsi, p. 80. 'Tile work which was almost entirelyrestric- xlvi 'At the north end of the west side are two ted to religiousarchitecture in the first half of the terracesat a lower level, but a small flight leads seventeenthcentury makes its appearancein down to the lowest where there was evidentlyan gardens'. arbour.' 47. Which requirea third of the numberof 36. Paul Barguet,Le PapyrusLouvre N. 3176 bricks that a straightwall needs becauseit is half as (, I962), p. 42, says that a passage in the thick as a normalwall, but could reach a height of Book of the Dead, ch. 125, refersto putting into 15 ft, Jean O'Neill, 'Wallsin half circles and ser- the coffin on the edge of the quay at night, the pentine walls', Garden History 8.3 (I980), p. 72, sacredobjects which symbolizedthe body of Osiris their purposewas to grow fruit. Accordingto Ste- ... Not only does the 'mystery' take place on the phen Switzer, 1742, the wall was 6-8 yd round on banks of a lake but the text shows that Pharoahin the inside; at Hermopolisit was about 2 m: Joa- his role as Horus 'has wrappedhis fatherOsiris chim Sliwa, 'On the meaningof the so-calledsinu- and taken care of his tomb at the head of the soidal walls in Egypt during the Middle Kingdom' sacredlake' (which might be the shrine of Tuth- in Theintellectual heritage of Egyptedited by Ulrich mosis III at the westernend of the lake). Luft, FestschriftL. Kakosy (Budapest, 1992), 37. Sun cult at Amarna,Beatrix Gessler-Lohr, p. 523, which lists known examplesand suggests Die HeiligenSeen agyptischenTempel (Hildesheim, saving of building material,rapid construction and 1983), p. 213, Hathorcult, ElisabethStaehelin, resistanceto sand pressureas advantages. 'Zur Hathorsymbolikin der agyptischenKlein- 48. Donald B. Redford,Journal of theAmerican kunst', Zeitschriftfur AgyptischeSprache o05 Research Center in Egypt 28 (1991), p. 9I, fig. I9. (1978), pp. 76-77. 49. GiintherRoeder, 'Berichtiiber die Ausgra- 38. E.g., BeatrixGessler-Lohr, Heiligen Seen bungen des Deutschen HermopolisExpedition dgyptischenTempel (Hildesheim, 1983), pp. 99-10o, 1935', Mitteilungendes Deutschen Instituts fur dgypti- a statue of AmenophisIII being rowed on a lake. sche Altertumskundein Kairo 7 (1937), pp. IO-21. Theban Tomb 277. 50. ClaudeTraunecke, Bulletin de la Societe 39. E.g., Meten, Hans Goedicke, 'Die Laufbahn d'Egyptologiede Geneve9-Io (I984-85), pp. 285- des Mtn', Mitteilungendes Deutschen Archdologi- 307. schenInstituts Abteilung Kairo 21 (I966), pp. 64-65, 5I. ShehataAdam and Farid el Shaboury,'Rep- or the descriptionof the estate of Raia;Miriam ort on the work at Karnakduring the seasons Lichtheim,Ancient Egyptian Literature, II (Ber- 1954-55 and 1955-56', Annales du Service des Anti- keley, 1974), p. I73. 'The lapping of waves sounds quitesde l'Egypte56 (I959), p. 39. pl. 5; CharlesC. in one's sleep'. Van Siclen, Two ThebanMonuments from the Reign 40. E.g., Fatehpur Sikri, built by Akhbar, 1570, ofAmenhotepII (San Antonio, Texas, 1982), p. I5. or the Shalamargardens, Lahore, of Shah Jahan, 52. WernerKaiser, 'Stadt und Tempel von Ele- 1642, WilliamHoward Adams, NaturePerfected: phantine',Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archdologi- Gardensthrough History, pp. 79, 82. schen Instituts, Abteilung Kairo 38 (1982), pp. 306-29. ALIX WILKINSON I7 53. RicardoCaminos, Late EgyptianMiscellanies 59. MarcelleBaud, Le Caracteredu Dessinen (London, 1954), p. I43. EgypteAncienne (Paris, I978), figure I6. 54. Theban Tomb 277, JeanneVandier d'Abba- 60. TT 5I. Norman de GarisDavies, Two die, Deux tombesthebains a GournetMourrai (Cairo, RamessideTombs at Thebes,1927. I954), pp. I4-I7, plsxii-xiii. 6I. Norman de GarisDavies, TheRock Tombsof 55. WilliamH. Adams, NaturePerfected: Gar- el Amarna, v (London, I903-08), pl. v. densThrough History, p. 83, commentson the pos- 62. James H. Breasted,Ancient Records of Egypt, ition of the Taj Mahal (1632-54) being at one end 5 vols (Chicago, I906-07), IV, 333: 'I planted of the centralaxis, 'so that it can easily be seen incense and myrrhtrees in thy great and august from the JumnaRiver below', and thus departing court in Ineb-Sebek,being those which my hands from the chaharbagh pattern where the tomb- broughtfrom the countryof God's Land'. Papyrus pavilionis in the centre. Harris. RamessesiII. 56. ClementRobichon and AlexandreVarille, Le 63. Jean-ClaudeHugonot, LeJardin dans Templed'Amenhotep, Fils d'Hapou(I935). l'Egyptedncienne (Frankfort-am-Main, I989), 57. Lecture at the British Museum 10 Novem- pp. 9-20; Henry G. Fischer, 'An invocatoryoffer- ber I992 by Dr Hourig Sourouzian. ing basin of the Old Kingdom', Mitteilungendes 58. Lecture at the British Museum o1 Novem- DeutschenArchaologischen Instituts Abteilung Kairo ber I992 by Dr Hourig Sourouzianon the re-use of 47 (1991), PP. I27-33. statues of AmenophisIII by RamessesII at , and by Merneptahin his funerarytemple on the west bank at Thebes.

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