Structuring Local Identity: Nation, Province and County in Shanxi During the 1990s David S.G. Goodman ABSTRACT One of the more interesting aspects of politics in the People’s Republic of China during the 1990s was the attempt by many provincial leaders to create a specifically provincial discourse of development that entailed the reformulation of provincial identity. Both inside and outside the People’s Republic of China, provin- cialism has often been held to challenge the unity of the Chinese state. However, an examination of the provincial discourse of development in Shanxi during the 1990s suggests that provincial and indeed more local identity politics are more complex and finely nuanced than might at first seem to be the case. Shanxi’s new provincial identity was neither exclusive nor opposed to other identities, but one of a series of multiple and overlapping identities, structured within a hierarchy of place and identity that reached down to and interacted with the more local levels of county and village, as well as up to the national level. At the same time it is clear that the appeal to localism has started to influence the ways in which provincial leaders participate in national politics. Moreover, there is some indication that the emphasis on localism may have resulted in the county and the town or city becoming more significant locales for identity formation than the province, though the consequences of this for provincial and local politics remain unclear. In 1958, the then Governor of Shandong province, Zhao Jianmin, was purged after having reportedly partially argued “I am a native of Shan- dong. I am for the people of Shandong and the cadres of Shandong.”1 In 1993, the then Governor of Shanxi province, Hu Fuguo, became some- thing of a local hero when in his first speech to the Provincial People’s Congress he said, in very similar terms, “I was born in Shanxi, grew up in Shanxi, lived and worked in Shanxi for 44 years. Shanxi is my home, and the Shanxi people raised me as a son of peasants. As the saying goes ‘Home influences are hard to change, home feelings hard to forget.’ I have never been able to forget the affection of the people at home. My own fate and that of my home are firmly bound together.”2 One of the more interesting aspects of politics in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) during the 1990s was the attempt by many provincial leaders to create a specifically provincial discourse of development, not least because each entailed the reformulation of provincial identity.3 For most of the previous 40 years, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) would have considered appeals to “localism” and the articulation of 1. Reported in US Survey of the China Mainland Press, No. 1850, 10 September 1958, p. 24. 2. “Renminde shengchang yao dui renmin fuze” (“The people’s governor must be responsible to the people”) in Hu Fuguo, Jiang zhenhua, ban shishi, zuo biaoshuai: zai chuang Sanjin huihuang (Tell the Truth, Make Things Happen and Set an Example: Reconstructing Shanxi’s Glory) (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1996), p. 11. 3. Tim Oakes, “China’s provincial identities: reviving regionalism and reinventing ‘Chineseness’,” The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 59, No. 3 (August 2000), p. 667. Hans Hendrischke and Feng Chongyi (eds.), The Political Economy of China’s Provinces: Comparative and Competitive Advantage (London: Routledge, 1999). The China Quarterly, 2002 838 The China Quarterly provincial interests in such partial terms to be a political crime of considerable magnitude. In 1957–58 there was a major purge of provin- cial leaders, including Governor Zhao Jianmin in the first case just cited, removed from office precisely for their “localism,”4 and it was a common accusation hurled at many provincial leaders during the Cultural Revol- ution. The CCP has not generally articulated a “law of avoidance,” such as applied under the imperial system of government to prevent officials being appointed to their native place or where they had particularistic ties. All the same, its practice in appointments to positions of leadership at provincial-level and within provinces has clearly reflected a concern to avoid localism,5 even though there is some evidence that a higher proportion of natives have been appointed in the reform era.6 Reform has certainly highlighted the role of provincial-level authorities as through decentralization and devolution the CCP has withdrawn from government, and government has withdrawn from economic manage- ment. Provincial autonomy has undoubtedly increased during the last 20 years. There would thus seem to be the potential for a provincialism to emerge that was not only fuelled by an economic base but also reinforced by political identity. The articulation of the provincial does not have to be seen to reinforce the arguments of those outside the PRC who at the beginning of the 1990s argued strongly that the country will at some stage fracture politically along the lines of its provinces, and equivalent territorial-administrative units, to be taken seriously. A strongly articu- lated provincial identity might clearly serve goals that are far less than those of separatism: the tradition of regionalism in late Qing China was after all not a propensity to disintegration.7 Indeed, it can even be argued that at that time provincial identity to a large extent allowed provincial elites to know, and far from not minding, celebrate that they were not the centre.8 An examination of the provincial discourse of development in Shanxi during the 1990s suggests that provincial and even more local identity politics are indeed more complex and finely nuanced than might at first seem to be the case.9 Shanxi certainly saw a fairly successful attempt by 4. Frederick C. Teiwes, “The purge of provincial leaders, 1957–1958,” The China Quarterly, No. 27 (July 1966), p. 14. 5. Frederick C. Teiwes, Provincial Party Personnel in Mainland China 1956–1966 (New York: The East Asia Institute, Columbia University, 1967), p. 15. 6. Cheng Li and David Bachman, “Localism, elitism and immobilism: elite formation and social change in post-Mao China,” World Politics, Vol.42, No. 1, (1989); and Xiaowei Zang, “Provincial elite in post-Mao China,” Asian Survey, Vol.31, No. 6 (June 1991), p. 512. 7. Franz Michael “Regionalism in nineteenth-century China,” in Joseph Levenson (ed.), Modern China: An Interpretive Anthology (Toronto: Macmillan, 1971), pp. 34–52. 8. Joseph Levenson, “The province, the nation and the world: the problem of Chinese identity,” in Albert Feuerwerker, Rhoads Murphey and Mary C Wright (eds.), Approaches to Modern Chinese History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), pp. 268–288. 9. This article draws on the provincial media and interviews undertaken in Shanxi with entrepreneurs, local cadres, provincial leaders, intellectuals, workers and peasants since 1996 as part of research projects into social change in the province supported by the Australian Research Council. Research would not have been possible without the assistance of Professor Tian Youru of the Modern Shanxi Research Institute, and Li Xueqian of Shanxi University. Neither they, nor any of the interviewees, are responsible for the views expressed or the opinions articulated in this article. Structuring Local Identity 839 the provincial leadership to create a new and specifically provincial identity within a more general appeal to localism. However, its provincial identity was neither conceived nor received as an exclusive identity separate from or opposed to other identities, local or national. On the contrary, provincial identity was seen as one of a series of multiple and overlapping identities. In particular, the new provincial identity was structured within a hierarchy of place and identity that reached down to and interacted with the more local levels of county and village, as well as up to the national level. While the possibility of other long-term consequences cannot be excluded, it would seem that two other related features of Shanxi’s identity politics are also more likely to reinforce the province’s inte- gration with the rest of China in the shorter term. In Shanxi, provincial identity became important, to ordinary people as well as to the provincial leadership of the CCP. However, this was a social particularism, rather than an ideology of separatism or some other form of political provin- cialism. Moreover, this social particularism was itself derived from the many different strands of even more local cultures within the province, with the aim of mobilizing the population behind national economic goals. In the relationship between national and provincial culture, it was China as a whole that remained privileged, in popular culture as much as within the politics of the party-state, rather than Shanxi. At the same time, Shanxi’s experience suggests that the more general appeal to localism – as opposed to the detail of its new provincial identity – has already had political consequences both on provincial leaders in their participation in national decision-making, and on the dynamics of local politics in urban areas and at the county level. Provincial leaders effectively have two constituencies to satisfy: the centre and the province. Their appointments and careers depend through the nomenklatura system on the CCP and its central authorities. However, in order to perform their centrally imposed duties satisfactorily they must also deliver to some extent on demands from and within the province. There is every evidence that Shanxi’s provincial leadership tried hard to articulate an identity that at the level of principle expressed harmony with both Beijing and other provinces. Nevertheless, there was also much in the nature of their appeal to a notion of popular localism within the province – particularly the notion of provincial rights – that almost necessarily invited conflict, however muted, in specific discussions of the national interest, when there were competing interests to be reconciled.