Psychotherapy Theory, Research, Practice, Training Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association 2008, Vol. 45, No. 4, 447–463 0033-3204/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0014331 LOGOTHERAPY FOR CLINICAL PRACTICE STEFAN E. SCHULENBERG ROBERT R. HUTZELL University of Mississippi, Oxford Knoxville, Iowa CARRIE NASSIF JULIUS M. ROGINA Fort Hays State University Diocese of Nevada Logotherapy is based on the meaning- Frankl’s most popular book, Man’s Search for focused existential philosophy of Viktor Meaning (Frankl, 2006; originally published in E. Frankl (1905–1997). Numerous men- English in 1959 as From Death-Camp to Exis- tentialism), written over a 9-day period shortly tal health professionals have been in- after his concentration camp liberation during spired by his most popular book, Man’s World War II (Hutzell, 2006; Klingberg, 2001). Search for Meaning; however, many The book contains a narrative of concentration are unfamiliar with the depth of camp experiences and outlines some of the basic Frankl’s work. The purpose of this arti- elements of logotherapy. A sense of personal cle is to discuss the tenets of logoth- life-meaning is critical to logotherapy, and Man’s Search for Meaning is a prime example of how erapy, including fundamental concepts, people may reduce despair in severe circum- applicability and techniques, roles of stances by incorporating personal meaning the therapist, and assessment tools and through attitudes, experiences, and behaviors. new research findings. Logotherapy can Man’s Search for Meaning was written in 1945, readily be integrated with techniques yet it was still rated as one of the top 10 books to make a difference in the lives of American readers that mental health professionals fre- as recently as the 1990s (Library of Congress, quently use, and thus it has much to 1991). Russ Newman, American Psychological As- offer mental health professionals re- sociation Executive Director for Practice, noted it to gardless of their theoretical orientation. be of particular relevance to psychologists after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (Newman, Keywords: meaning, purpose in life, 2002). The newest U.S. edition of the book (2006) indicates that there are more than 12 million copies logotherapy, Viktor Frankl, positive in print. Despite its continued relevance, many men- psychology tal health professionals are not familiar with the depth of Frankl’s work. Logotherapy is based on the existential con- Frankl is credited with writing over 30 books. cepts of Viennese psychiatrist and philosopher Many were published originally in German, but Viktor E. Frankl (1905–1997). Frankl chose the there have been translations into at least 32 lan- term logotherapy—based on the Greek word guages. He published over 700 articles. An abbre- “logos” as “meaning”—because his perspective viated version of Frankl’s vita was published by J. I. emphasizes the unique capacity of human beings Levinson in 2001 (Levinson, 2001). For more in- to perceive meaning. Many have been inspired by formation about Frankl’s life and how it influenced the formulation of logotherapy, such as his youth in Vienna, correspondence with Freud and Adler, ex- Stefan E. Schulenberg, Department of Psychology, Univer- periences in concentration camps during World sity of Mississippi; Robert R. Hutzell, Knoxville, IA; Carrie War II, and his personal and professional develop- Nassif, Fort Hays State University; Julius M. Rogina, Diocese of Nevada. ment thereafter, the interested reader is referred to Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Frankl (1997b), Gould (1993), and Klingberg Stefan E. Schulenberg, PhD, Department of Psychology, Uni- (2001). The purpose of the current article is to versity of Mississipi, Oxford, MS 38677. E-mail: sschulen@ present various aspects of logotherapy, including olemiss.edu major tenets, applicability and judicious use of the 447 Schulenberg, Hutzell, Nassif, and Rogina approach, therapist strategies, assessment-related is- itive health outcomes (Seeman, Dubin, & Seeman, sues, and new research support and remaining 2003). The field of psychology has shown increased needs. Our intent is to provide an in-depth, yet interest of late not only in spirituality but also in concise, orientation to logotherapy compiled from resilience and positive mental health (e.g., Emmons often difficult-to-find publications (e.g., out-of-print & McCullough, 2004; Keyes & Haidt, 2003; Lopez sources), incorporating recently translated texts and & Snyder, 2003; Snyder & Lopez, 2002). Logoth- current and forthcoming empirical findings. This erapy has long emphasized the importance of mean- article represents an update as to logotherapy’s cur- ing, faith, hope, humor, and many other adaptive rent status in the United States, with emphasis on constructs that have become a part of positive psy- logotherapy’s utility and accessibility to a broad chology; thus there is increasing support for the audience. utility of logotherapy concepts to researchers and clinicians. Frankl and other logotherapists have Meaning and Well-Being done much clinical work in these areas, and this existing work can readily be incorporated into positive A major reason that logotherapy has something psychology, as well as other, specific paradigms. to offer mental health professionals across various Logotherapy is often regarded as a humanistic– theoretical orientations has to do with the influence existential school of thought, but it has much in of the meaning construct on human health and be- common with other paradigms. Indeed, McMul- havior. There is a growing basis for the relationship lin (2000) noted that “logotherapy is one of the between a sense of meaning and psychological and precursors to cognitive therapy” (p. 31), and in physical well-being (Melton & Schulenberg, 2008; describing innovative techniques used in cogni- Reker, 1994; Ryff, 2000; Ryff & Singer, 1998a, tive restructuring therapy (specifically perceptual 1998b; Savolaine & Granello, 2002; Spiegel & shifting), he outlined many techniques that are Fawzy, 2002; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992). For ex- consistent with those practiced by logotherapists. ample, meaning may contribute to an array of areas Particularly relevant examples of perceptual related to wellness, including awareness of social shifting described by McMullin include bridging support, sense of identity and values, health- techniques, with the “Hierarchy of Values promoting behaviors (motivation to follow Bridges” exercise being a prime illustration of through), and stress inoculation (Ryff & Singer, how clients’ personally meaningful values hier- 1998b; Savolaine & Granello, 2002). Moreover, in archy may be used to shift from old, maladaptive a recent review of the literature, Melton and Schu- beliefs into new, more adaptive beliefs.1 Simi- lenberg (2008) noted that meaning is associated larly, the creative, active, and strengths-focused with a range of outcomes, such as stable mood and aspects of logotherapy have parallels with con- less psychological distress, more proactive and so- structive therapies, such as solution-focused or ciable behavior, and favorable attitudes toward life narrative-focused therapies (Combs & Freedman, and the self. Meaning has clear significance to the human condition. The concepts emphasized in 1994; Furman & Ahola, 1994), in the encourage- logotherapy are of interest to mental health profes- ment of a more positive outlook in relation to life sionals striving to find ways to help their clients circumstances. help themselves and are compatible with a variety Frankl saw logotherapy, with its emphasis on of existing theoretical orientations and the contem- the meaning-dimension of human beings (often porary positive psychology movement. termed the spiritual dimension in the broad sense of the word) as an addition to other therapies (Frankl, 1985, 1986, 1988, 2006), with the goal Relationship to Other Therapies and of enhancing techniques as opposed to replacing Positive Psychology them. Simply put, logotherapy is intended to be Several sources indicate that spirituality (in the collaborative (Fabry, 1981; Kovacs, 1999), and it general sense of meaning, values, and purpose, as is has been explored in relation to a number of emphasized in logotherapy) is becoming increas- ingly relevant in modern psychotherapy and medi- 1 Logotherapy techniques are described in a subsequent cine (see DuBois, 2007, Mahoney, 2000, and section of this article. For additional information regarding Savolaine & Granello, 2002), and there is increas- perceptual shifting and relevant examples, the reader is re- ing evidence that spirituality is associated with pos- ferred to McMullin (2000). 448 Logotherapy for Clinical Practice specific forms of therapy over the years, with Frankl held the position that opportunities to rational emotive behavior therapy (Hutchinson & respond—in action, experience, or attitude— Chapman, 2005) and acceptance and commit- exist throughout an individual’s life, and when ment therapy (Sharp, Schulenberg, Wilson, & the chosen response is consistent with the indi- Murrell, 2004; Sharp, Wilson, & Schulenberg, vidual’s personal values hierarchy, the individual 2004) being recent examples. Training in logoth- experiences the longed-for sense of life meaning. erapy may benefit clinicians from a variety of Frankl held that each individual’s personal life perspectives, given its congruence with many dif- meaning incorporates reaching out to an overall ferent methods. order to the universe, to