the Western Australian Branch at the Padiamentary Association Conference August, and reJpn~se:nt~tti'!Te tate Branches on the General Council.

PERTH: BY AUTHORITY: WILLIAM H. WYATT, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. 1954. COMMONWEALTH PARLIAMENTARY ASSOCIATION Australian Branch)

BY II,

from the Western Australian Branch at the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association Conference held in Nairobi, Kenya, August, 1954, and representative of the Australian State Branches on the General Council.

PERTH: BY AUTHORITY: WILLIAM H. WYATT, GOVERNMENT PRINTER.

1954. INTRODUCTION The Executive Committee of the Western Australian Branch accepted an invitation received from the Kenya. Branch to send one delegate to attend the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association Conference and Annual Meeting to be held at Nairobi in August, 1954. The Kenya, Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Union of South Africa Branches were the Joint Host Branches for the conference and tours of African territories. As a result of a ballot, Mr. W. S. Bovell, ML.A., was selected as the Branch Delegate. He was also appointed to represent all of the Australian State Branches at the General Council Meetings to be held during the conference period. Mr. Bovell left Fremantle by the "Himalaya" on 20th July, spent a week in Ceylon, and from there proceeded by air to Nairobi, arriving on 5th August. Approximately eight weeks were spent in Africa, in the territories of Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Northern and Southern Rhodesia, and the Union of South Africa. In company with delegates from all parts of the British Commonwealth, Mr. Boven took part in the deliberations of the conference held in the Legislative Council Chamber at Nairobi. He also attended General Council meetings held at Nairobi and at Victoria Falls. Leaving Johannesburg on 1st October, Mr. Bovell arrived back in Western Australia by air on 3rd October, 1954. REPORT BY Mr. W. S. BOVELL, M.L.A. Delegate ot the Western Australian Branch ot the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, and Australian States' Repre- sentative on the General Council.

Parliament House, Perth, W.A., October, 1954.

I have the honour, as your representative elected to attend the Conference of The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association held in Kenya recently, to submit this report for consideration by fellow-members of the Western Australian Branch of the Association. It will be my objective to summarise events in chrono­ logical order. Accompanied by Mr. F. E. Islip, J.P., Honorary Secretary of the Western Australian Branch of the Association, who has the honour of being the first Secretary appointed by all Australian Branches to accompany an Australian delegation, I embarked from Fremantle in the "Himalaya" on 20th July, 1954. Mr. Islip is to be congratulated on his unanimous appointment. Mr. J. H. Ackland, M.L.A., Western Australian Branch delegate to the 1952 Canadian Conference, who raised the question of need of a Secretary to accompany Australian States' delegations is to be commended for his initiative in this direction. I desire to record an appreciation of Mr. Islip's valuable assistance to delegates. His ready co-opera­ tion at all times, and on every occasion, proved a great con­ venience to all members of the Australian delegation. All the Australian States' delegates in the persons of the Honourable E. G. Wright, M.L.C. (New South Wales); the Honourable Sir Herbert Hyland, Kt., M.L.A. (Victoria); Mr. J. J. Duffiey, M.L.A. (Queensland); Mr. H. D. Michael, M.P. (South Australia); the Honourable J. B. Connolly, M.L.C. (Tasmania) and Senators W. Aylett and R. W. Pear­ son (two of the delegates from Canberra) travelled with Mr. Islip and myself. A number of Shipboard meetings of delegates was held and topics of mutual interest relating to the forthcoming conference were discussed. 5 agricultural areas of the Colony extremes of rainfall vary On arrival at Colombo we were welcomed by the Australian as much as 15 inches per annum in the dry districts to 70 High Commissioner for Ceylon (Mr. A. R. Cutler, V.C.) and inches or more in the wet tea-growing centres. The total Mr. M. R. H. de Fonseka, representing the Speake! of the area of Kenya is 224,960 square miles. With the objective Ceylon House of Representatives (the Honourable SIr Albert in view of conveying to members a general survey of the Peries, Kt., M.P.). Crown Colony, AppendiX "A" of this report is designed for During an interesting and informative week's stay in this purpose, which I trust will be found interesting and informative. Ceylon, hospitality was literally s~o.wered upon delegates from every quarter. The Prime MmIster (the Rt. Hon?ur­ This general survey of Kenya includes­ able Sir John Kotelawala, P.C., K.B.E., M.P.) entertamed (1) Historical background. delegates at luncheon at his official residence "Temple (2) Constitution. Trees." (3) Land and population problems. The Honourable The Speaker greeted us at an afternoon (4) Value of European settlement. tea gathering at Parliament House. Mr. E. W: lV!~thew, M.B.E., M.P., with his fiancee (Mrs. M. Bakonyvan NlJlr~t;Y) (5) African agricultural development since 1946. were our host and hostess at luncheon at Mount Lavinia. (6) Further aspects of development schemes for the Members will, no doubt, recall the visit of Mr. Mathew a:nd benefit of Africans. Mrs. Bakonyvari Nijiraty to the Western Australia~ ParlIa­ (7) Trade investment. ment in 1952. It was indeed a great pleasure to again renew (8) Economic potential. their acquaintance. (9) Some aspects of the African problem. The Australian High Commissioner and Mrs. Cutler (10) Mau Mau. arranged an early evening party where delegates were privi­ lezed to meet many of Ceylon's leading citizens. It would I am indebted to the Kenya Branch of the Association n;t be possible to include in this report a detailed accoux:t for making available all information contained in Appendix of hospitality extended by Ceylon, but this brief resume IS "A." just an example of the cordial reception offered to delegates Nairobi, capital city of Kenya, was the centre of confer­ by Parliamentary and other dignitaries in every country ence activity. With a desire to establishing closer personal visited. relationships between delegates, pre-conference tours were The courtesy extended by the Clerk of Ceylon's House arranged by our hosts. This procedure certainly achieved of Representatives (Mr. R. st. L. P. Deraniyagala, C.B.~.) its objective as delegates representing Branches widely who is also secretary of the Ceylon Branch of the ASSOCIa­ separated by customs, creed religion, language, colour and tion, was greatly appreciated. standard of living, yet bound closely together with the Crown into one family of nations, were afforded a unique oppor­ Australian delegates were joined at the Colombo airport tunity of fraternising freely prior to official discussions on by representatives of the Ceylon Branch appointed to attend subjects designed to maintain and further improve cordial the conference and we all travelled together by air to relationship between nations of the free world. Nairobi, Kenya, via Madras, Bombay, Karachi,. an~ Aden. A grand reception awaited us on arrival at NaIrobI where Pre-conference tours extended from the 8th to the 18th the Secretary-General, Sir Howard d'Egville, K.B.E., LLD., August, 1954, and in addition to bringing delegates closer with members of Kenya Branch, welcomed us. together, gave all an opportunity of seeing, at first hand, much of Kenya's primary and industrial activity. As one The Conference was the first ever to be held in the Crown representing a country constituency, rural development Colony of Kenya. With its geographical position astride of proved of particular interest to me personally. Projects such the Equator, climate, surroundings, and conditions ge:ner~lly, as soil and water conservation, water projects, land develop­ differ somewhat from those in Australia. There IS little ment for stock-raising, and agriculture, and forests gener­ variation either in temperature or in the hours of daylight ally, are all important items in Kenya's economy. Forests in Kenya. Dawn and dusk are approximately at 6.30 a.m, covering 5,195 square miles are a great asset. Further and 6.30 p.m. all the year round, while temperatures range details appear in Appendix "A." between 46 and 82 degrees fahrenheit. Throughout the 7 6 As in Ceylon, delegates were received with lavish hospi­ tality. On arrival at Nairobi a message of welcome came Kenya is essentially a primary producing country and to us from His Excellency the Governor and Commander­ it would appear that it must remain as such owing to the in-Chief, Kenya Colony and Protectorate (Sir Evelyn Baring, fact that it does not possess natural mineral resources of K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O.,) as follows:- any consequence. The hydro-electric scheme and construe­ tionof the Owen Falls dam at the source of the Nile, Uganda Government House, Territory, is indeed a marvellous project. Nairobi, 1st August, 1954. As representative of the six Australian States' Branches It was with very great pleasure and justifiable pride I was privileged to attend General Council Meetings. A that we in Kenya received the news that the Council of the report of these proceedings will be submitted by me to the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association had decided to hold its 1954 Conference in this Colony-the first Colony of next Australian Area Conference scheduled to take place the Empire to be so honoured. The knowledge that the in Melbourne during March of 1955. General Council, pre­ Union of South Africa and Northern and Southern Rhodesia si~ed over by the Rt. Hon. Harold E. Holt, P.C., M.P., com­ were to be associated with us as joint hosts added greatly prised 25 members, representing all Commonwealth countries. to our satisfaction. Executive matters were dealt with expeditiously in an atmos­ It is my privilege on behalf of the four host Branches phere of friendly co-operation. of the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association, to welcome to Nairobi the delegates to the Conference, and to extend to them our hospitality, not only during their stay in Kenya, Sir Howard d'Egville, who is described as being "an but throughout their visit to East and Central Africa. unique and remarkable character of the highest integrity" Many ideas have spread from Britain to other countries performed his duties With outstanding ability, precision and of the Commonwealth. Many British institutions have been courtesy. adapted with brilliant success to the conditions of lands far distant from Britain by the ingenuity and vigour of Conference proceedings were officially opened on 21st their people. The most important, the most fundamental of all these institutions is that of Parliament. It is Parlia­ August, 1954, by His Excellency the Governor of Kenya with ment's successful development in these many countries bound traditional pageantry. A military guard of honour accom­ together by a common loyalty and by a sharing of ideas panied by massed bands of the King's African Rifles pre­ which we will celebrate here in Kenya. sented a colourful and picturesque scene. All were native I offer my best wishes for the success of the Conference. Africans dressed in their own traditional uniforms. (SgdJ E. BARING, ~heir skilful execution of fun military honours for Royal Governor and Commander-in-Chief, occasions was a performance which will be long remembered Kenya Colony and Protectorates. by all Who were privileged to witness it. On the 19th August, 1954, delegates were His Excellency's ?onference was attended by 95 official delegates, repre­ and Hon. Lady Mary Baring's guests at a Garden Party, Gov­ sentmg 45 branches. India was the only nation not repre­ ernment House, Nairobi, where I was later -entertained at sented, but a message of greeting addressed to Conference by dinner. Other receptions included a sundowner at City Hall, tJ:1e Speaker of the Indian Parliament inferred that, although Nairobi, by His Worship the Mayor and Councillors, a Garden CIrcumstances of a domestic nature prevented Indian repre­ Party given by the Commissioner for Pakistan (the Honour­ sentation on this occasion, it was hoped that Indian delegates able Siddiq Ali Khan); Rotary Club luncheon; Common­ would be present at all future conferences. wealth Parliamentary Association Banquet at Parliament House, Nairobi, and luncheon with His Worship the Mayor Agenda items discussed at considerable length included and Councillors, Nairobi City Council. the following subjects:- Pre-conference tours included travel by land and air (1) Relationship between Parliament and the over a vast area of Kenya and Uganda. Of particular interest Executive (Financial Control, Delegated Legis­ was progress achieved in rural development. There are many lation, etc.). types of excellent cattle including Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey, (2) Co-operation within the Commonwealth Ayreshire and shorthorn herds. However, stock diseases are (Economic, Financial, Political and Symbolic). rife and the Government expends vast sums of money (3) Development Within the Commonwealth. annually in an endeavour to prevent further infection. (4) International Affairs and Defence. 8 9 As a mark of respect the Farewell Banquet arranged for Full and frank discussions on all subjects continued until the 25th September at Johannesburg was cancelled. 28th August, 1954. A detailed account of all speeches was recorded and as members will receive printed reports of Host Branches provided delegates with every opportunity these proceedings from the Secretary-General in due course, of see native African hospitals, housing schemes, and edu­ it is not my intention now, nor is it necessary, to record cational facilities. These ventures are sponsored and particulars thereof in this report. All speeches were financed by Europeans. In every district, hospitals, schools delivered in English and the fluency of delegates whose and houses for Africans are conspicuous monuments to the native language is not that of our mother-tongue created European population of Africa. Outstanding success in such a most favourable impression within the Conference room. humanitarian projects has been achieved through a tenacity of purpose of a comparatively small white population of Post-conference tours included extended travel through­ of under three million. When compared with the native out the provinces of Tanganyika, Rhodesia, and the Union African population of approximately twenty to one, their of South Africa. achievements are indeed magnificent and worthy of the greatest praise. Official proceedings of Conference ended at Victoria Falls, Southern Rhodesia, on 10th September, 1954. Arrangements for the tour of South Africa were well planned and carried out with utmost efficiency. The lavish At the invitation of the South African Branch of the hospitality enjoyed is greatly appreciated. Association 40 delegates (in which number I was privileged to be included) participated in a tour of the Union of South Australian and New Zealand delegates were the last Africa. This experience proved a unique opportunity of to leave South Africa, departing from Jan Smuts Airport seeinz one of the Great Sister Nations of the Commonwealth. by Qantas Empire Airway on Friday, 1st October. South Africa is a land of vast mineral resources, including On arrival at Mauritius we were welcomed and enter­ gold, diamonds, coal, copper, uranium, etc. The magnitude tained, and thanks are extended to the Honourable A. M. of South Africa's gold production is illustrated by the fact Osman, O.B.E., M.L.C. for his courtesy in arranging the that 41 per cent. of the world's gold production comes from hospitality extended to Australian and New Zealand dele­ the Union. Gold alone contributes 80 per cent, of the coun­ gates during our stay in Mauritius. try's national income. Delegates were entertained by the management of the Anglo-American Company at Welkom, The fiight from South Africa to Australia, via Mauritius Orange Free State, where a vast new goldfield has recently and Cocos Island terminated at the Perth airport at 3 p.m, been developed, and is now ready to commence production. on Sunday, 3rd October, 1954. During three months' travel It is anticipated that with the new President Brand and by land, sea, and air, a distance of approximately 25,000 miles associated mines in full production, South Africa will supply was covered. approximately 60 per cent. of the world's gold. Australia My outstanding impressions gained from both inside produces 3 per cent. which emphasises the great a?1oun t of wealth South Africa derives from its gold production. and outside the Conference are, our great responsibilities one to another, of all nations within the British Common­ Diamonds are also produced in great quantities. A visit wealth. It is the duty of every-Individual Commonwealth was made to Kimberley where all phases of diamond pro­ citizen to work for even closer harmony between our white duction were witnessed. In the diamond sorting chamber, and coloured people. There are countless millions of native diamonds representing value of half-a-million pounds Africans, Indians, Sinhalese and many others from the West sterling were seen. Indies and Pakistan seeking a place in the sun. The prin­ cipal need of these Commonwealth citizens is advancement During the Kimberley visit delegates received a severe in medical research and education. They all display a keen shock by the death, with tragic suddenness, of Mr. David desire to improve their collective and individual knowledge. Campbell Kidd, leader of the New Zealand delegation. Mr. Ways and means towards this goal must be devised. By Kidd took ill in the afternoon of 23rd September, and passed sympathetic and tolerant approach to such problems our away within an hour. As one who was privileged to be a ties will be further cemented and our Commonwealth will personal friend I, with other delegates, suffered a great continue for all time as the greatest bulwark against totali­ loss, I extend deepest sympathy to his widow and family in tartan ideologies. New Zealand. 11 10 Russian imperialism was decried from every quarter and interest themselves in East Africa and established small there was a great resolve to prevent at all cost any encroach­ garrisons (e.g., Fort Jesus) to protect their interests. ment of Communism on the highly treasured democratic principles of the freedom-loving people of the world. 1729.-The Omans of Muscat drove the Portuguese from the East African Coast, but their hold over the various It was fully recognised that together with our powerful East African settlements was never very strong. The result and great partner, the United States of America, we will was that many of the Coast Towns declared their indepen­ withstand any threat to our national and democratic exist­ dence, and in Mombasa the effective power passed into the ence. hands of an Arab clan called the Mazrui. I desire to place on record my sincere appreciation of 1828.-Sayyid Said, Oman of Muscat, determined to the work of Sir Howard d'Egville and his staff. To the Host enforce his rights over his African possessions. The Mazrui Branches of Kenya, Northern and Southern Rhodesia and family of Mombasa were subdued, Zanzibar became the the Union of South Africa, and the many friends who Headquarters of the Oman Dominions and the centre of the extended hospitality and guidance, go my very best thanks. very prosperous ivory and slave trade. The organisation was complete in every detail. I com- Caravan Routes the Rt. Han. Harold Holt for his untiring energy Even in the middle of the 19th Century Arab infiuence as Chairman of both General Council and Conference. He was mainly confined to the Coastal Belt. The only Arabs was acknowledged by all as a great leader whose patience, who penetrate up-country were traders in search of ivory tact and understanding were acclaimed from every quarter. and slaves. These Arab traders were the pioneers of explora­ To all members of my own Branch, I say "Thank you tion in Central Africa, and their caravans ran from Baga­ for the confidence placed in me." I used my very best moyo and Tanga to the foothills of Kilimanjaro and thence endeavours at all times to worthily represent our own great to Lake Victoria. It was fear of the Masai that prevented State of Western Australia. I am fully convinced confer­ the opening up of another route north of Kilimanjaro, with ences such as the one I have been privileged to attend bring the result that much of the land now known as Kenya our great family closer together and result in a clearer escaped the worst ravages of the slave trade. understanding between Commonwealth nations, Colonies Exploration and Protectorates and the peoples thereof. This unique and treasured opportunity of personally associating with elected 11148.-Rebman first saw Kilimanjaro and Krapf saw representaives of the Parliaments of our great Common­ Mount Kenya in 1849. Further exploration was mainly wealth is indeed greatly appreciated by me. directed to the discovery of the sources of the Nile. As a result of the slave trade, and owing to tribal war­ APPENDIX "A" fare and disease, the population these explorers found in the interior was very small in proportion to the vast area CROWN COLONY OF n::ENYA they inhabited. These African tribes were backward in their agricultural practices and an easy prey to famine and A General Survey disease, so it was humanitarian rather than imperialistic considerations which convinced many of the explorers that HISTORICAL BACKGROUND the salvation of these territories lay in the establishment of legitimate trading and European administration. BEFORE THE ADVENT OF THE BRITISH to 1498.-Trading along the East African Coast was THE BRITISH ADVENT IN EAST AFRICA carried on by Arabs and Persians from the earliest times. 1884.-Dr. Karl Peters (Germany) negotiated treaties They established a chain of settlements which achieved a with native chiefs in the interior, opposite Zanzibar. considerable degree of material prosperity. 1885.-Germany declared a protectorate over 60,000 1498.-Vasco da Gama landed at Malindi and all the Arab square miles near Kilimanjaro. mainland settlements were forced to submit to Portuguese 1886.-The Anglo-German Agreement consolidated Brit­ domination. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to ain's obligations in East Africa. British interests in East 12 Africa were not territorial, but were mainly concerned with Thirdly, it was clear that the native tribes of East the suppression of the slave trade. The unwillingness of Africa, based on a primitive subsistence economy, were the British Government to undertake any responsibilities unable to provide the means of maintaining the railway in the administration of East African territories is illus­ built for their benefit. It was therefore essential that trated by:- European settlers should be encouraged to come to develop (a) Their failure to support Sir William Mackinnon the economy of the territories for, without such develop­ in 1877 when he was offered a concession of ment, the railway could not be an economic proposition. the mainland dominious of Zanzibar, and It is noteworthy that the lands upon which the British That, in fact, Britain's commitments in East Government encouraged white settlement were, in fact, Africa, begun under the Agreement of 1386, Virtually empty save for a few Masai herdsman. were first undertaken by the Imperial British East Africa Company which was formed in 1838. BRITISH ADMINISTRATION. 1890.-By the General Act of Brussels the Powers agreed 1897.-The first land regulations were issued permitting that the construction of a Railway in East Africa was an land to be released to Europeans, but it is important to essential towards securing the abolition of the slave trade. note that the releasing of land in occupation or regular 1891.-In pursuance of obligations incurred under the use by African tribes was disallowed. Act of Brussels the Imperial British East Africa Campany 1904.-The first Agreements were made giving Britain embarked on the survey of a Railway from Mombasa to certain rights over the Masai grazing areas. It was also Lake Victoria. Meanwhile the British Government was stated in the Land Committee Report that "everyone is of beginning to realise that the building of this railway was one opinion in agreeing that when once the Government essential to the maintenance of British influence in Uganda, but it was also obvious that the financial resources of the has given its word to the Native in fixing a Reserve, that the Company were inadequate for this great undertaking and Reserve so fixed should be absolutely invrolable." the Government agreed to guarantee interest on money to 1915.-The Crown Lands Ordinance increased the life of build the Railway. leases in the East African Highlands to 999 years, and laid 1895.-The Company surrendered its Charter to the down that Crown Lands were to include "all lands reserved British Government which became responsible for the for the use of any native tribe," thus better defining and administration of the East African territories, and work on safeguarding African rights. the Railway began. To sum up, white settlement restricted the nomadism 1900. The railway reached Lake Victoria and the of the Masai but very generous provision was made for their Government was faced with the imminent financial respon­ requirements; the Kikuyu were deprived of a fringe of land sibility for its maintenance. At the time this project between Kiambu and Limuru and the Nandi and Lumbwa appeared to be one of crazy idealism likely to be, and to were also deprived of a small part of their land. No other remain, a heavy burden on the Protectorate's budget. tribes lost any land to the settlers, but certain native land claims required adjustment. To sum up, the sequence of events leading to British settlement was: 1914-18.-War period. Firstly the decision of Great Britain to occupy part of East Africa in order to stamp out the slave trade; of denying Effects of the First World War. to German absolute control over East Africa and of thwart­ 1. Some farms were derelict owing to absence of their ing German ambitions to dominate the Indian Ocean, and, owners on active service, and on others four years of neglect lastly, to secure the sources of the Nile for the benefit of had wiped out the capital improvements, work and invest­ the Sudan and Egypt. ment of the pre-war years. Secondly, to suppress the slave trade. It was in fulfil­ 2. Many settlers had to borrow from the banks at rates ment of her obligations under the Act of Brussels that Britain of interest rarely less than 8 per cent. But prices of agri­ undertook to build the railway. cultural products were soaring and prospect of improvement 14 15 seemed certain. Inevitably, however, the market soon broke 6. That racial segregation, as between Europeans and and many farmers were forced into bankruptcy. Indians outside the rural Highlands be abolished, with the exception of a few urban residential estates which have been Political Development. developed by European enterprise and where restrictive cov­ 1920.-0n June 11th the East Africa Protectorate enants have long been in force. became the Colony of Kenya by formal annexation to the 7. That the reservation of rural Highlands for Euro­ British Crown. The building of the railway resulted in pean settlement be maintained, not by force of law, but by Indian immigration into Kenya and, although the Indian the established practice of the Governor-in-Council refus­ community were not slow to advance political claims, by ing to approve an initial grant, or a transfer, of rural land 1923 they were putting forward claims out of all proportion in the Highlands to Asians. to their contribution to the welfare of the Colony and these 8. That "only in extreme circumstances could H. M. claims were strongly opposed by settlers. They were as Government contemplate legislation designed to exclude follows:- from a British Colony immigrants from any other part of (1) For a Common Electoral Roll with the European the British Empire. Such racial discrimination in immigra­ community, whom they outnumbered. tion whether specific or implied, could not be in accord with For the right to acquire rural land as opposed the general policy of H. M. Government, and they cannot countenance the introduction of any such legislation in to urban land which they could acquire in that Kenya." part of the Highlands of Kenya Which, by It is note-worthy that the White Paper also offered to administrative practice, and for health reasons, set aside an area of land in the Lowlands in order to deter­ had been reserved for European settlement. mine whether there was a genuine demand for agricultural 1923.-Arising out of these disputes the Devonshire land amongst the Indian Community. After the Devonshire White Paper laid down the general policy to be adopted White Paper it was also agreed by the Secretary of State towards the non-European population and investigated the that Indian immigration should be restricted in the interests whole question of non-European rights. The broad prin­ of the natives, but promises in this regard were not ful­ ciples were laid down as follows:- filled as the Government fell shortly afterwards. 1926.-Further land security was provided for Africans "Primartly, Kenya is an African territory, and H. M. by the formal gazetting of their Reserves. The Arricans Government think it necessary definitely to record their were allotted 43,500 square miles, the Europeans 12,000 considered opinion that the interests of the African natives square miles and about 4,000 of Forest was reserved for the must be paramount, and that if, and When, those interests benefit of all races. and the interests of the immigrant races should confiict, the former should prevail. Obviously the interests of the other 1929.-The Commission on Closer Union in East Africa communities, European, Indian or Arab, must be severally suggested some further effective guarantee for security of safeguarded." tenure of native lands. 1930.-In view of the above a further Ordinance was Clauses ot the Devonshire White Paper (1923) issued declaring that the Native Reserves were "set aside 1. That elections to Legislative Council remain on a for the benefit of the Native Tribes forever." communal basis. 2. That the official majority in Legislative Council be A Fluctuating Policy maintained. During the years following the publication of the Devon­ 3. That there be 11 European, 5 Indian and 1 Arab shire White Paper there were marked fluctuations in the Elected Members. policy of H. M. Government on the following two points: 4. That one nominated unofficial member should repre- (I) The principle of the association of the settlers sent Native interests. in Kenya with the Imperial Government in 5. That there be no change in the form of Executive the trusteeship of Native interests. council, except that an unofficial member be added to repre­ (ii) The proposal for a Common Electoral Roll of sent Native interests. Europeans and Asiatics. 16 17 With regard to (i):- Native Country with so little disturbance to the original The Churchill White Paper (1927) suggested that a com­ population." mission be appointed to draw up a scheme for "closer union" These fluctuations of policy, together with the Slump, in East Africa. It stated that H. M. Government "wished were responsible for the slow growth of settlement and the to place on record their view that while these responsi­ scant investment of European capital in the Colony during bilities of trusteeship must for some considerable time rest several crucial years. mainly on the agents of the Imperial Government, they de­ sired to associate more closely in this high and honourable task those who, as colonists and residents, have identified Report of the Kenya Land. (Carter) Commission (1932) their interests with the prosperity of the country." Terms at Reference The Hilton Young Commission defined the political rights which were considered should be secured to the Euro­ 1. To consider the needs of the native population, pean community. present and prospective, with regard to land-whether to be held on tribal or individual tenure. The Passfiela White Paper (1930) declared that "the relation of H. M. Government to the Native population of 2. To consider the desirability of setting aside further East Africa is one of trusteeship which cannot be devolved. areas of land for native occupation. The ultimate responsibility for this trusteeship must accord­ 3. To determine the nature and extent of native claims ingly rest with them alone." to land already alienated. With regard to (ii):- 4. To recommend an adequate settlement of such The Devonshire White Paper (1923) declared against the claims. policy of a Common Roll. 5. To define the area of the White Highlands within The Churchill White Paper (1927) made no reference to which persons of European descent were to have a privileged it. position in accordance with the Devonshire White Paper of The Hilton Young Commission advised that a settle­ 1923. ment based on a Common Roll could only be achieved by 6. To review the working of the Native Lands Trust local agreement. Ordinance of 1930. The Passtieui White Paper (1930) stated that "the estab­ The Commission carefully examined every class of lishment of a Common Ron is the object to be aimed at and claim, as of right, advanced by the different tribes. In satis­ attained." faction of these claims, they recommended:- The Joint Select Committee at Parliament (1931) (1) That 1,474 square miles of land, be added expressed the view that the introduction of a Common Roll unconditionally, to the Native Reserves which, was impracticable for the present, but that it should be at the time of inquiry, were 49,466 square miles re-examined in the event of any changes in the constitution. in extent. On the issue of delegation of responsibility for the trustee­ ship of native interests the Committee considered that this (2) That the area so increased to 50,940 square must remain "the function of H. M. Government but that miles be known as the Native Lands. the assistance of the non-native communities in carrying (3) That 896 square miles of land be added, subject out this obligation should be encouraged to an increasing to economic use, to meet permanent economic extent." needs of a more temporary nature and to be This Select Committee modified the doctrine as set forth known as the Native Temporary Reserves. in the Devonshire White Paper by declaring "the doctrine of (4) That 939 square miles of land, to be known as paramountcy means no more than that the interests of the Native Leasehold Areas, be provided to meet overwhelming majority of the indigenous population should the needs of those advanced natives who not be subordinated to those of a minority belonging to require a form of land tenure of a more indi­ another race, however important in itself." vidual character than native custom provided. This same Committee reported, "it would be difficult to (5) That all the above classes of land be known find any other instance of a white population settling in a comprehensively as the Native Areas. 18 19 The Commission recommended that the North~rn Frontier and Turkana districts be not gazetted as Natn:e 1948.-An East African High Commission and an East areas because these districts were inhabited by nomadic African Central Assembly were established. This created tribes observing no fixed boundaries. a framework for dealing with the common affairs of the three territories. As a result, the Railway systems of Kenya, The Commission, having defined the area of the High­ Uganda and Tanganyika were amalgamated as the East lands also recommended that all the remaining land ix: the African Railways and Harbours, and defence, civil aviation, Colon'y be an area in which Europeans, Asiatic~ ~X:d Afncans postal services, customs, scientific research and a number should have equal rights in regard to the acquisrtion of land. of lesser state services were placed on an East African basis. By the end of 1936 Kenya was beginning to recover from Changes in the Constitution the effects of the great depression and the Colony's budget In 1948 the constitution of the Legislative Council of showed a surplus for the first time for several years. Kenya was changed to provide for a majority of unofficial members over the officials. 1939-45.-War period.

The Aftermath of the War (1939-45) THE CONSTITUTION At first it was feared that the inevitable infiation which General followed the war years would, as after the 1914-18 war, be The basis of the Constitution of the Colony and pro­ followed by deflation. It was thought that the withdrawal tectorate of Kenya is contained in various Letters Patent, of a large part of the war-time population would result in Orders in Council, and Royal Instructions, issued under the a shrinkage of spending power which might well lead to a instructions of Her Majesty in Council. general recession and another grievous depression. Kenya has a Colony-type constitution adapted to a multi-racial community. Factors that prevented deflation:- Kenya was declared a British Colony in 1920 on the 1 Trade and Customs revenue benefited by the release, grounds that sufficient numbers of British subjects had settled in it to warrant its annexation to His Majesty's in search of goods, of the large credits accumulated during Dominions. the war and the fiow of imports was soon stimulated by Britain's export drive. The Kenya Protectorate is the lO-mile strip along the 2. Owing to the post-war world being short of food­ coast which is still part of the Dominions of the Sultan of stuffs and all primary products there was little fear of an Zanzibar. Despite this, the Kenya Protectorate, under the above Royal Instructions, is administered as if it were part early and serious fall in the price of agricultural products. and parcel of the Colony. 3. The withdrawal of Great Britain from India resulted in an influx of retired soldiers and civil servants from that Executive Council-Composition country into Kenya, and they swelled the ranks of settlers in the Colony. The Government of the Colony is administered by the Governor, assisted by an Executive Council. This Council 4. Capital of all sorts found Kenya an attractive sphere consists of Official and Unofficial Members. The Official for investment. From 1946 to 1952 about £200 million in Members are eX-Officio, and are Members of the Executive fresh capital came to Kenya. Council by virtue of the Offices they hold. 5. The devaluation of sterling in 1949. The eX-Officio Members are:- The Chief Secretary who is now Member for Law and The East Afri.can High Commission Order. For some twenty-five years it had become increasingly The Attorney General Who is responsible for Legal Mat­ obvious that some form of East African Authority must be ters. set up to deal with the common problems of Kenya, Uganda The Financial Secretary who is now Member for and Tanganyika and to control and direct those State Ser­ Development. vices which should be controlled on an East African basis. The Member for Agriculture and Natural Resources. 20 21

H. L. R. M. Welwood (European Elected Member). the present Bishop of Mombasa fulfilled this duty on both . Col. the Hon. S. G. Ghersie (European Elected Councils with signal success. Member). In 1945 it was agreed that Africans should be nominated Hon. J. L. Riddoch (Official Nominated Member). direct to Legislative Council. Hon. E. W. Mathu (African Nominated Unofficial). In 1952 the first African (E. W. Mathu) was appointed Hon. 1. E. Nathoo (Asian Unofficial). to serve on the Executive Council. Hon. A. B. Patel (Asian Unofficial). By the 1952 Constitution six Africans were nominated to Legislative Council and, although "nominated" there is an Other changes include the separation of the posts of element of the elective principle in their choice. An African Attorney General and Member for Law and Order, the wishing to attain Legislative Council status gets himself setting up of an "Inner Cabinet" to advise the Governor nominated for election by the members of his own Native on Emergency Policy and an Operations Committee which Council which is, in turn, appointed by popular choice. advises on matters of detail connected with the use of After a ruther process of selection the Governor appoints security forces in the campaign against Mau Mau. one of three nominees submitted to him in each case. Representation Nominated Unofflcials As has been seen above the European Unofficial From the above it will be seen that there are ten Nomin­ Community is represented by 14 Elected Members who hold ated Unofficials. These Members were appointed in order their seats on the normal constituency basis and elections to reduce the disparity between Officials and Unofficials. are based on a Communal Roll. This position has evolved Nominations are made on a basis of merit and ability and over the last 35 years. It was as a result of the European not on race. contribution to the first world war that Government granted Association of Unofficials with Government the right of elected representation to the Unofficial European smal~ Community. The European contribution to the second . The .unofficial majority is out balanced by the World War was again acknowledged by the increased associa­ racial composition of the "opposition" side of the House. But for many years the administration of the Colony has tion of unofficials in the Executive by the grant of Member­ been based on a principle known as "Government by Agree­ ships. ment." Asian Representation In 1945 a European Elected Member was invited to cross the fioor. as. Me:r:rb~r (~r Minister) for Agriculture. Again in There is an element of distrust between the Hindu and 1950, a srmilar invttatton was issued to a European Elected Muslim in Kenya and it is unlikely that these two com­ Member to join the Government as Member for Local Gov­ munities will ever be really united except, occasionally, in ernment. their common desire to obtain political benefits. Asian . In l?rac~ice. the Government seldom introduces Iegisla­ representatives are elected from separate Muslim and non­ tion WhICh IS lIkely to receive strong opposition from any Muslim Communal Rolls. large group on the Unofficial side. During the present Whereas the Muslim is far more inclined to look on Eme~gency Government has found it necessary to take Un­ Kenya as his home, he is numerically inferior to the Hindu, official Members into its confidence before introducing any and a Common Roll between the two would mean the ex­ measures, and also to associate European Unofficials in the tinction of Muslim representation in favour of the Hindu execution of policy. who, with few exceptions, looks on India as his home and 0w,ing to this ~lose association of Government with the follows the ideologies and customs of the East. For these ynofficIal Commumty, it would be very true to say that there reasons in 1952 the Muslims were given two seats and the IS now "coalition" Government rather than a "civil service" Hindus four. In addition, there are two seats for the Arabs Government. who are, of course, allied to the Muslims on a religious basis. .It is, indeed, noteworthy that the initiative in intro­ ducing emergency powers has rested almost entirely with African Representation the European Elected Members. Again, in practice, the Until 1945 Africans were represented both on the Ex­ European Elected m~mbers endeavour to obtain the sup­ ecutive and Legislative Council by Europeans whose duty ~ort of the other racial groups before making recommend _ it was to safeguard African interests, and for many years tions to Government. a 24 25 LAND AND POPULATION PROBLEMS The Members of the Commission should hold themselves Area of the Colony and Land Distribution ~ree to examine, and where necessary comment upon, policy sq. miles In such rel::-ted fields as, for example, education and public Total area of Kenya is 224,960 health, Wh~ch ap~ear to them to have a bearing on the African Reserves 52,040 problems WIth WhICh they are primarily concerned, in parti­ White Highlands (European) 12,233 cular the extent to which existing technical training facilities Forest Reserve 4,000 are adequate to meet the requirements of extensive industrial Un-allocated areas 156,687 development. The Commission should also consider probable trends of Population in East Africa and make such recom­ The distribution shown above shows that the area re­ men~ations as they consider appropriate on this subject in served for European settlement only accounts for about one­ relation to the other problems involved. twentieth of the Colony, and the area reserved for Africans In their deliberations the Commission should take is between one-fifth and one-quarter and contains much of account of existing obligations incurred by treaty, agreement the most fertile land in the whole Colony. The present dis­ or formal declaration of policy in relation to the security of tribution of land came about through the agrarian settle­ land reserved for the different races and groups in various ment effected by the Carter Commission (1932) but land parts of the territories concerned. distribution is again being reviewed by a Royal Commission (1953). POPULATION AND ITS DISTRIBUTION. of Reference for the Royal Commission (1953) The population of Kenya comprises:- Having regard to the rapid rate of increase ?f the Europeans 40,000 (approx.) African population of East Africa and the congestion of Indians and Arabs 158,000 population on the land in certain localities, to examine the Africans 5,500,000 measures necessary to be taken to achieve an improved standard of living, including the introduction of capital to The overall density of population is approximately 23 to enable peasant farming to develop and expand production; the square mile (as against 274 per square mile in India­ and to frame recommendations thereon with particular Including Pakistan; 750 for England and Wales; 731 for the reference to:- Netherlands; 24 for the Union of South Africa.) The facts are that in some areas and among some tribes, (1) The economic development of the land already there is great overcrowding. Thus the Kikuyu have so in occupation by the introduction of better increased since the European advent that, despite substan­ farming methods. tial increases to their lands as recently as 1936/8, today (2) The adaptation or modification of traditional they average 370 per square mile in the three Kikuyu dis­ tribal systems of tenure necessary for the full tricts. On the other hand, the Masai occupying some of development of the land. the best land, and one of the biggest reserves, only number (3) The opening for cultivation and settlement of 4 to the square mile. land at present not fully used. The European community is accommodated in almost (4) The development and siting of industrial equal numbers in the towns and the European Highlands. activities. Their numbers have more than doubled since 1939. The (5) Conditions of employment in industry, com­ Asians are concentrated almost entirely in towns and trading merce, mining and plantation agriculture, with centres. special reference to social conditions and the growth of large urban populations. Reasons for Over-population (6) The social problems which arise from the growth The causes of over-popUlation in some African reserves of permanent urban industrial populations. are:- The Commission should examine and report on the above (1) The removal of checks such as inter-tribal war­ matters taking as a basis the general propositions embodied fare, slave-raiding, famine and pestilence, which in Part VI of Sir Phillip Mitchell's despatch to the Secretary previously permitted African peasant subsis­ tence agriculture to persist until British of State, No. 193 of 16th November, 1951. occupation. 26 27 (2) Continued African peasant agriculture has not away this land from the European would be as unjust as, only failed to cope with increasing population say, depriving the Nandi of their land and handing it over but, because of increasing population pressure, to the Kikuyu. is actually probably decreasing in productivity. It is also suggested that the Highlands are inadequately (3) By no means are all Africans prepared to accept occupied. Suffice it to say that a considerable area of the the sweat and toil that a higher agricultural Highlands (over 40 per cent. in 1932) is grazing, and the economy demands. apparently empty areas to be seen, for example, around (4) Overcropping to an extent unthought of in Naivasha carry a considerable and increasing amount of Europe is practised by the Africans, while over­ livestock. stocking is such in some areas that Africans The position in the White Highlands in relation to must face the alternative of eating their stock African land problems can best be summed up in the words or being eaten by them. of Mr. A. Lennox Boyd (Former Minister of State for the (5) Capital essential to improved agriculture. is Colonies.) : denied to Africans by the lack of secunty "It is not alienation of land that has led to land hunger afforded by their system of land tenure. amongst the Africans. If the whole of the White Highlands The fallacy persists among the Africans that it were handed over to-morrow to Africans it might lead to is every man's birth-right to have a share. in, a small and temporary alleviation of the problem, but it or earn directly a living from the land-a rlght would be at the total loss of the whole economy of the no civilised state is able to grant. country ... "We have, by precept and example and by using every Solutions African institution to try to lead the people along improved The solutions are the re-organisation of African social methods of agriculture. In that way a great contribution structure and land tenure, the application of capital, co­ can be made ... The way to do that is not by futile recrim­ operative methods and work. Inevi.tably the:e is .a need to ination over land settlements that have been accepted by find more land but it is no use, until the Afncan 1S capable many Governments of all parties, but by looking towards the of using land better, throwing good land after !Jad.. To ~uote undeveloped areas and hoping that by precept and example Sir Phillip Mitchell, an ignorant man and h1S w1f~ with a we can lead Africans to develop those areas in partnership hoe are a totally inadequate foundation for an enlightened with ourselves" (House at Commons-February, 1952.) state of society." Development schemes are now in train for the bet.ter VALUE OF EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT utilisation of land, and the teaching of improved farr~llng methods in African areas are based on the broad solutions Agricultural Economy outlined above. The basic problem is that the Colony should be able to grow enough food at least for its own requirements, and its The White Highlands economic development to the fullest possible extent is vital The suggestion that these land and population probl.ems to the interests of all communities. The hard facts of eco­ could be solved by giving the European areas to the Afncan nomics indicate the importance of the Highlands, not only would in fact, result in no improvement in the situation. to Kenya, but to the whole of East Africa. At be~t African occupation of this relatively small area The value of the Highlands can be assessed as follows:- would o'nly postpone the problem for a short time. At worst, (a) The food production of the Highlands is the position even now is that East Africa is barely a~le to essential to the agricultural economy because, feed itself and would be a large importer of food were 1t not without this source of supply, Kenya would for European primary production. become a large importer of food products which It is sometimes suggested that the highlands were stolen it could not afford. from the Africans. This is manifestly untrue because, in (b) Agricultural experiments in the Highlands have fact it has been established that the Highlands were virtu­ resulted in improved methods-for example the allY' unoccupied at the coming of the British, and to take late Lord Delamere's experiments with wheat 28 29

(c) to persuade progressive farmers to adopt bal­ beast to the acre over 25 weeks in the year have anced systems of farming (which should give a been established on land which was formerly return not less attractive than salaried employ­ practically barren; ment) ; (b) working out details of farming systems includ­ (d) to extend agricultural education to as wide ing improved methods of arable cultivation and a circle as possible; growth of fodder for the dry season; (e) to ensure the efficient marketing of crops at (c) finding out the best methods of grazing manage­ fair prices. ment for large areas of grassland suitable for ranching but too dry for cultivation. Staff: Although there has been an increase in the staff of Encouragement for African Progressive Farmers the Agricultural Department since 1946 there are vacancies for many more African Assistant Agricultural Officers, but Improved methods of cultivation in the African areas these are hard to find because in recent years no Africans depend very largely for their success on encouragement, have offered themselves for training in Agriculture at assistance and advice to the individual African farmer. It Makerere College. Some £270,000 is spent each year on is proving very difficult to break down the traditional un­ recurrent expenditure for the field services of the Depart­ economic systems of land tenure and cultivation, but the ment in African Areas. desire to farm better is growing steadily. Many crops introduced by European settlers are now Soil Conservation being grown by Africans. In 1951 Africans received about Good progress has been made in all districts with the £3* million for their cash crops which include coffee, ''''''''01''+ task of inducing the African to safeguard the soil. pyrethrum, pineapples, tobacco, fruit, vegetables, cotton, Improved systems of farming are being set on foot and coconuts and cashew nuts depending on the type of country. every encouragement is being given to progressive indivi­ The major achievements during this development period duals. The following table shows the average year's work have consisted in the ever Widening development of con­ on soil conservation and represents a considerable achieve­ servation methods, improved water supplies, more technical ment: knowledge of how best to farm varying zones in Kenya and, Treatment Acres lastly, the adoption of improved farming methods by indivi­ New terraces 69,060 dual Africans. Terraces renovated 88,896 Bench terraces 590 LIVESTOCK. Grass planted 42,491 Three-quarters of Kenya is dry, pastoral country suit­ Bush cleared 23,320 able for livestock but not for crops. (From "Conservation Works" Central Province, 1951.) Water Projects Improvement The provision of more water is essential to the correct There are ten African veterinary centres each of which use of land in the drier parts of Kenya. In 1950-51 nine has a herd of some 300 indigenous cattle from which issues large dams storing 71 million gallons of water were con­ of stock are made to progressive African farmers. Annual structed in North Nyanza and 17 in Machakos. Dams in expenditure on livestock improvement and training centres African areas now number well over 1,100. is about £13,000. One of the great problems in African areas is over­ Agricultural Investigation stocking and there are six million African-owned cattle in This work aims at finding out how land in various parts Kenya. The marketing of these livestock is therefore of of the colony can best be utilised. Experimental work in immense importance to African stock owners, and it is an the more arid areas, for example, is proceeding on the fol­ encouraging fact that the traditional African reluctance to lowing lines:- sell cattle has lessened in recent years. (a) finding the best methods of re-establishing In 1950 the Kenya Meat Commission was set up. It growth of grass on over-grazed and severely operates a central factory-abattoir and both African and eroded lands. Pastures capable of carrying a European stock owners can be sure of the efficient handling 32 33 of their products. It is interesting to.note that, as a re~ult of improvement in quality and marketing, the value of hides FURTHER ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT and skins exported from Kenya from African sources in 1951 was over £2 million. SCHEMES FOR THE BENEFIT OF AFRICANS (1946-55) Tsetse Clearance In the preceding chapter some account has been given By 1952 the annual expenditure of the Tsetse Survey of African development in respect of agriculture, livestock Section of the Department had increased to nearly £67~000, and water supplies and some indication given of the and the whole of this expenditure is devoted to the Afncan progress made during the past seven years. areas where substantial achievements in tsetse clearance The present chapter will serve to show something of have been recorded in recent years. the constructive action which has been taken for the benefit The steady expansion of veterinary staff in the African of the African during the past seven years, and the positive areas has led increasingly to effective control of livestock measures which had some time ago been planned for the diseases. next few years.

AFRICAN SETTLEMENT AFRICAN EDUCATION In 1946 the African Land Utilisation and Settlement Since the inception of the programme first laid down Board was set up to organise the expenditure of £3 million in the Development Committee Report (1946) great strides set aside under the Development Plan for reconditioning of have been made in the expansion of educational services. African areas and African settlements, and a number of At first progress was not striking because efforts were con­ settlement schemes have been launched including the con­ centrated on increasing the facilities for secondary school struction of roads, provision of water by damming and bore­ education and teacher-training in order to lay the founda­ hole and reduction of tsetse fiy by bush clearance. tion for the substantial progress now being made. There are several grades of teachers employed by the WATER Education Department according to the type of training In a land of poor rainfall and scarce surface water the they have had and the type of school in which they are improvement of existing supplies and provision of water in employed. As a result of the establishment of more training dry areas is of major importance. centres annual output of teachers has in some grades Expenditure in African areas on the provision of water doubled that of 1945, and in others output of trained during 1946 to 1952 amounted to £839,000. teachers is more than four times the output of 1945. The total number of boreholes operating in African Sixteen secondary schools for boys are planned. In areas is about 200 and of dams and tanks over 1,100; the 1945 there were five such schools and there are now 13. majority of these were constructed during the last six years. Two girls' secondary schools have also been started. These water supplies bring an enormous improvement to By 1956 there will be 340 aided intermediate schools as African living conditions, particularly in the drier regions. compared with 51 in 1945. There are now 200. By 1956 there will be, according to present plans, 2,000 FORESTS aided primary schools as compared with 566 in 1945. In The forests cover 5,195 square miles (including about 1952 there were 1,294. 4000 square miles in the Highlands) and are a great asset f~r reasons of climate, water, timber and fuel. In regard Expenditure to the large African population living in the forests, amount­ From 1946 the capital expenditure on African education ing to over 105,000 persons, the Department has, in recent has been £874,000 and since 1946 recurrent expenditure on years, embarked on an extensive scheme. By the end of African education has risen as follows:- 1952 buildings. and installations had been completed at a Year Government African District Council cost of some £22,000. In addition, 26 forest Villages have £ £ been built where Africans are well housed and given every 1946 148,935 77,753 amenity. 1952 731,764 238,938 34 35 It is estimated that in 1953, £1,148,387 will be spent on Government Shauri Moyo Location, Nairobi-accom­ African education (including Trade and Technical Educa­ modating some 3,000 persons. tion £107,421). Government Tonoka Location, Mombasa-882 accom­ modated. European Staff In 1945, 33 Europeans, other than missionaries, were Railway Makongeni Estate, Nairobi-319 junior quarters engaged in African education and in 1952 this number rose to house at least two men each and 95 senior quarters which to 120. are allotted to men with families. Posts and Telecommunications Department-Services AFRICAN HEALTH AND HOSPITAL SERVICES Estate, Nairobi-a bungalow estate to house 720. The African community at present has no general prac­ Private employers contribute greatly to solve the hous­ titioner service operated by their own race. This position ing problem. Detailed figures are not available but it has will be rectified as students qualify from Makerere College been estimated that over the past three years some 1,400 (Uganda). In 1952 Kenya contributed £70,000 towards dwellings for Africans have been provided in Nairobi by this Makerere College and the 1953 contribution is £86,500. means. The bulk of expenditure incurred by the Medical Depart­ ment recognises the needs of the African community and Industries such as Tea and Sisal provide excellent the recurrent estimates have grown from £425,287 in 1946 accommodation for their employees. to £1,058,794 in 1952. 1953 envisages recurrent commitments of £1,269,000 of which some 85 per cent. is considered applic­ able to African services. Municipal Housing These figures are additional to those of the Development The responsibility for provision of African housing for Programme which provides for the expenditure of almost the general public rests with local authorities, assisted finan­ £2 million on health and hospital services by March, 1956. cially and with technical advice from the Central Govern­ Of this sum about £H million is directly for the improvement ment. of African health and hospital services. The group hospital schemes in Nairobi and Mombasa, In order to deal with the urgent problems which existed which together total some 970,000, include about £800,000 for even then in Nairobi and Mombasa the Housing Fund of purely African services. £600,000 was established during the war. Half of this money came from a loan, later converted into a free grant, from the Colonial Development and Welfare Vote and half from AFRICAN HOUSING DEVELOPMENT FROM 1946-52 a Government loan. Since 1946 the following schemes have The responsibility for the provision of African housing been built from this source:- in the urban areas of Kenya lies with:- Nairobi City Council.-Accommodation with every social (a) Employers for their employees, Including the amenity tncluding shops, clinic, beer hall, playing fields and Government and the E. A. High Commission a social centre was provided for 3,000 persons at Kaloleni (Railway & Posts and Telecommunication ser­ (type of housing, single storey cottages). Vices). M ombasa-Port TUdor.-2,345 persons were accommo­ (b) Local authorities for their own employees and, dated. to a certain extent, for the general public. (c) Private individuals. Mombasa-Staff Housing.-Accommodation has been provided for 620 of the African Municipal staff (blocks of Employer's Housing fiats). Since 1946 the following major schemes have been Since the completion of the Kaloleni Scheme and the completed (this does not include scattered housing provided exhaustion of its Housing Fund allocation the Nairobi City so that employees may be housed near their place of work­ Council has built the following accommodation for the gen­ e.a., quarters provided at the King George VI Hospital). eral public with funds raised in Municipal stock issues. 36 37 (a) Bahati.-Provides accommodation for renting for civilian life. Since 1949 courses have been arranged for direct to Africans in eight-roomed blocks of leading Africans in specialist subjects and civics for it is single-storey buildings with communal latrines considered that a good general knowledge of the history and and washing places. 4,000 persons are housed geography of Kenya, together with economy and govern­ and the estate contains a shopping centre built ment is essential. Too few of those Africans who receive and owned by Africans. their 'education overseas have even a rudimentary knowledge (b) Gorojani.-Accommodation built by the City about the history and political economy of their own country. Council and leased to employers instead of to Africans direct. Housing is provided for some 2,200 in the form of double storey flats. AFRICAN INFORMATION SERVICES The majority of Municipal housing schemes are not In 1950 this department was reconstituted and two economic with the exception of the Gorofani scheme where separate offices set up-a Press Office and the African full economic rents are charged. A fixed unit grant (cal­ Information Services. The terms of reference of the latter culated by reference to the cost of building and maintaining were "to provide a centralized service for the production accommodation for one person) is paid by Government as its and employment of all sorts of material designed to assist share of subsidy on uneconomic schemes. District Teams and the various departments of Govern­ The Nairobi City Council has voted £2 million to be spent ment so as to advance the social and economic welfare in its 1953-57 programme for the provision of African hous­ of the African peoples." ing. From 1948 to 1950 there was a steady annual output Owner-occupier schemes have recently been instituted of books, leaflets and films, while broadcasting was regularly whereby funds are lent to Africans by Government to employed as a medium of mass education and entertain­ build their own houses and communal servies such as sani­ ment. Films and filmstrips were made and exhibited tation, drainage, roads, etc., are provided. An experimental throughout the Colony by the Mobile Information Units. scheme was first put into effect at Thika and has proved It is intended that, within the limits of the organisation, most successful. all production will continue to be increased during the next three years. Since the Emergency services have been greatly expanded. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Since 1946 community halls have been built throughout Kenya. One third of the cost has been met by the local LABOUR DEPARTMENT-AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT, community, a third by the African. District Councils and a 1946-52. third by Government. The centres were designed to enable The period since the war has been one of steady adult Africans to learn more about their country and its improvement of industrial relations and of conditions of government and where they could be taught reading, writing and accountancy. employment. More than one half of the COlony's African labour force is engaged in work of an industrial character. It is noteworthy that in the settled areas funds for the There has been virtually no unemployment. The rapid establishment of these centres have been in part provided by growth of industry, and considerable development schemes the local farmers. initiated by Government, have assured full employment to Women's Clubs have also been developed and the num­ all seeking work. ber now registered is 170 and are evoking a tremendous Postwar training schemes have given place to training response among African women. and apprenticeship schemes of a more comprehensive A Rural Industries Officer was appointed in 1949 to set nature to provide opportunities for technical training. about improving African crafts in quality and quantity throughout Kenya. Conditions of employment have been improved in a number of ways: more housing is becoming available and From 1946-1949 808 ex-servicemen were trained in various the last 3 years have seen improvements in employment trades at Kabete Technical Training Centre to equip them conditions in factories. As a result of the Workman's Com- 38 39 pensation Ordinance (1946) many hundreds suffering accidents have benefited. "invisible export" of £5 million annually-a figure which is not reflected in export and import statistics. Wages and matters connected with conditions of employment generally have been kept constantly under review by the Wages Advisory Board and the Labour Loans and Investment ~dvisory Board. Minimum Wage Orders have been applied The credit of the Colony stands high and the (1949) £6 111. the urban areas for the protection of the lower paid million loan was oversubscribed in a very short time (perhaps workers. no Colony has won such confidence from investors). The Trade Union movement covers only a small fraction New companies have been formed in great numbers of the working population but it is at last beginning to since 1945 as is revealed in the following table. show signs of responsibility and to produce more reasonable leaders. Year Number of Companies Nominal Capital 1946 185 £17,605,000 To sum up, the above reviews serves not only to show 1947 227 18,188,000 some of the benefits the African is deriving from British 1948 319 23,780,000 administration, but also gives the lie to some of our over­ 1949 268 29,539,000 seas critics who allege that although British enterprise has 1950 245 22,082,000 enormously increased the productive capacity of Kenya 1951 282 12,526,000 only a trickle of that great wealth reaches the African--': who is pictured as exploited and down-trodden. Even a Note.-Capital for foreign companies formed is not included. cursory study of some of the figures given above will reveal i~h.at a preponderant proportion of the estimates for pro­ Although detailed figures are not available for 1951-52 VISlOn of SOCIal and agricultural services-e.g., health and there has been a substantial increase during this period. hospital services-are devoted to the benefit of the African.

ECONOMIC POTENTIAL TRADE AND INVESTMENT That Kenya has achieved its present economic pre­ eminence among the East African territories despite her Imports and Exports relative poverty is largely due to a vigorous and enterprising The total value of imports into Kenya in 1951 was European community. Uganda is probably richer both agri­ £53,327,629, in 1948 £35,555,545 compared with £24,314468 for culturally and minerally than Kenya, and has hydro-electric 1947 and testifies to the immense expansion which ha~ taken potentialities beyond anything possessed in Kenya. Tan­ place during the postwar years. ganyika with her mineral deposits (diamonds, gold, lead, coal, etc.) shows very great possibilities. Yet, despite this, Domestic Exports amounted to £24,068,498 in 1951 as Kenya is generally more advanced, supports a greater budget compared with £17,182,209 in 1950 and £10,964,000 in 1949. than the other territories, and makes a greater contribution to the East African common services. It is no doubt for this Balance of Trade reason that, proportionate to population, Kenya employs more Africans than either Tanganyika or Uganda. It is The adverse balance of trade as revealed is more apparent estimated that 452,000 Africans are employed in Kenya for than real for it has been stated by the Member for Commerce wages. and Industry that si?-ce 1945 a total of well over £200 million 111.:,e~ted has .been 111. the Colony (exclusive of idle bank Agriculture credIts). and It IS .to be accepted that imports include a high proportion of capital goods. It has been estimated of recent At the present time Kenya's economy is largely based years that the tourist and transit passenger trade yields an on agriculture, and that agriculture, as opposed to peasant subsistence agriculture is in turn mainly based on European 40 41 farmers and planters. The following is a list of quantities and values of major agricultural products for 1949:- ceeding and while preliminary reports are promising it is as yet too early to entertain high hopes. It seems. likely Product Quantity in '000 Value that an oil refinery will be established at the Coast m the cwts. £ near future. Meat and meat preparations 16.3 150,800 From the above it will be seen that what is known Butter 10.2 131,300 of the potentialities of the Colony are extremely promising Wheat 141.8 185,000 and further that it is most probable that we have not yet Wheat Flour 137.6 226,500 beg~n to approach a full appreciation of all the economic Beans and Pulses 49.4 99,300 possibilities in Kenya. Coffee 156.3 1,509,800 It is, for instance, believed that it would be possible Tea 53.0 716,600 in the near future to move, by an immediate expansion Oilseeds, Nuts and Kernels 2.9 105,500 of our economy, to establishing secondary industries to pr?­ Wattle Extract 439.7 888,800 cess the raw materials which now leave this country m Hides and Skins 88.6 1,166,000 their virgin form. At the present time, the chief limitation tons on industrial development is the absence of prime movers, Raw Cotton 1.0 248,000 such as coal and oil. On the other hand, however, through Sisal Fibre and Tow. 33.4 2,851,800 water conservation schemes and the impounding of waters Wattle Bark 5.9 111,200 through regulated flows a source of hydro-electric power Pyrethrum 76.5 604,600 could be provided to serve new industries. With more intensive farming-implying more capital (at low rates of interest) production could be greatly increased. It is also held by many competent to judge that meat production could be immensely increased, and that areas such as Masai and the Northern Frontier, could, with SOME ASPECTS OF THE AFRICAN PROBLEM water development and properly controlled schemes vastly General enhance their output of beef, etc. (Note, the incr~ase of meat production among European farmers in thousands of It is extremely difficult for anyone who has never lived beasts of all sorts has increased from 65.3 in 1941 to 122.6 in East Africa to understand the mentality of the African in 1951, or nearly double.) and his reaction to the situation which confronts him today, or to appreciate fully the differences in outlook, in behaviour, Perhaps one of the greatest fields for expansion is the in mentality and in experience which exist between the development of secondary industries for the processing of native and the white man. Probably the characteristics of agricultural raw materials, and Committees are constantly the native can best be brought home to people in England at work determining the kind of aid necessary to encourage through the personal experience of individuals in their this kind of commerce. association with Africans. The same is true of the very complex subject of race relationships which, again, can only Forestry be understood by those with long personal experience and The Forestry Industry probably offers one of the knowledge of the native races and who, alone, can fully greatest fields for economic expansion-quite apart from appreciate the problems which beset all communities in its beneficial effect on water conservation. In 1949 exports Kenya and, more particularly, the African. A few general were valued at £227,400 and in 1951 this figure had risen remarks may, however, help in presenting and accounting to £902,013. for the African problem with which we are now faced. It was inevitable that the impact of a highly developed Minerals civilisation on a wholly primitive people should result in dislocation and in maladjustment. It is not always realised The total value of minerals won in Kenya in 1951 is estimated at approximately £1,900,000 as compared with that, until the 20th century, civilisation had left the peoples £1,373,000 in 1950. Prospecting for petroleum is now pro- in this part of Africa completely untouched and that, in thousands of years, they had not even discovered the use 42 43 of such an ancient device as the wheel or of the draught consequently, little sense of social responsibility or moral beast and the plough. Their methods of agriculture were obligation. Demoralisation and discontent often results and of the most primitive and consisted in scratching a living conditions of urban life tend to encourage vice and crime. out of the soil until it was eXhausted-which would be about Everything possible is being done by Government and every ten or fifteen years-and moving on to fresh pastures. by individuals, both businessmen and farmers, to counteract That these people have managed for so long to exist on the effects of "detribalisation" by the provision of social such a primitive subsistence economy is due partly to the amenities and community development centres in towns and vastness of Africa, and partly to the periodic decimation in the settled areas, and these schemes are meeting with a of population by inter-tribal warfare, famine and disease. considerable degree of success. They cannot, however, quite Owing to rapid increases in population resulting from the take the place of the tribal system and-the moral standards benefits of civilisation this primitive economy will no longer of the West still having made only a superficial impression suffice, and the result is "land hunger" and discontent. on the Africans in the large majority of cases-they cannot Despite the immeasurable benefits that British settlement guarantee that discipline which tribal law so effectively has brough to East Africa there is no doubt that civilisation enforced. has brought with it a host of problems. These can probably best be considered under the following heads. The African Today-Classificaiion To sum up, Africans in Kenya can be broadly classified DetribaHsation into the following groups:- (a) Those as yet hardly touched by civilisation pur­ . It is not always realised that before the coming of the suing as in the case of the Masai, the SUk, the Elgeyo and white man the group, and not the individual. was the the Marakwet, chiefiy a nomadic way of life in much the effective social and the power of the community was same way as before the white man came. greater than that of any individual. The tribal organisation (b) The urban and semi-educated classes domestic ser­ was a highly complex affair demanding the service and vants-who get housed and fed and are therefore well pro­ !oyalty of every member of the community; it comprised, vided for; non-resident agricultural labourers; employees m fact, a network of social obligations and duties which in industrial, professional or business concerns, some skilled, were disobeyed by the individual only at his peril. The many unskilled; the casual labourers. Out of a population sanctions of tribal ~aw were reinforced by superstition and, of 5 million less than half a million work for wages. Few very often, Witchcraft, but they were effective for punish­ of these are wholly cut off from the Reserves as they ment was instant, often brutal, and the fear of ostracism generally retain their "shambas" which are cultivated by by his fellows tended to keep the individual on the "straight their families in their absence. and narrow." (c) Resident labourers supplying labour on farms in the The coming of civilisation resulted in a breakdown of settled areas, and the masses in the Reserves who, although this primitive community organisation With disastrous continuing their primitive way of life, are suffering from effects. It is outside the scope of this paper to detail native the break-down of tribal organisation far more than law and custom and tribal life but we would recommend (d) The educated classes. It is this class which provides Dr. Leakey's study of the Kikuyu and the development of the army of clerical workers, teachers, journalists, pastors. Mau Mau because, Without some understanding of the Of these classes numbers (b), (c) and particularly (d) primitive fabric of society, it is impossible to appreciate fully have suffered most from the effects of detribalisation in the ?~~tte~ing results of its breakdown under the impact various ways. The tendency to demoralisation and dis­ of .cIvIllsatIOn. Suffice it to say that the coming of the content among the town dwellers has been accounted for white man, the new agricultural, industrial and domestic but the disillusionment of the "educated" African springs economy and the growth of towns has the effect of under­ from other sources. mining a~1d de~troying the basic fabric of African society. The growmg drift to the towns has accelerated this process Education and the result has been the development of an individual A form of education in the social sense of the term was divorced from the protection and restraints of tribal law, with undertaken by the tribe in early childhood and continued no background, no security, no real community life and, through youth and the varying stages in adult life. Its aim 44 45 was to equip the individual to make his contribution to there is evidence to suggest that before very long this so­ the good of the community within the tribe. called "bar" will go as increasing number of Europeans do The education provided for the African by the European not feel particularly strongly about it. It is, however, d~ubt­ has been of a very different type and, in many cases, has ful whether the amenities of a European hotel are likely resulted only in frustration and bewilderment. Unfortun­ to suit the requirements of any but a very small number of ately, in too many cases there has developed a tendency in Africans. the African to regard education as an end in itself rather than as a training for an honest job of work or it is regarded Racial Co-operation as a gateway to a political career or, at a more humble level, While controversy rages round the "colour bar"-which, It to the white collar of the clerk. is a significant fact that in any case, could be more accurately described a~ a "~ulture in recent years no African students have entered themselves bar"-the races are, in fact, quietly co-operating m the for training in agriculture at Makerere College (and it is spheres of commerce, sport and some cultural pursuits. It is interesting to compare the numbers of English youths who not always realised overseas that here in Kenya there are are eagerly learning how to farm at Egerton College). It tens of thousands of Africans working in co-operation with has long been clear that some form of technical training is Europeans and Asians to produce goods, to maintain services of more use to the African in equipping him for adult life and to retail the merchandise of the world. African repre­ than is acamedic education, and Kabete School is beginning sentatives are invited to meetings of the Nairobi Chamber to turn out a class of skilled artisan for whom there are very of Commerce, there is a football league consisting of teams much better openings than for the aspiring clerk. made up of all races and there are some theatrical and social An increasing number of African students have been organisations in which membership is extended to Africans. receiving higher education at universities overseas. It is a It is, indeed, difficult to think of any single undertaking, sad fact that many of these students are totally ignorant agricultural or commercial, in the whole colony which does of the history and political economy of their country of not owe its success to the co-operation of at least two, if not origin. Such ignorance is apt to make them easy game for three, races. unscrupulous politicians. To sum up very generally the question of race relations, it is fair to take the view that colour consciousness as such Race Relations would hardly exist were it not for politics and the tendency This is an extremely difficult subject to discuss with among certain politicians in England to stir up racial hatred any degree of accuracy owing to the heated controversy and to make political capital out of the alleged "grievances" raging round the "colour bar," and the totally inaccurate of some discontented elements among the more educated and unjust criticisms levelled against the white community Africans. Persistence in the belief that every colonizer is by detractors from overseas. necessarily an exploiter of Afri-can labour has created an In fact what racial discrimination there is in Kenya is, atmosphere of prejudice and misconception in which the generally speaking, devised to give economic protection to myth racial non-eo-operation can thrive. the less advanced communities. Most legislation is non-racial with the exception of that which is necessary to protect African interests, such as the restriction of credit and consumption of liquor. For instance, no non-African is permitted to reside in the Nairobi African Origin and Meaning Locations, while the protection of certain African communi­ ties against the drift of adventurers to the towns requires Small secret societies have, for some years, been a restriction by by-laws. feature of African tribal life, and there is some evidence to suggest that the Mau Mau movement has its origins in some The only legislation which is on a racial basis is in regard of the societies which, from time to time, have been pro­ to land-holding where non-Europeans are not permitted to scribed for subversive activities. own land in the white highlands, and non-Africans are not permitted to own land in the African Land Units. In 1940 one such society, the Kikuyu Central Association, was proscribed for activities prejudicial to the conduct of the A great deal of capital is made by some of our overseas war. But as early as 1923 its leader, Harry Thuku (now one critics out of the discrimination exercised by hotels, but of Government's strongest supporters against Mau Mau) had 46 47 been deported. At the present time a large number of been aware of the growth of a subversive organisation Kikuyu look upon the Mau Mau as but a continuation of among the Kikuyu and in the immediate post-war years, the old Kikuyu Central Association under another name. particularly in 1947, there were a number of outbreaks of In 1944 the Kenya African Union was founded and this violence in the Kikuyu area associated with murder and has remained the only legitimate African political society, oath-taking. Again to quote the Afr,ican Affairs Annual although from evidence which has appeared in various Report, 1951, Mr. E. H. Windley wrote:- court cases connected with Mau Mau, it would appear that "A sullen, subversive, anti-Government, anti-European its activities are not above approach. In this connection feeling can always be found among a certain section of the it is worth quoting some remarks of Mr. E. H. Windley Kikuyu, and it is necessary to protect the loyal majority (formerly P. C. Central Province-now Member for African of the tribe from being exploited through their genuinely Affairs) which appeared in the African Affairs Annual felt grievances over land. This feeling finds its most Report, 1951. Mr. Windley wrote in April, 1952, as follows:- extreme form in the illegal Mau Mau Association, with its "A responsible and sincere political body of educated beastly and barbaric oath-taking binding those who take Africans could be of great value in this province. The it to oppose and disobey the Government, and to use Kenya African Union is not such a one. It is in fact a Violence if necessary; above all, to strict secrecy concerning body with a few members from other tribes to give the Association. The Association continued in Kiambu, Fort colour to its wider claims, and it is afflicted internally by Hall and Nyeri and although the majority of the members Kikuyu intrigues and petty jealousies. Reading through the are youngish men of no particular standing, and most of list of programme points put over at its public meetings the more prominent politicians prefer to voice their griev­ throughout the year it is impossible not to notice that they ances through more constitutional channels, nevertheless are all destructive. ... The disturbances in Fort Hall in there are few signs of these men taking a stand and publicly November, when thousands of women gathered to burn condemning the Mau Mau movement." down cattle crushes in a protest against rinderpest innocula­ Development tions, show the damage that indivldual members of the Union can do." There is some reason to believe that Mau Mau began Although, in 1952, the K.A.U. claimed an all Kikuyu to get under way towards the end of 1948, and the develop­ membership of 125,000, in actual fact, as Mr. Windley has ment of the movement was accelerated by the rumour that written, membership was restricted almost entirely to the the Duke of Gloucester was coming to confer City status tribe. There is a popular theory, which has a on Nairobi. The story was put about by a number of Kikuyu measure of substantiation from evidence taken in certain agitators, some of them former members of the prescribed Mau Mau cases, that the Kikuyu, wishing to embrace mem­ Kikuyu Central Association, that the conferring of City bers of other tribes in their Organisation, changed K.A.U. status on Nairobi would be accompanied by further "thefts to M.A.U. meaning "Member of the African Union." This of land" from the Kikuyu by the authorities. Nothing theory seems reasonable, especially as repetition is a com­ could show more clearly than this yarn that the alleged mon feature of African languages. Another theory is that "grievances" which are supposed to be the reason for the the real meaning of MAU is "Muumbi African Union"­ development of Mau Mau have little foundation in fact, "Muumbi" being the traditional "mother" of the Kikuyu but that its unscrupulous leaders have exploited the ignor­ tribe and founder of the nine clans from which the tribe ance of their fellows for their own ends; they could not sprang. Some connection between the K.A.U. and Mau Mau seriously have believed that there was any danger of aliena­ came to light in a case before a Naivasha Magistrate in tion of native land for European settlement for, under the early July, 1952, when an African woman told the Magis­ Native Lands Trust Ordinance, the inviolability of native trate that she had been forced to take an oath which made land was assured. But, knowing the attachment of Africans her "a member of both the Mau Mau and the Kenya African to their lands, they knew that they were sure to get a Union-one society with two names." She alleged that following if they said that these lands were about to be amongst members she must refer to Mau Mau and amongst taken away. strangers she must assert she belonged to the K.A.U. At first the Mau Mau was little heard of, and it is likely Whatever may be the direct origins of the Mau Mau that in the early days it worked only among those who were organisation itself, the authorities have, for some years, sympathetic to its aims and membership was voluntary.

43 49 At this stage it would obviously have been dangerous to to be repeated seven times-the number seven has a mystical approach the loyal Kikuyu for the movement was not yet significance among the Kikuyu and figures in all manifesta­ strong enough to use the methods of intimidation that it tions of Mau Mau activity. As the methods of Mau Mau was later to adopt. It is believed that Mau Mau got its have become more brutal so have the details of initiation earliest following from Kikuyu squatters on European farms ceremonies become more barbarous and beastly. In some among whom there were discontented elements. On the instances initiates have been made to take the rotting flesh other hand the movement was beginning to come up against of a former victim-murdered because of his refusal to take loyal Kikuyu, and it became obvious that if it were to the oath-and rub it across their mouths. In order to escape detection it would have to employ methods contrary encourage recruitment of oath-administrators they are en­ to Kikuyu custom. According to Kikuyu custom an oath titled to keep one-third of the collection of 60s. taken from must be taken in daylight and in public, it cannot be initiates as a fee. administered to women and children and it cannot be taken Contents at the Oath.-Evidence taken in court cases has under duress. From now on the Mau Mau began to use shown the main clauses of the oath to be as follows:- intimidation to compel its more reluctant victims, including women, to take the oath; its methods first consisted of (1) If I am asked to bring the head of a European, threats of physical violence and damage to property, but and I refuse, this oath will kill me. later developed into torture, mutilation and murder. As (2) If I am called at any time during the night, if the movement grew and its aims became better known I don't go, this oath will kill me. opposition began to harden-particularly among Christians (3) If I reveal any secrets of Africans who are Mau -and was led by such men as Chiefs Waruhiu and Nderi Mau members, this oath will kill me. and Mr. Harry Thuku. But opposition to Mau Mau was (4) If I. am called during the night and I am naked, dangerous. Soon the movement began to plan the murder I WIll go naked. of those who stood out against it, and both these courageous (5) If I see anyone stealing European property I will chiefs became its victims. Indeed, high tribute is due to not tell about it. Instead, I will assist him to hide it. If I refuse, this oath will kill me. those increasing numbers of loyal Africans who, at great (6) If members agree to do anything, whether good risk to themselves, are coming out in the open against Mau or bad, and I refuse to obey, this oath will kill Mau; their outstanding courage can be fully appreciated me. only by those who ha,ye witnessed the appalling savagery (7) I must always say that all land belongs to the and beastliness of Mau Mau reprisals. Kikuyu. Oath-taking Ceremonies Power of the Oath The initiation to membership now took the form of oath­ taking, sometimes voluntarily but more often under com­ It is impossible to understand the nature and influence pulsion, and the initiation ceremony is accompanied by bar­ of this evil society without some understanding of the Kikuyu baric rites on to which, in some cases, has been grafted a people themselves, of their customs and of their superstitions. perversion of Christian ceremonial. The setting for the These cannot be detailed here, but we would again recom­ initiation ceremony usually consists of an arch made of mend Dr. L. S. B. Leakey's "Mau Mau and the Kikuyu" to banana leaves, sticks or grass, the initiates have to suck anyone who wants to understand something of tribal law one another's blood and a smear of blood is placed on the and customs. forehead in imitation of Christian baptism. Although details Suffice it to say that oath-taking is a familiar practice of the paraphernalia vary, the underlying principles remain amon.g the ~ikuyu, as it ~s with most primitive peoples, being the same. The "oath administrator" has been known to associated WIth transactions of all kinds. The swearer calls wear a surplice-like garment, and all ceremonies include down disaster on himself and his family if he breaks the oath, some rite or other connected with raw meat; for this purpose and he believes that supernatural agencies will inflict the the entrails of goats, goats' eyes, usually impaled on thorns, penalty. Knowing the psychology of their fellow tribesmen and other portions of goats' flesh are used, and in nearly so well the leaders of the movement knew that if people every ceremony the figure seven recurs again and again­ could be frightened and forced into taking the oath-even seven cuts are made on the upper arm, seven pieces of meat under circumstances contrary to native custom-there was are given as food and nearly every action of the initiate has little fear of the victim reporting to the police. Indeed, one 50 51 of the o-rl'nt.p.<:t. UU.UIJUH,><:;;,o intimidation of witnesses for, by the ordinary process of law The present situation in Kenya is emphatically not a requiring absolute proof in accordance with British rules of war of black against white. From the very start increasing evidence, punishment of Mau Mau criminals could not be numbers of mutilated bodies of tribal headmen, policemen carried out without witnesses. The ineffectiveness of these and crown witnesses were being discovered buried in forests trials was one of the main reasons for the declaration of a or recovered from river beds. The aim of the Mau Mau is state of Emergency in October, 1952. On the other hand the fact that the Mau Mau oath is, according to Kikuyu custom, to drive the white man from Kenya, but the campaign is illegal has in some cases nullified any belief in its super­ in fact directed against all decent law-abiding citizens, natural power, and many loyal KikUYU, after having been whether European, Asian or African and it is the latter­ forced to take the oath, have reported the fact to the police. witness such incidents as the wholesale massacre of African Unfortunately, punishment has often come to these loyal men, women and children in the Lari Location on March Kikuyu in the form of murder and mutilation as retribution 26th, 1953-who have suffered the most. for their betrayal of Mau Mau. The methods adopted by Mau Mau have developed during the last six months from sporadic panga attacks on The Attitude of the Kikuyu individuals and isolated farms-often to obtain firearms­ The reaction of the Kikuyu tribe to Mau Mau can be to highly organised raids by armed gangs on police posts, broadly classified as follows:- both in the Reserves and in the settled areas (e.g, Naivasha) . (a) A comparatively small number who have stoutly Extent of Mau Mau resisted it-many of them Christians-and With The influence of Mau Mau is still mainly confined to' the formation of African home guards and the the Kikuyu tribe affecting an area of roughly 2,000 square establishment of Police Posts in the Reserves miles which is only small proportion of the total area of the these numbers are increasing. Colony. On the other hand Mr. F. Odede, an African A fairly small number who are its instigators Unofficial Member of Legislative Council and Acting Presi­ and organisers but who co-opt, more often than dent of the Kenya African Union, has recently been arrested not by intimidation, numbers of their fellow under Emergency Regulations as a result of evidence that tribesmen when a murder or raid is to be carried he had been trying to spread Mau Mau among the Luo out. The result is that their ranks are being tribe in North Nyanza. augmented by these "casual" assistants who have been forced to cast their lot with the Mau Mau. APPENDIX "B" (c) A fairly large number of habitual criminals who have carried out many of the atrocities SOUTHERN RHODESIA. and intimidations perpetrated by Mau Mau. Southern Rhodesia, in South-Central Africa, forms part (d) The large "imponderable mass" of the Kikuyu of the new Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. It is people who, as a result of intimidation, have nearly three times the size of England and Wales, being been forced to take the Mau Mau oath as a 150,333 square miles in area. Southern Rhodesia is bordered form of insurance. on the north and north-west by Northern Rhodesia, on the west and south-west by Bechuanaland (both British Pro­ It has been estimated that in the worst affected areas tectorates, on the south by the Union of South Africa and over 80 per cent. of the population has been sworn. On on the east and north-east by Portuguese East Africa. Al­ the other hand, possibly owing to the illegality of the Mau though the country lies wholly within the tropics, most of Mau oath, increasing numbers of Mau Mau initiates are it is 3,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level to give it an equable partaking in "cleansing ceremonies" and thereby absolving climate, thoroughly suited to permanent white settlement. themselves from its binding power, yet it is disturbing to Constitutionally, the status of Southern Rhodesia re­ record that there have been many instances of the mains the same as before Federation. Formally described "cleansed" again taking the oath. as a self-governing Colony it has a single-chamber Parlia- 52 53 ment of 30 elected members with a Cabinet formed of members of the Legislative Assembly. The only limitation to the more civilised south. But others took their places, on the full responsibility of Southern Rhodesia for its own the pioneer population increased, some of the mines pros­ affairs is that any law whereby Africans may be subjected pered, farms were started and corn and wheat grew in or made liable to any conditions, disabilities or restrictions Mashonaland's virgin soil. to which Europeans are not also subjected or made liable, The hopes of peaceful progress, however, were soon and also any law which may repeal, alter or amend the Land shattered, for the Matabele War of 1893 and the Rebellions Apportionment Act must be reserved for Her Majesty's assent. of the warring tribes of Mashonaland and Matabeleland dis­ Southern Rhodesia's history as a settled European com­ rupted life in the new country. During these troubles the munity goes back a little ove!' 60 years which makes it one settlers and the military forces gave to future generations of the more youthful members of the British Commonwealth. of Rhodesians an inspiring tradition of courage and devotion It has, particularly in recent years, given proof of its vitality in the face of overwhelming odds. and enterprise. With many rich natural endowments it has It was Rhodes who paved the way for peace by meeting attracted investment from old countries, notably the United alone in the Matopos Hills the Matabele rebels and persuad­ Kingdom, to build it up into a progressive community with ing them to lay down their arms. With peace restored to a an even brighter future. While much of this advancement distracted land, Southern Rhodesia seemed set fair on the is directly attributable to private enterprise, the State has road of progress. New settlers poured into the country and not hesitated to play its part when it felt that to be necessary. more mines and farms were developed. Southern Rhodesia's Government and people believe that private enterprise constitutional progress synchronised with the development and the State can co-operate harmoniously to make possible of the country and the growth of political consciousness on still greater progress. the part of her people. Southern Rhodesia owes its establishment as a British The Colony was fortunate in the men selected to dis­ country, indeed, its very existence, to the foresight of Cecil charge the responsibilities of the British South Africa Com­ John Rhodes, the mining magnate, statesman and visionary pany but it was soon evident that the settlers could not be who played a commanding part in the development of South­ reconciled to being governed by a company with commercial ern Africa in the nineteenth century. The British Govern­ interests. They demanded a say in their own affairs. At ment of the day was averse to taking on more imperial first the combined provinces of Mashonaland and Matabele­ responsibilities, but Rhodes, with a shrewd sense of the land were ruled by the Administrator and a council of four strategic and economic possibilities of South Central Africa, nominated (official) members, but in 1898 an Ceder in obtained a charter for his British South Africa Company to Council provided for a Legislative Council on which the establish the first white settlement between the Limpopo settlers were represented. Through the years the settlers and Zambesi Rivers in 1889. demanded the majority representation and their numbers The Pioneer Column, sent by Rhodes to exploit the mining were steadily increased until, in 1920, the last Legislative concession obtained from Lobengula and to form the nucleus Council consisted of 13 elected and six official members. of the civilian population, reached the spot where Salisbury In 1920, as a result of three years' campaign by an now stands on 12th September, 1890, and this day is annually organised party for responsible government, a general elec­ celebrated as Occupation Day. The British South Africa tion brought into Parliament twelve elected members out Company's charter conferred administrative responsibilities of thirteen pledged to support a petition supporting respon­ as well as commercial privileges, and its officials undertook sible government. The Imperial Government appointed a the administration of the new country. The first Adminis­ Commission under Lord Buxton to investigate the possibility trator was Mr. A. R. Colquhoun. When he resigned the fol­ of granting self-government. The Buxton Commission lowing year he was succeeded by Dr. Leander Starr Jameson, recommended that this should be done, laid down the lines a medical practitioner of Kimberley who was so inspired by and recommended the procedure to be followed, and a Rhodes' ideas that he gave up a lucrative practice to help delegation under Sir Charles Coghlan went to England to him carry them out. The first two years were comparatively discuss the Constitution. peaceful. The Pioneers and those who came in their wake roamed the trackless veld looking for Mashonaland's fabulous The choice then put before the people of Southern gold reefs. Some made promising finds, many others did not Rhodesia was whether to govern themselves or have the and, disappointed with the rigous of pioneer life, returned country become a province of the Union of South Africa. With characteristic independence the Rhodesians decided in 54 55 a referendum taken on October 27, 1922, by 8,774 votes to tion but when the elected representatives of the people 5,989, to govern themselves. On Occupation Day in the took over responsibility for their own affairs, a large pro­ following year the Colony was formally annexed by Great gramme of public works, road and bridge building, and Britain. extension of school and hospital facilities had to be under­ taken. Economic activity followed much the same pattern At the first elections for the new Legislative Assembly as before except that it was at this time that tobacco the Rhodesia Party was returned with an overwhelming growing on an appreciable scale was developed. The industry majority and its leader, Sir Charles Coghlan, who had taken was not, however, highly organized in the twenties and a a prominent part in Rhodesian affairs for twenty years, boom was followed by a slump. But the lessons of the need became the first Premier. During those first formative years for orderly marketing and for maintaining quality in pro­ of self-government he guided the Colony's destiny with great duction were learned, and the growers, aided by Gove~n­ tact, ability and vision, and in qualities of statesmanship ment action, set about putting their house in order with was considered a second Cecil Rhodes. His death in August, results of profound important in the future. 1927, was a severe blow to the country. He was succeeded by the Hon. H. U. Moffat, grandson of the famous pioneer A glance at the economic picture of 1934, .wJ:1en ~he missionary, who held office until he resigned in 1933. The effects of a world depression had been overcome, IS illumin­ new Minister was Mr. G. M. (now Sir Godfrey) ating. The white population had now climbed to ?3,000 Huggins remained in office for twenty years until he and the African population to about 1,200,000. Mmeral resigned to become Prime Minster of the Federation last production was now valued at nearly £6,000,000, gold account­ year. ing for over £4,500,000, asbestos £400,000 and chrome £240,000. Small surpluses of meat and maize each to the value of over During the regime of the British South Africa Company £750,000were exported. There were, however, still no exports and for years afterwards the economic pattern was typically of any consequence of manufactured or processed goods and colonial-exporting raw materials and importing manu­ nearly all requirements of this type, from heavy machmery factured goods. The main export, in fact the only export to clothing, had to be imported. of substance for a great many years, was gold. Not in values comparable with the output of the great Witwatersrand fields This represented a substantial degree of general progre~s to the south, but in sufficient quantity to provide an economic compared with 10 years earlier, but the p.icture.was sttll foundation on which to erect slowly and not without diffi­ that of a primary producer relying for all of ItS capital goods culty the superstructure of a settled civilisation. and a large proportion of its consumer goods on Imports from The story of the first three decades of the country's the Union of South Africa and overseas countries like the history is fascinating enough. But the economic history of United Kingdom and the United States of America. Southern Rhodesia from the time that responsible govern­ Opinion was growing in the country itself that this ment was granted is perhaps even more remarkable. At that situation should not be allowed to persist. It was argued date the white population was 36,000 and the African popula­ that many of the raw materials produced in the country tion was less than 900,000. The total value of the mineral could to advantage be processed or manufactured on the output was less than £4,500,000 of which the value of gold spot to satisfy local needs and those of neighbouring terri­ was nearly £3,000,000. Chrome ore, already a useful export tories. But the relative smallness of the local market was to the United States, was valued at £250,000, and asbestos a deterrent to large-scale enterprise generally. There was at £600,000. The only other significant item was coal, of some progress in the next five years towards a greater which over 600,000 tons were raised to supply the railways development of resources, but it was slow and on a small and other local requirements. Agricultural production was scale. very largely for home consumption. Transport and social The last war, however, taught Rhodesians and the world services were elementary and the largest town in the country at large that Southern Rhodesia could develop a much more -at that time Bulawayo-had fewer than 8,000 white diversified economy. In metal manufacturing and engineer­ inhabitants. ing, the spinning of yarn from home-grown cotto~, the manufacture of clothing and footwear, food processmg of The next ten years were a time of consolidation rather many kinds, the making of building materials from asbestos than striking progress. The foundation had been laid in cement-in all of these industries noteworthy progress was the days of the British South Africa Company's admintstra- made. Plans were made to produce iron and steel from 56 57 Rhodesian ore; these plans did not, in fact, mature until after the war, but their realisation represented the first step As the problem of supply eased with the returJ:.l of. overseas towards a steel manufacturing industry. production capacity after the war, the co.m~umcatlOnprob­ lem became even more difficult. In the Initial post-war era By the end of the war the scene was changing. New Southern Rhodesia had to rely on a system of communica­ industries, many of types which would not have been thought tions which was adapted only to the pre-war level of con­ feasible in 1939, began to spring up all over the country, but sumption and production. With the improvements to the particularly in the two main centres of Salisbury and Bula­ port of Beira and the greatly expanded carrying capacity of wayo. Among the new industries opened since the war are the railways the problem came nearer to solution, and it will sweet factories, a malt industry, distilleries, paint works, be further improved when the new rail link with the port insecticide producers, clothing manufacture, textile mills, of Lourenco Marques has been completed. food processing, a ferro-chrome refinery, engineering works, furniture factories, manufacture of building materials and Accommodation of all kinds, but particularly housing plastics manufacturing. and industrial, has been a more difficult problem. The urgency of reducing it to more manageable proportions has The shift from the colonial economic pattern, though by been one of the major factors in influencing the Govern­ no means complete, was well under way. Southern Rhodesia ment to decide on limiting the rate of immigration in the is now busy expanding where possible the production of raw past. materials for export. But it attaches the greatest importance Southern Rhodesia has learned early in its history the to building up those industries which can economically meet lessons of soil and water conservation. For a number of the demand of the home market and of neighbouring terri­ years a vigorous campaign has been under way. The growth tories. This is particularly appreciated in the case of indus­ of the demand for water supplies in the towns coincided tries based on locally produced raw materials. with several poor rainy seasons. Schemes large and small Tobacco production is now at an annual rate of about throughout the country now assure adequate supplies for 100,000,000 lb. worth approximately £20 million; mineral all important centres of population even under the worst output is valued in the region of £15 million with asbestos climatic conditions. the biggest product, closely followed by gold. In the matter of food supplies the country is not fully Recent progress is perhaps most dramatically illustrated self-sufficient, but propaganda, the adoption of modern by trade figures. In 1938 imports were valued at nearly £10 methods of agriculture and a system of guaranteed economic millions and exports at nearly £12 millions. In 1946 the prices have produced a substantial increase in local food corresponding figures were £21 millions and £22 millions production. The main emphasis, too, in all new agricultural respectively; by 1952 they had risen to £88~ millions and projects is placed on their food growing potential. Food £61~ millions. consumption is, of course, rising with the growth of the In most of the post-war years an adverse balance of population and the more varied dietary demands of the trade has developed as a result of the very large and increas­ African as his standard of living rises. ing proportion of imports of capital goods including very The population is over 2,000,000 (160,000 White, 2,100,000 heavy additions to rolling stock for the railways, road­ native African and 11,000 Asiatic and people of mixed race). making, earth-moving and mining machinery, power station The African people, who sixty years ago were living under equipment, machinery for new factories and farm machinery. conditions of barbarism With no permanent buildings, writ­ For example, imports of durable producers' goods have for ten language, established agriculture or significant level of several years made up over 40 per cent. of the total, while CUlture, are still in the main fairly primitive. the proportion of consumers' goods has been declining, from nearly half just after the war to little more than 30 per cent. The raising of the African's economic, educational, Thus while Southern Rhodesia is spending a high pro­ cultural and health standards is a long and patient process. portion of its resources on productive imports, its capacity The Government of Southern Rhodesia has for many years to provide a larger percentage of its own requirements of conducted an energetic campaign in this direction and consumer goods is increasing. encouraging results are to be seen. Inevitably, a rapid development of the type which It believes that the real welfare of the African and his Southern Rhodesia has experienced has led to problems, most significant contribution to the development of his principally of supply, communications and accommodation. native land can only be realised in partnership with the white man; that just as the labour of the black man is 58 59 essential to the white man's enterprise, so the white man's Four distinct cataracts make up the Victoria Falls. skill, initiative and leadership are vital to the black man's Furthest west is Devil's Cataract, shallowest, narrowest, but progress. Southern E,hodesia's policy is based on the axiom most awe-inspiring of all. It is here that the volume of of the mutual interdependence of the two races, interpreted water is greatest because of a sudden drop in the river level with justice and faith in the future. near the brink. A statue of David Livingstone, discoverer of the Falls in 1855, overlooks this cataract. The centenary Southern Rhodesia has experienced difficulties since the of the discovery of the Falls is being celebrated next year. war; they have, however, been the pains of radid growth. That they can and will be solved every Rhodesian is certain. Main Falls is perhaps the most photogenic of the four. A quick survey of the opportunities that lie ahead­ Clearly visible from the numerous vantage points along the especially under the new Federation-is a guarantee of that opposite lip of the chasm, it is separated from its com­ confidence. panion falls by two islands-Cataract Island on one side and Livingstone Island (from where Livingstone first saw the Falls) on the other. Next to Main Falls is the Rainbow Falls, which, except at high fiood, is broken up into dozens of silvery cascades by VICTORIA FALLS. out-jutting promontories of rock. Nearest to the Northern Rhodesia bank is the Eastern It would be a soulless pilot who did not circle at least Cataract, considered by many to be the most beautiful of all. once over the Victoria Falls before landing at Livingstone Fully-hued lunar rainbows can be seen to the best advantage Airport. Few, if any, airports in existence can claim one at the Eastern Cataract when the moon is full. of the wonders of the world as a sideshow. And no one There are some wonderful walks and vantage points Who has seen the Victoria Falls will dispute that these are around the Falls. Any of the paths along the headlands indeed a marvel of nature. that separate the gorges are well worth exploring for their A solid sheet of water one-and-a-quarter miles in width own sake and for the unexpected views of falls and gorges crashing into a chasm 355 feet deep at its highest point, they bring. would be impressive anywhere. Situated in an environment Livingstone, when he first saw the Falls, exclaimed that of tall palms and thick tropical vegetation, it is unrorget­ "Scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in able. The principal charm of the Victoria Falls is its their fiight"-words that convey something of the awe which unspoiled natural surroundings. Nothing has been added the Victoria Falls inspire. and nothing taken away. The Falls can be observed and admired in many moods. Equally impressive at all seasons of the year-stupendous in summer, beautiful in autumn, delicate in winter and stark in spring, they can be visited time and time again Without the novelty palling. In April, when the Zambezi River is at the height of its flood, 75,000,000 gallons of water plunge over the Falls every minute. The scene is not easy to visualise. A few hundred yards above the Falls the Zambezt River flows peacefully past palm-fringed banks and many islands. Without the slightest warning the whole river stands, as it were, on end, consign­ ing its vast volume of water into a yawning black abyss less than a hundred yards across. Forced into this narrow fissure, the water hurls its spray hundreds of feet into the air whence it falls in the form of heavy rain on the sur­ rounding cliffs. Visible from several miles away during the dry season, the spray cloud can be seen at a distance of nearly sixty miles when the river is in full flood. 60 61