The British Soviet Jewry Movement

William W. Orbach

ON JUNE 16, 1970, Leningradskaya Prav- scientists—all have in common an interest da revealed an unsuccessful hijack attempt in Soviet Jewry. at Leningrad's Smolny Airport. In an age Sometimes, gadfly activist organizations of multiple hijackings, it seemed a minor provoke the larger (and richer) "establish• event, hardly newsworthy. Yet within six ment" into action. In the United States, the months, this "hijacking" would catapult Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry and the Soviet Jewry onto the front pages of major Union of Councils for Soviet Jewry agi• newspapers around the world. The trial of tated the "establishment"; in the United the "Leningrad Eleven" opened on Kingdom, the Universities Committee for December 15, 1970; ten days later, the Soviet Jewry first aroused the "establish• court sentenced Mark Dymshits and ment" in the Sixties and the 35's spurred it Edward Kuznetsov to death..The subse• in the Seventies. quent international uproar shocked the When the quiet, diplomatic efforts on Soviets and on December 31, the court behalf of Soviet Jewry failed in the Fifties, commuted the sentences to fifteen years the Universities Committee for Soviet hard labor. Jewry launched its first public campaign in The Soviet Jewry movement, almost a Great Britain, and, on May 8, 1966, negligible factor till the Leningrad trial, ex• London witnessed its first demonstration ploded into a major international issue. on behalf of Soviet Jewry. A student While Americans engaged in the move• delegation visited the Soviet embassy, and, ment have dimly perceived the larger out• in their naivete, Soviet officials received the lines of action in their own country, the students. Thereafter, in 1968 students British movement remains shrouded in organized a Simchat Torah Torchlight mist. Showing the similarities and the Parade and, in 1969, a Human Rights Day

1 differences of activities in the two countriest celebration. this article seeks to dispel the London fog. Things were starting to happen, and peti• Numerous British groups, some tions proliferated and letters flowed to the traditional, some novel, have answered the editor of the Times. On June 27, 1966, call to aid their Russian brethren. Activist thirty-two prominent British citizens organizations, professional organizations, protested, in the Times, the Soviets' refusal and single-purpose "establishment" to accept a British petition. Just prior to organizations compete and cooperate in the Prime Minister Harold Wilson's visit to Soviet Jewry campaign. Students, women, Moscow, a Times advertisement— 22 FORUM representing 235 professors—pleaded for to the Soviet regime's trial of Yuli Brand, Soviet Jewry. the 35's put on judicial wigs and gowns for By the decade's end, internal rivalry and a march to the International Law Associ• "establishment" procrastination had dis• ation. To protest the regime's relegation of sipated the movement. The final blow came scientist Sergei Gurwitz to menial when the Soviets "revealed" Israeli support laboratory tasks, the 35's turned out with of the student movement, basing their case brooms and buckets to sweep the street on incriminating documents Alan Freeman outside the Soviet embassy.2 They publicize left in the Soviet embassy after a scuffle the cause at sport events, and, on one occa• with KGB agents. sion, took advantage of a performance by In 1971, the Leningrad Trial and the the Georgian State Dancers to preempt the Brussels Conference showed the world that stage and display their messages on umbrel• the Soviets cared about Western opinion. las, which they opened and closed. Dressed Seemingly out of nowhere, the 35's erupted as ghosts, they startled the mayor of Odessa onto the British scene to take advantage of at Karl Marx's gravesite, and as the "spirits the knowledge. Composed primarily of of the Helsinki Agreement," they hovered middle and upper middle class married near Gromyko during his London visit. women, the 35's always dressed in black They took to small craft to be on hand with and successfully appealed to the public— protest banners when the Soviet destroyer with invariably interesting publicity stunts Obratzsovy entered Portsmouth Harbor. and with sex appeal. For the rest, the 35's In recent years, the Helsinki Accord and rely on British chivalry. They know that the its implementation have demanded increas• British can castigate long-haired students in ing attention from the 35's. As early as blue jeans and that middle-class, respect• 1974, the group studied the proposed docu• able ladies remain irreproachable—even to ment with Foreign Office assistance. In duty-minded bobbies. March 1975, the 35's and other European The 35's made their debut in May of women's groups protested outside the 1971. A group of about thirty-five women, Geneva Conference on Security and decorously dressed in black and all aged Cooperation. There, they distributed fact- thirty-five; or thereabouts, held a twenty- sheets outlining Soviet violations of the four hour vigil outside the London Soviet proposed agreement. The 35's arranged embassy for their Russian counterpart— follow-up meetings, and after the thirty-five-year-old Raiza Palatnik. Conference, helped initiate an Inter• The troika of leaders, Barbara Oberman, national Women's Campaign for Soviet Joan Dale, and Doreen Gainsford, even• Jewry. To commemorate the final signing tually dispersed, leaving dynamic, red- of the Accord, June 30th, 1975, the 35's haired Doreen Gainsford in the leadership organized an international women's role—which she does not like to acknow• demonstration at Helsinki and launched a ledge. Nevertheless, Gainsford has led the petition campaign for international 35's through exploit after exploit—all duti• women's year. fully recorded by the media. In February 1976, 35's in Great Britain, The 35's follow Soviet visitors around Ireland, and Canada organized the England, sometimes proffering flowers— Helsinki Agreement Watchdog Committee but always with an attached letter stating for Soviet Jews. The Committee's task is to the case for Soviet Jewry. To call attention collect documented evidence of Soviet THE BRITISH SOVIET JEWRY MOVEMENT 23

violations and inform appropriate British Parliamentary Committee for the Release authorities. (The Helsinki Agreement, of Soviet Jewry was founded in 1971, large• signed on July 30, 1975 by Western states ly as a result of the Leningrad Trial, and in• and the Soviet Union contained a section, cludes as its sponsors the Archbishop of basket three, declaring "Respect for human Canterbury Dr. Michael Ramsey, the Earl rights and fundamental freedoms, in• of Perth, Lord Soper, Lord Janner, and cluding the freedom of thought, conscience, Alderman Michael Fidler. Lord Janner's religion, and belief" and providing for son, Greville Janner, M.P., Q.C., organizes reunification of families, and expansion of parliamentary motions sponsored by a contacts. By documenting specific Soviet hundred M.P.'s; such motions on Soviet repressions including persecution of those Jewry lack legislative force but express the repeatedly applying for emigration despite Committee's unanimity of opinion. The consistent Soviet refusals, hence the term Committee has sponsored an M.P. refuseniks, the 35's embarrass the Soviet "prisoner lunch" and a telephone tea, and Union and question Soviet credibility.) The it has persuaded M.P.'s to adopt Soviet 35's approach to their work is as workman• Jewish activists. The prayerbook sent to like as ever: they divide the hard-core Vladimir Slepak's son as a Bar Mitzvah gift refuseniks among themselves and consign bore the signatures of 220 M.P.'s.4 each case to a committee of five persons. Britain's Medical Scientific Committee The individual committees broadly repres• for Soviet Jewry parallels the American ent the community with a lawyer, an M.P., Committee for Concerned Scientists. a trade unionist, a church leader, and an Members of the Medical and Scientific occupational counterpart of the refusenik Committee, working in locals throughout on each. the United Kingdom, maintain telephone Barbara Oberman, an early force in ral• and personal contact with Soviet Jewish lying the 35's, has gone her own way. counterparts, to whom they mail scientific Perhaps disenchanted by the 35's bulletins and other encouragement. The relationship with the "establishment," she organization adopts some Soviet Jewish founded the Committee for the Release of scientists, and it publicizes instances of Soviet Jewish Prisoners. Oberman's group, Soviet harassment. It urges all scientists to like all others in a media-conscious culture, speak"out, and it encourages British univer• must look for ways to dramatize its mes• sities to invite Soviet Jewish scientists to sage. Oberman has proved adept at making lecture. The Committee also urges British news; her Committee walked a goat scientists to attend seminars in Russia, and through London to represent the Jewish has secured the support of British eminents, scapegoat and distributed ruble notes, including Nobel Laureates, for specific symbolizing the Soviet exit tax, to scientists.5 Christmas shoppers.3 To commemorate the Until the Leningrad Trial, the British assassination of Soviet Jewish artists, the Jewish establishment organization, which is Committee lined up twenty blindfolded, called the Board of Deputies of British bare chested men outside the Soviet embas• Jews, remained comparatively aloof from sy. the swirl of activity in behalf of Soviet Among the several professional Jewry. It contented itself with special organizations to spring up in England, one meetings, passing resolutions, meeting with at least is largely non-Jewish. The All-Party governmental ministers, and appealing to 24 FORUM the Soviet government. Once galvanized, and, finally, Board Secretary Abraham however, the Board of Deputies seemed in• Marks proposed a Board-controlled terminably busy. National Conference on Soviet Jewry.7 The In 1969 and 1972, it organized inter• three-man committee charged to study the national conferences on Soviet Jewry; it proposal split on the issue of Board con• called press conferences and issued state• trol. Michael Fidler, chairman of the ments. It mimeographed additional press Foreign Affairs Committee, urged the releases, arranged innumerable public Board not to relinquish its responsibilities meetings, cabled international leaders, and, to Soviet Jewry.8 While the Action Com• perhaps more significantly sponsored a mittee continued to stagnate and the Board Jewish Ex-Servicemen Lobby for Soviet was stalemated, Jewish groups outside the Jewry. It lent support to the Association of Board appointed their own committee to Jewish Women's Organizations' drive to negotiate with the Board's committee. adopt Soviet Jewish Prisoners of Con• Marcus Einfeld chaired the independent science.6 committee. On March 5, 1971, the Board had started In December 1975 the two committees a National Conference on Soviet Jewry, reached agreement, and, on December 14, and that group, in turn, produced the Ac• 200 delegates and observers attended a tion Committee for Soviet Jewry, which National Conference for Soviet Jewry and was to function under the Board's Foreign approved the new organization. A week Affairs Committee. Ten months later, the later, and only after accrimonious debate, Action Committee met. By then, the Board the Board acquiesced to the National had appointed a fulltime Soviet Jewry Council for Soviet Jewry. Officer, Michael Whine—and it had In the debate Fidler condemned the become apparent that organizational com• organization for depriving the Board of plexity, proliferation of groups and titles some legitimate functions. Other speakers did not necessarily mean that the went further and, branded the National "establishment" was getting the job done. Conference of the previous week "an as• Activist resentment deepened and sembly of hoodlums." Some delegates broadened. The Board of Deputies seemed feared "the new body would abrogate the unaware of the issue's urgency. Its meetings authority of the board as Anglo-Jewry's and resolutions, press conferences and representative organ"; further, "it would be releases seemed hollow. Furthermore, the taken over by militant activists whose Soviet Jewry Action Committee procrasti• 'hoodlum' methods the community would nated; activists called it "the Inaction com• never endorse or support."9 mittee." Some of them urged creation of an In the long run, the Board approved a organization paralleling the American Nat• twelve-point program establishing a ional Conference on Soviet Jewry. The National Council for Soviet Jewry strongly Board of Deputies resisted, further anger• linked to the Board. The Council would be ing and disenchanting the activists. relatively autonomous in domestic affairs, During the summer and autumn of 1974, but it could contact governmental officials various interested parties discussed possible only in concert with the Board. (In the U.S. frameworks "...to incorporate...constituent a similar restriction limits the National communal bodies and...work from within Conference on Soviet Jewry to policies ac• the Deputies." Discussions led nowhere, cepted by the Presidents' Conference.) The THE BRITISH SOVIET JEWRY MOVEMENT 25

Board also stipulated that it would approve human dynamo Doreen Gainsford. major appointments to the Council, receive The American and British regular reports, and select a third of the "establishments" also differ. Britain's Council representatives.10 Board of Deputies of British Jews insists on Activists and "establishment" mean its preeminence. Even after its failure suc• different groups in the United States and cessfully to coordinate Soviet Jewry cam• the United Kingdom. In Britain, the 35's — paigns under its Action Committee, the a group of middle aged, middle class Board retained significant control of the women — represent the activist faction and National Council though its creation oc• student participation has dissipated if not curred partly as a result of activist de• disappeared. In the United States, activist mands. In the United States, with its organizations include students; the Student various competing organizations, a new Struggle for Soviet Jewry has maintained Soviet Jewry group does not infringe on its impetus since 1964. In this country, as in any one group's hegemony. Consequently, Britain, women play ..a disproportionate new groups encounter less-highly con• role in the Movement, but the Union of centrated opposition. Council for Soviet Jews includes all ele• Furthermore, the British movement, ments of the American Jewish population. depending on a few wealthy individuals, Sidney Bunt, a British youth worker, ex• rests on a narrower financial base than the plains the student exodus from the British American which depends either on Soviet Jewry movement this way: "The widespread organizational and federation Anglo-Jewish community with its complex contributions, in the case of the National of committees, its cheque-book charity, its Conference on Soviet Jewry, or on status symbols (top tables best people, gilt- numerous individual donations and edged speeches) ...sum up what the membership dues, for the Student Struggle protesting young do not want."" Partly for Soviet Jewry and many Union of Coun• because the British lacked an intensive civil cils for Soviet Jews groups. rights campaign to legitimize demonstra• Yet the movements' internal dynamics tions, the Jewish "establishment" dis• are similar. In both states the activists have couraged activism. Furthermore, senior prodded, pushed, and embarrassed the Jewish leaders expressed apprehension "establishment" into ever greater activity. about "un-British" activity. The "establishment" in both states stres• International outrage at the spectacle of sed, at first, shtadlonus and quiet, dignified the Leningrad Trial helped prepare the action. When activists insisted on public British public to accept demonstrations, protest both the "establishments" eventual• but the 35's preempted students. With their ly relented. Activist pressure eventually "radical chic," the 35's proved perhaps forced both "establishments" to accede to a more effective than students could have separate Soviet Jewry organization. been. As student leaders of the sixties Nevertheless, Anglo-Jewry has lagged graduated or dropped out, discouraged behind its American cousin. By mid-1964, with "establishment" procrastination, the three American Jewish organizations cam• student movement dwindled for lack of paigned for Soviet Jewry, the American charismatic leadership. The 35's, on the Jewish Conference on Soviet Jewry, the other hand, began with Barbara Oberman Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry, and the and have continued with the redhaired Cleveland Council on Soviet Anti- 26 FORUM

Semitism. The first British Soviet Jewry stances toward Soviet Jewry and its very organization, the Universities Committee real needs. Interest groups find the for Soviet Jewry, did not appear until 1966. American system more accessible than the By 1970 the American movement rolled British. Defections from the party in forward although lacking a full head of England may topple the government, while, steam, while the British movement floun• in America, the government will remain dered. By 1972, the National Conference more or less stable despite the President's on Soviet Jewry, began to pick up speed losing a vote. In short, constituents can and the Soviet Jewry Action Committee "pressure" Congressmen and Senators in slipped backwards. the States more readily than their British History and politics help explain the ma• counterparts can "pressure" M.P.'s. jor differences between the Soviet Jewry Consider finally the differences between movement in Britain and the United States. American Jews, long recognized as a dis• From the start, the Soviet Jewry question tinct group within a pluralistic society, and has been intimately involved with Israel British Jews, existing as "the minority" partly because of Jewish emigration from within a relatively homogeneous national Russia to Israel. Inevitably, then, it raises culture. Not until the recent African and the Mideast issue in both America and Bri• Asian influx did British Jews feel confident tain. Great Britain maintains cooler rela• enough to assert their ethnic values. tions with the Jewish State than does the Perhaps that influx and the increasing U.S., partly at least because Palestine was nationalism of the Scottish and Welsh seg• previously a British Mandate. Immediately ments of the United Kingdom account, in after the Second World War, when Israel part, for the development of the British was formed, Anglo-Jewry suffered serious Soviet Jewry movement. conflicts of loyalties. Perhaps, because British Jews are American Jewry, on the other hand, physically closer to the Holocaust, they feel never had to contend with clear and it more deeply; human ashes darkened forceful opposition to the creation of the British skies. The catastrophe's proximity Israeli State. American Jewish support for may influence them more than American Israel has never precipitated open conflicts Jews dwelling in splendid isolation. Doreen of loyalties. Meantime, Britain, less than a Gainsford says it eloquently: "If the Jewish thousand miles from Russia, feels the Rus• people say to the Soviet government we sian bear's breath much more directly and won't be kicked around and we say to our hotly than the United States does. Perhaps government we won't let them kick us one should consider also that the United around, we're virtually saying to the world States has been immune, thus far, to the ac• we ain't going to let you kick us around tual ravages of war, which the British again.... It's not only speaking to the Soviet suffered during World War II. government....We are physically protecting Because anti-Soviet stances fit so neatly our people, we are standing up for our peo• into American patriotic oratory, the eagle ple and I'm not sure we've done that too screeches publjc opinion. Meantime, the many times through our history...and I'm British lion if he roars at all; comes through not sure enough of our people are doing it muffled. now...." The American and British political "We're ashamed that anybody walked systems provide a final reason for differing into a gas chamber. I'd rather die at the THE BRITISH SOVIET JEWRY MOVEMENT 27 butt of a gun. We actually know that peo• shoot me, but at least he's got to pick up ple stood in line and walked." my body out of the road and I'm going to be The anger comes out, "I'd rather spit in a nuisance. But why should I let him kill me the faces of somebody and have a gun the way he wants to?"'2

NOTES

1 Interview with Gideon Hausman, student dle East Review, July 11, 1975, p. 11. leader, July 11, 1976. ' Jewish Observer and Middle East Review, July 2 Focus, Jewish Chronicle, October 6, 1972. 25, 1975, p. 15.

1 Interview with Barbara Oberman, July 6, ' Jewish Chronicle, December 26, 1975. 1972. 10 "Recommendations for the Restructure of 4 Interview with Greville Janner, July 13, 1976. the Soviet Jewry Campaign in Great Britain, Approved by the Executive and Foreign Affairs 5 Interview with Joan Dale, July 9, 1976. Committees of the Board of Deputies of British Jews, 10 December, 1975." ' Board of Deputies of British Jews, Annual Reports. 1966, 1967, 1968, 1969, 1970. 1971. " Sidney Bunt, Jewish Youth Work in Britain: 1972. Past, Present and Future (London: Bedford Square Press, 1975), p. 40. 7 Colin Shindler, "New Approach to Soviet Jewry Work Needed", Jewish Observer and Mid• 12 Interview with Doreen Gainsford, July 1976.

Professor William W. Orbach is chairman of Related Areas of Scholarship. His first book, the Program of Studies in Religion at the To Keep the Peace, was published last year; University of Louisville, Kentucky. He is the topic of his second book will be the Ameri• associate editor of Hebrew Studies: A Journal can Soviet Jewry movement. Devoted to the Hebrew Language, the Bible and